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Semicond. Sci. Technol. 11 (1996) 1635–1641. Printed in the UK

Electron states in a two-dimensional

ring—an exactly soluble model
W-C Tan and J C Inkson
Department of Physics, University of Exeter, Exeter EX4 4QL, UK

Received 17 May 1996, accepted for publication 25 July 1996

Abstract. An exactly soluble model for a two-dimensional ring is proposed. Using

this model, we have obtained analytically the energy spectrum and wavefunctions
for a ring in the presence of a uniform magnetic field and a thin magnetic flux.
The model can also describe quantum dots, anti-dots, one-dimensional rings and
straight two-dimensional wires, which provides an integrated picture for the electron
states and their magnetic field response in these geometries. The simplicity and
the flexibility of the model make it an ideal tool for the modelling of the
Aharonov–Bohm effects and the persistent currents in quantum rings.

1. Introduction magnetic field [19]. However, in a semiconductor ring

The experimental realization of semiconductor and metal
nanostructures has focused attention on the quantum nature
of electrons. Structures with a ring geometry are especially
interesting because they provide unique laboratories for the
study of quantum interference effects, such as Aharonov–
Bohm (AB) effects [1–11], quantum Hall effects [12] and
persistent currents [13–23]. The simplest model for a ring-
like device is a one-dimensional (1D) ring, in which the
applied magnetic field can be represented by an AB flux
tube. Although such 1D models have played an important
role in the understanding of quantum interference effects in
rings [6, 7, 13], experimental studies on the AB effect and
persistent currents in ring-like devices have continuously
revealed interesting phenomena [1–5, 17, 18] that cannot be
explained by 1D theory. One of the most important factors
that cause complications in real experiments is the finite
width of the rings. In a ring with a finite width, not only
are multiple channel effects important, the penetration of
the uniform magnetic field, which is used in all practical
experiments, into the conducting region of a ring also plays
an important role.
Significant theoretical efforts have been devoted to the
study of the finite-width effect on AB oscillations [7–
9, 11] and persistent currents [19–23]. Because of the
difficulty in dealing with the annular geometry, most of
these theoretical works have been performed either using
semiclassical approaches [8, 9, 12, 22], or by replacing the
annular ring with more manageable models, such as a
two-dimensional (2D) straight wire (i.e. a ribbon that has
finite width but no height) or a three-dimensional (3D)
straight wire (i.e. a wire that has finite width and height)
with periodic boundary conditions [20, 21, 23]. Recently
full quantum mechanical calculations based on numerically
solving the Schrödinger equation have also been used to
study electron states in 2D rings subject to a uniform
used in actual experiments [3, 18], the number of electrons
is typically 103 or bigger (the number is much larger in a
metallic ring [4, 17]). Therefore, the calculation of energies
and wavefunctions of all the electrons as well as their
magnetic field dependence requires extensive computational
power to solve the Schrödinger equation numerically for a
2D ring. This strongly limits the flexibility of the numerical
approach.
In this paper, we propose a simple model potential that
describes an isolated ring with a finite width. The model
is very flexible; both the radius and the width of the ring
can be adjusted independently by suitably choosing the two
model parameters. In particular limits it can also describe
a quantum dot, an anti-dot, a 1D ring and a straight 2D
wire. Exact energy spectra and wavefunctions are obtained
analytically in this model with either a uniform magnetic
field applied perpendicular to the ring or a magnetic flux
confined to its centre. Using this model, we have analysed
the electronic states in an ideal 2D ring in detail. It is found
that the spatial geometry of a 2D ring has significant effects
on the electronic structure. For example, we might mention
that the subband dispersions of the 2D ring are strongly
non-parabolic; at zero magnetic field, the weight centres of
all electronic states lie in the outside half of the conducting
region of the ring; a perpendicular magnetic field always
gives rise to an asymmetry in subband dispersions. All
these facts are in marked contrast to the case of a straight
2D wire or a 1D ring. It is evident that such geometric
effects in electronic structure will play an important role in
various quantum phenomena, such as the AB effects and
persistent currents in 2D rings, so that extrapolating from
the straight wire to a ring is not necessarily possible.
The rest of the paper is arranged as follows. We
describe our model in section 2. In section 3, we present
the exact solutions for the 2D ring model. By analysing
the solutions, electron states in a 2D ring are discussed

