FOOD SYSTEM PROPERTIES

Lecture Note: #1-4-4

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 PROPERTIES OF SYSTEMS

Extensive Intensive
properties properties
Depends on the amount of Does not depend on
matter in the substance. amount of matter in the
substance.
Size, mass, length, shape
and volume Density, color, pressure,
temperature

DENSITY

m 1
  SI Units: kg/m3 m3/kg

V  English Unit: lb/ft3 ft3/lb

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 PRESSURE

Pressure

F
P
A

SI Units: English Units:

1 Pa = 1 N/m2 1 Psi = lbf/in2
1 bar = 105 Pa = 0.1 MPa = 100 kPa 1 atm = 14.696 psi
1 atm = 101,325 Pa = 101.325 kPa
= 1.01325 bars

TYPES OF PRESSURES

 Absolute Pressure

 Gage Pressure

 Vacuum Pressure

Pgage = Pabs - Patm (for pressures > Patm)

Pvac = Patm - Pabs (for pressures < Patm)

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 TYPES OF PRESSURES
Schematic of absolute, gage and vacuum pressures

P
gage
P
atm
Pvac P
abs
P P
atm atm
P
abs

P =0
abs

PRESSURE MEASUREMENT

 U-tube Manometer
P1

P  P2  P1  gh
P2
h

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iMIzApq1CQ0&feature=related

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 PRESSURE MEASUREMENT

 U-tube Manometer

Find PB - PA

𝜌 53 𝑙𝑏/ft3
A
𝜌 57 𝑙𝑏/ft3

𝜌 847 𝑙𝑏/ft3

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PRESSURE MEASUREMENT

 Barometer

P h Patm  gh
Mercury

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 Example

Suppose reading from a manometer is 5 in. Determine equivalent

gage pressure reading
if the fluid is
(a) water: density = 62.4 lb/ft3 and

(b) mercury: density = 13.59 ρH2O

Example

A vacuum gage at the intake duct to a fan gives a reading of 6 in of

water. The surrounding atmosphere pressure is 14.5 lbf/in2.
Determine the absolute pressure inside the duct, in lbf/in2. The
density of water is 62.39 lb/ft3 and the acceleration due to gravity is
32.0 ft/s2.

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 Example

A manometer is attached to a tank of gas in which the pressure is

greater than that of the surroundings. The manometer liquid is
mercury, with a density of 13.59 g/cm3. The difference in mercury
levels in the manometer is 2 cm. The acceleration due to gravity, g
= 9.81 m/s2. The atmospheric pressure is 93 kPa. Calculate in kPa
(a) gage pressure (b) absolute pressure of the gas.

a) Gage pressure = 2.7 kPa

b) Absolute Pressure = 95.7 kPa

Mechanical Pressure Gauges

Bourdon pressure gauge

Aneroid barometer gauge

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 Electrical Pressure Gauges

Strain guage Piezoresistive pressure sensor

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10
 Futek Load Cells

MOISTURE CONTENT

 Wet Basis
- amount of water per unit mass of wet
material

 Dry Basis
- Amount of water per unit of dry solids
present in the material

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TEMPERATURE

Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics:

When 2 bodies have equality of

temperature with a 3rd body, they in turn
have equality of temperature with each
other.

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2nd law of Thermodynamics

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 Thermodynamic Temperature
Scale

Any temperature scale in which the ratio of the

temperatures of two reservoirs is equal to the
ratio of the amount of heat absorbed from one
of them by a heat engine operating in a Carnot
cycle to the amount of heat rejected by this
engine to the other reservoir;

the Kelvin scale and the Rankine scale are

examples of this type.

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 TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT

 Thermal expansion
- expansion of solids in bimetallic elements
- liquid expansion in liquid-in-glass thermometers
- expansion in pressure thermometers

 Thermoelectricity

 Resistance

 Radiation

THERMAL EXPANSION

Strip 1 Coil

If strips of two metals with dissimilar coefficients of

expansion are firmly bonded together, a temperature
change will cause a distortion of the bonded strips
proportional to the change in temperature.