0268-1242/96/111635+07$19.50 c 1996 IOP Publishing Ltd 1635

W-C Tan and J C Inkson

and compared with those in other geometries. A numerical where the vector potential is chosen as A = 12 Br ϕ̂ +
sample for a 2D semiconductor ring is given in section 4 (`h̄/er)ϕ̂ and we ignore the spin of the electrons.
to show how this model can be used to mimic real devices. It can be shown that the eigen values and eigen
Our results are summarized in section 5. wavefunctions of the Hamiltonian are
 
1 M m−` µ
En,m = n + + h̄ω − h̄ωc − ω02 r02 ,
2. The model 2 2 2 4
n = 0, 1, 2, . . . , m = . . . , −1, 0, 1, . . . (7)
We consider a 2D ring in the X–Y plane which is defined  1/2
by a radial potential 1 0[n + M + 1]
9n,m (r, ϕ) =
a1 λ 2M+1 n!(0[M + 1])2 π
V (r) = + a2 r 2 − V0 (1)  r M

r2 ×e−imϕ e− 4 (r/λ)
1 2
1 F1 −n, M + 1, 2 (r/λ)
1 2
(8)
√ λ
where V0 = 2 a1 a2 .
where
This simple potential has the following properties. It
ωc = eB/µ (9)
can be verified that the potential has a minimum V (r0 ) = 0
at is the cyclotron frequency
r = r0 = (a1 /a2 )1/4 . (2) q
Hence r0 defines the average radius of the ring. ω= ωc2 + ω02 (10)
For r near r0 , the potential of the ring has the simple s
parabolic form h̄
λ= (11)
µω
V (r) ' 12 µω02 (r − r0 )2 (3)
√ are the effective cyclotron frequency and effective magnetic
with ω0 = 8a2 /µ which characterizes the strength of the length renormalized by the ring confinement, and
transverse confinement. µ is the electron effective mass. s
The width of the ring at a given Fermi energy Ef is 2a1 µ
given by M = (m − `)2 + 2 (12)
h̄
 q 1/2
V0 + Ef ± 2Ef V0 + Ef2 and 1 F1 is the confluent hypergeometric function [28]. The
1r = r+ − r− r± =   quantum numbers n and m characterize the radial motion
2a2
and the angular momentum respectively. In relation to a
(4) circular wire, n can be viewed as the subband index, and
where r+ (r− ) is the outer (inner) radius of the ring. m the quantum number describing the longitudinal motion
For very low Fermi energy (Ef  V0 ), one can estimate in the wire.
the ring width by s
8Ef 3.2. Discussion
1r = . (5)
µω02
Equations (7)–(12) show clearly that the only effect of the
The model defined by equation (1) is very flexible. AB flux 8 = `φ0 on the eigen energies and wavefunctions
Both the radius and the width of the ring can be adjusted is to shift the quantum number m to m − `, reflecting
independently by suitably choosing a1 and a2 . The model the gauge transformation. However, we would like to
in particular limits can also be used to describe several emphasize here that the effect of the AB flux on the electron
different physical systems: (a) a 1D ring, r0 = constant and states in a 2D ring is different from that in a 1D ring. In the
ω0 → ∞; (b) a straight 2D wire, ω0 = constant, r0 → ∞; latter case, the magnetic flux affects the electron states only
(c) a quantum dot, a1 = 0 (see [26, 27]); (d) an isolated through changing the phases of the wavefunctions, which
anti-dot, a2 = 0. leads to a parabolic dependence on the AB flux in the eigen
energy [13]. In contrast, equation (8) shows that an AB
3. Analytical results flux changes not only the phases but also the trajectory of
electron states in a 2D ring, which results in a non-parabolic
3.1. General solutions dependence on the AB flux in the eigen energy.
In the following discussion, we will limit ourselves to
In the presence of a uniform magnetic field B perpendicular the zero magnetic flux (` = 0) case only.
to the X–Y plane and an infinite thin magnetic flux (AB
flux) 8 = `φ0 (φ0 = h/e) piercing through the centre of
3.2.1. The zero magnetic field. By taking ωc = 0 in
the 2D ring, the Hamiltonian of an electron with effective
equation (7), we can write the energy spectrum of a 2D
mass µ is
    2 ring at zero magnetic field as
h̄2 1 ∂ ∂ 1 ∂  s 
H = − r − 2 + i` 1 1 2a µ µ
En,m = n + + m2 + 2  h̄ω0 − ω02 r02 ,
2µ r ∂r ∂r r ∂ϕ 1
   2 2 h̄ 4
eB ∂ e2 B 2 2 a1
−i + i` + r + 2 + a2 r 2 − V0 (6)
h̄ ∂ϕ 4h̄2 r n = 0, 1, 2, . . . , m = . . . , −1, 0, 1, . . . . (13)

1636
 Electron states in a 2D ring

Equation (13) shows that the minima of all subbands are which gives
at m = 0 and the subband energy spectra are symmetric rm = (2M)1/2 λ. (18)
about m = 0, a natural consequence of the time-reversal
symmetry. In contrast to the case of a 1D ring or a Similarly, we may define the width of a state (n, m) as
straight 2D wire [24, 25], however, the dispersions of these the classically allowed region in the ‘effective confinement
subbands are strongly non-parabolic. Such a subband non- potential’, which can then be expressed as
parabolicity is one of the most profound characteristics  1/2
of a 2D ring geometry. It is essentially due to the 2(n + 12 )
dn,m =2 + 2n + 1 λ. (19)
existence of the centrifugal potential in a 2D ring which M
makes different states in the same subband have different
radial wavefunctions, and therefore the subband dispersions For most states of interest, M  n, and therefore it is a
depend on the actual radial confinement potential. In the good approximation to write
case of a straight 2D wire, the motions in the longitudinal
and transverse directions are independent of each other. dn,m = 2(2n + 1)1/2 λ. (20)
Hence the longitudinal motion is not affected by the form of
transverse potential, and the subband dispersions are always Equations (18) and (20) tell us that, the radius of a state
parabolic. only depends on the absolute value of quantum number m
while the width of it only depends on its subband index n,
in analogy to the case of cyclotron states in free 2D space.
3.2.2. The minimum of a subband. When a non-zero At zero magnetic field, the m = 0 states have the smallest
magnetic field is applied, the minimum of a subband is no radius which is equal to the average ring radius r0 . This
longer at m = 0 and the subband dispersion is no longer means that all the other states are centred in the outer-side
symmetric about the subband minimum. Using equation half of the conducting region because they have radii larger
(8), we can show that, for a given magnetic field B, all than r0 . On the other hand, a finite magnetic field also shifts
subband minima lie at the same m value given by the bottoms of all the subbands to a non-zero quantum
number m = m0 , as shown in equation (14). Using
eBr02
m0 = (14) equation (18), one can easily verify that the radius of a state
2h̄ at the bottom of a subband (m = m0 ) is always equal to the
where m0 is exactly the number of quantum flux circled by average radius of the ring, i.e. rm0 ≡ r0 . Because all states
a ring with an effective radius r0 , which is identical to the with |m| < |m0 | have radii smaller than r0 , increasing the
1D ring case [6, 7, 13]. magnetic field will push more and more states into the inner
Also note that the group velocity of state m in the side of the ring. Within a uniform magnetic field, both the
circular motion can be approximated by radius and the width of a ring state with quantum number m
are proportional to the ‘effective magnetic length’, λ, and
1 ∂En,m therefore both shrink as the strength of the magnetic field
(G)
Vn,m =
r0h̄ ∂m or the radial confinement potential is increased.
so the m0 states have a zero group velocity and the states
with m > m0 and m < m0 are moving in opposite directions
3.2.4. The straight 2D wire limit. The limit of a straight
of the ring.
2D wire can be arrived at by keeping ω0 a constant and
allowing r0 → ∞. In this case, for any ring state near the
3.2.3. The radii and widths of the ring state. For a subband bottom we have
state with angular quantum number m, the Hamiltonian s
governing the radial motion can be written as 0 2a1 µ µ
m = |m − m0 |  = ω0 r02 (21)
  h̄2 2h̄
h̄2 1 ∂ ∂
Hm (r) = − r + um (r) (15)
2µ r ∂r ∂r so that equation (7) can be written as
in which    
1 h̄2 m0 2
  En,m ≈ n+ h̄ω + (22)
h̄2 m2 eBm e2 B 2 2 a1 2 2µ̄ r0
um (r) = − + r + 2 + a 2 r 2 − V0
2µ r2 h̄ 4h̄2 r
(16) where
may be considered as an ‘effective confinement potential’. µ̄ = µ[1 + (ωc /ω0 )2 ] (23)
It is reasonable to assume that the centre of weight of a
is the enhanced effective mass.
state with quantum number m lies at the minimum of this
If we define km = 2π m0 /L (where L = 2π r0 is the
‘effective confinement potential’. Therefore rm , the radius
circumference of the ring), we will see that the magnetic
of a state m, can be determined by
field dependence of the subband dispersion relation given
dum (r) in equations (22) is identical to the well-known result of a
=0 (17) straight wire with a parabolic confinement [24, 25].
dr
1637
W-C Tan and J C Inkson
3.2.5. The 1D ring limit. In the 1D ring limit (r0 =
constant, ω0 → ∞), the inequality relation (21) is always
satisfied for any given m value, and therefore the subband
dispersion relation of the ring becomes the well-known
result    
1 h̄2 m0 2
En,m = n + h̄ω + . (24)
2 2µ r0
3.2.6. The quantum dot and anti-dot. If we take a1 =
0, the ring potential (1) becomes the well-known parabolic