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 Temperature Scales
Celsius Kelvin Fahrenheit Rankine

 Celsius scale 100.00 373.15 212.00 671.67

 Fahrenheit scale 0.01 273.16 32.02 491.69

 Absolute scale
-273.15 0 -459.67 0

Conversions
From To Equation
Kelvin Celsius T ( K )  T ( oC)  27315
.
Rankine Fahrenheit T ( R)  T ( oF )  459.67
Fahrenheit Celsius T ( F )  18
. T ( oC)  32

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 Introduction to Thermocouples

A thermocouple is a sensor for measuring

temperature. It consists of two dissimilar
metals, joined together at one end. When
the junction of the two metals is heated or
cooled a voltage is produced that can be
correlated back to the temperature. The
thermocouple alloys are commonly
available as wire.
Control Engineering Thermocouple tutorial

Thermoelectricity

Seebeck effect. A current will

flow as long as 2 junctions
are at different temperatures

Peltier effect. A current

flowing across a junction of
2 metals will absorb or
liberate heat

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 Laws of Thermocouple

The Peltier and Thompson effects explain the

basic principles of thermoelectric emf
generation. For practical measurements, there
are 3 laws of thermoelectric circuits:

 law of homogeneous circuit,

 law of intermediate metals and
 law of intermediate temperatures.

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 Types of Thermocouples
Thermocouples are available in different
combinations of metals or calibrations.
The four most common calibrations are J, K, T
and E. There are high temperature calibrations
R, S, C and GB.

Each calibration has a different temperature range

and environment, although the maximum
temperature varies with the diameter of the wire
used in the thermocouple.

Reference Table for different thermocouples

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 Thermocouples
Thermocouple Type Names of Materials Useful Application Range
Platinum30% Rhodium (+) 2500 -3100F
B
Platinum 6% Rhodium (-) 1370-1700C
W5Re Tungsten 5% Rhenium (+) 3000-4200F
C
W26Re Tungsten 26% Rhenium (-) 1650-2315C
Chromel (+) 200-1650F
E
Constantan (-) 95-900C
Iron (+) 200-1400F
J
Constantan (-) 95-760C
Chromel (+) 200-2300F
K
Alumel (-) 95-1260C
Nicrosil (+) 1200-2300F
N
Nisil (-) 650-1260C
Platinum 13% Rhodium (+) 1600-2640F
R
Platinum (-) 870-1450C
Platinum 10% Rhodium (+) 1800-2640F
S
Platinum (-) 980-1450C
Copper (+) -330-660F
T
Constantan (-) -200-350C

Thermocouple Reference Tables

Thermocouple mV versus Temperature

 Type E
thermocouple

 Type J
thermocouple

 Type T
thermocouple

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 Response time

A time constant has been defined as the time

required by a sensor to reach 63.2% of a step
change in temperature under a specified set of
conditions. Five time constants are required for the
sensor to approach 100% of the step change value.
An exposed junction thermocouple is the fastest
responding. Also, the smaller the probe sheath
diameter, the faster the response, but the maximum
temperature may be lower. Be aware, however, that
sometimes the probe sheath cannot withstand the
full temperature range of the thermocouple type.

Resistance Temperature
Detector (RTD)
Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTD) are
sensors used to measure temperature by correlating
the resistance of the RTD element with temperature.
Most RTD elements consist of a length of fine coiled
wire wrapped around a ceramic or glass core. The
element is usually quite fragile, so it is often placed
inside a sheathed probe to protect it. The RTD
element is made from a pure material whose
resistance at various temperatures has been
documented. The material has a predictable change
in resistance as the temperature changes; it is this
predictable change that is used to determine
temperature.