confinement potential for a quantum dot: V (r) = a2 r 2 .
The electron states in such a structure have been studied
exhaustively [26, 27], so we will not discuss them here.
When a2 = 0, the potential becomes V (r) = a1 r −2 ,
which describes an anti-dot centred at r = 0. The energy
spectrum of the electron states in the anti-dot structure can
be written as
En,m = En0 + 1Em
n = 0, 1, 2, . . . m = . . . , −1, 0, 1, 2, . . . (25)
where En0 = (n + 12 )h̄ωc is the Landau level energy in a
free 2D space, and 1Em = (M − m)h̄ωc /2 the energy shift
due to the anti-dot potential.
For each Landau level, the anti-dot potential creates a
set of discrete bound states around the anti-dot. The smaller
the quantum number m, the more the state can feel the anti-
dot potential and therefore the higher the energy of the state.
Landau states with a large radius (m large) are unperturbed
by the anti-dot potential. Such an anti-dot model may be
useful in the study of the magnetotransport properties of
artificial anti-dot systems [10, 30]. Another application may
be the study of electronic properties of disordered systems
in a magnetic field [31]. Previously, a point-like potential
has often been used to model the impurities [32]. The anti-
dot potential presented here is a long-range one and exactly
soluble, which may make it a good impurity model.
4. A numerical example
In figure 1 we have plotted the radial confinement potential
of a 2D ring defined by equation (1) with a1 = 9.1022 ×
106 meV nm2 and a2 = 2.222 × 10−5 meV nm−2 , which
gives a ring radius r0 = 800 nm. We assume the 2D
structure is made of GaAs and take the electron effective
mass as µ = 0.067µe (µe is the free electron mass).
Near the bottom of the confinement potential, it can be
well approximated by a parabolic potential with h̄ω0 =
0.449 meV. These ring parameters are very close to those
of the ring used in the experiment of [3]. The radial
asymmetry can be clearly seen at higher energies where
the inner potential is substantially ‘harder’ than the outside
one.
In figure 2 we have plotted the eigen energies of the 2D
GaAs ring as a function of quantum number m for the five
lowest subbands at different magnetic fields using equation
(8). At non-zero magnetic field, the subband dispersion
is non-symmetric about the subband minimum. As the
magnetic field increases, all subband minima shift to a non-
zero m value as described in equation (14) and the effective
1638
Figure 1. An example of the model potential (real line)
defined by equation (1), which describes a GaAs ring with
r0 = 800 nm and 1r = 300 nm at Ef = 2 meV. The parabolic
potential 12 µω02 (r − r0 )2 with h̄ ω0 = 0.449 meV is plotted with
a dotted line for comparison.
mass of the circular motion is enhanced following equation
(23).
It is interesting to examine how the radii of the
occupied states in the ring vary with changing the magnetic
field strength because the radii of the ring states play
an important role in the analysis of the magnetic-field-
dependent AB oscillation frequencies [29]. Using equation
(18), we have plotted in figure 3 the radii of the states
as a function of m at different magnetic field strengths.
For example, we assume a Fermi energy Ef = 8 meV, as
indicated in figure 2. We can then get the m values of all
the occupied states, and find the radial distribution region of
these occupied states. Such regions for the lowest subband
at different magnetic fields are illustrated by the thick bars
in figure 3.
As we can see, at zero magnetic field, all occupied
states have radii larger than the average radius of the ring
(r0 = 800 nm), and the higher the energy the larger the
radius of the state. Two degenerate states (with quantum
number m and −m) in the same subband have the same
radius though they are moving in opposite directions. When
a magnetic field is applied, the states at the bottoms of the
subbands still have the same radii of r0 = 800 nm, but the
radii of the states at the Fermi energy with ∂En,m /∂m < 0
shrink and the radii of those with ∂En,m /∂m > 0 increase.
For strong enough magnetic fields, all the occupied states
with ∂En,m /∂En,m < 0 will reside in the inner side of the
ring (r < r0 ) while those with ∂En,m /∂En,m > 0 reside
near the outer edge of the ring. Figure 3 shows that, for a
fixed Fermi energy, the range of radial distribution of the
ring states can be substantially broadened by increasing the
magnetic field strength. However, this is not always the
case. In fact, when the magnetic field is so strong that
the lowest subband is nearly depopulated, an increase in
magnetic field will increase the radii of the inner edge state
(with ∂En,m /∂En,m < 0) at the Fermi energy and shrink
the radii of the outer edge states (with ∂En,m /∂En,m > 0).
To show the different effects of a uniform magnetic field
and an AB flux on the 2D ring states, we have plotted in
 Electron states in a 2D ring