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Resistance of thermometer metals

2-wire bridge
circuit for RTD
temperature
measurement

3-wire bridge
circuit for RTD
temperature
measurement

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 Common Resistance
Materials for RTDs
 Platinum (most popular and accurate)

 Nickel

 Copper

 Balco (rare)

 Tungsten (rare)

EXAMPLE

Over a limited temperature range, the relation between electric

resistance R and temperature T for a resistance temperature detector is:
R = Ro(1+α(T-To))
where Ro is the resistance, in ohms (), measured at reference
temperature To (in °C) and  is a material constant with units of (°C)-1.
The following data are obtained for a particular resistance thermometer:
T (°C) R ()
Test 1 0 51.39
Test 2 91 51.72
What resistance reading would correspond to a temperature of 50°C on this
thermometer?

Solution:
i) Calculate α, considering that @ To=0, Ro=51.39.
α = 7.057e-5 Therefore calculate R @ 50°C as 51.54 Ω

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 Styles of RTDs Design

The RTD is one of the most

accurate temperature sensors. Not
only does it provide good
accuracy, it also provides excellent
stability and repeatability. RTDs
are also relatively immune to
electrical noise and therefore well
suited for temperature
measurement in industrial
environments, especially around
motors, generators and other high
voltage equipment.

Styles of RTDs Design

• RTD Elements
The RTD element is the
simplest form of RTD. It
consists of a piece of wire
wrapped around a ceramic or
glass core. Because of their
compact size, RTD elements
are commonly used when
space is very limited.

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 Styles of RTDs Design
• RTD Surface Elements
A surface element is a special type of RTD
element. It is designed to be as thin as possible
thus providing good contact for temperature
measurement of flat surfaces.

Styles of RTDs Design

• RTD Probes
The RTD probe is the most
rugged form of RTD. A
probe consists of an RTD
element mounted inside a
metal tube, also known as a
sheath. The sheath protects
the element from the
environment.

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 Infrared Thermometers
An infrared thermometer measures temperature by detecting the
infrared energy emitted by all materials which are at
temperatures above absolute zero, (0°Kelvin). The most basic
design consists of a lens to focus the infrared (IR) energy on to a
detector, which converts the energy to an electrical signal that
can be displayed in units of temperature after being
compensated for ambient temperature variation. This
configuration facilitates temperature measurement from a
distance without contact with the object to be measured. As
such, the infrared thermometer is useful for measuring
temperature under circumstances where thermocouples or other
probe type sensors cannot be used or do not produce accurate
data for a variety of reasons. Some typical circumstances are
where the object to be measured is moving; where the object is
surrounded by an EM field, as in induction heating; where the
object is contained in a vacuum or other controlled atmosphere;
or in applications where a fast response is required.

Styles of Infrared
Thermometers

 Handheld Infrared Thermometers

Handheld infrared thermometers are one of the
most popular types of infrared pyrometer. They
are commonly used for portable applications
although some models also feature an integral
tripod mount.

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 Styles of Infrared
Thermometers

• Pocket/Stick-Type
Infrared Thermometers
Pocket or stick type infrared
thermometers are extremely
compact. They are normally
small enough to be carried
in a shirt pocket.

Styles of Infrared
Thermometers
• Infrared
Thermocouples
Infrared thermocouples
are small low cost
infrared sensors. They
are unique in that they
are self-powered and
produce an output that
mimics a thermocouple
sensor.

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 Practical Temperature
Measurements

Essential tips for Temperature

Measurement in the Food Industry

https://www.processindustryinformer.com/essential-tips-for-temperature-measurement-in-the-food-industry

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https://www.foodengineeringmag.com/articles/96675-automated-temperature-
monitoring-and-control-ensure-food-safety

Temperature
Measurement
Sensors
(Catalogue)
https://www.bb-sensors.com/wp-
content/uploads/2015/10/catalogue_f
ood_industry.pdf

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34
 Guidelines for the
Preparation of Research Papers
Reporting Food Engineering
Data

TASKS

Measurement of intensive properties of foods

Different types of pressure and their measurement;

challenges of pressure measurement during food
processing

Concept of temperature; measurement sensors;

thermocouples - their pros and cons

Challenges of temperature measurement in food

processing operations

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