Figure 2. The eigen-state energies of a 2D ring as a function of quantum number m for the first five lowest subbands (n = 0,
1, 2, 3, 4) at different magnetic field strengths. The horizontal line marks a Fermi energy at 8 meV. The ring parameters are
the same as those in figure 1.

Figure 3. The radii of the eigen states in a 2D ring as a function of angular momentum quantum number m at different
magnetic field strengths. The thick bars indicate the regions of the centre positions of the occupied states in the lowest
subband (n = 0) at different magnetic field strengths, where the Fermi energy is assumed to be 8 meV as marked in figure 2.
The increase in the radial distribution regions at higher magnetic fields reflects the formation of edge states in the 2D ring.
The ring parameters are the same as those in figure 1.

figure 4(a) the eigen energies of the four lowest subbands
as a function of AB flux enclosed by the ring, while in
figure 4(b) the energies of the ring states are plotted as
a function of uniform magnetic field. It can be seen that
the energy spectrum of a ring is a periodic function of the
quantum flux with a period φ0 whatever the occupation (or
Fermi energy). However, the energy spectrum of the ring
is aperiodic with the strength of the uniform magnetic field,
especially when more than one subbands are occupied.
This is due to the penetration of magnetic field into the
conducting region of the ring. It is well known that the AB
oscillations in a ring-like device directly reflect the density
of states at the Fermi energy. At a given Fermi energy,
electron states in different subbands, or even in the same
subband but moving in different directions, have different
radii. Therefore, in the presence of a uniform magnetic
field, they will circulate a different amount of magnetic
flux and generate different AB frequencies. Using the 2D

1639
W-C Tan and J C Inkson

Figure 4. (a ) The energy levels in a ring as a function of the AB flux confined to the ring centre. (b ) The energy levels in a
ring as a function of uniform magnetic field. The ring parameters are the same as those in figure 1.

1640

ring model, we [29] have successfully explained the beating
effect in the AB oscillation patterns observed by Liu et al
in a recent experiment [3].
5. Conclusion
We have proposed an exactly soluble model for studying
the electron states in a 2D ring. Using this model, we
have achieved a full quantum mechanical description for the
electron states in a 2D ring either threaded by an AB flux
or subjected to a uniform magnetic field. Besides the exact
solutions for the eigen values and eigen wavefunctions, we
have also obtained simple expressions for the average radii
and widths of the electron states in a 2D ring. It is shown
that the electron states in a 2D ring and their magnetic field
response are very different from those in a 1D ring or a
straight 2D wire, reflecting the importance of the geometry.
The simplicity and the flexibility of our model make it an
ideal candidate for the modelling of various quantum effects
in these systems, such as the AB effects and persistent
currents in rings, impurity scattering in a magnetic field
and magnetotransport in anti-dot arrays. The exact solution
of the model can also be used to examine the accuracy of
numerical calculations or other approximations.
Acknowledgments
The work was funded by the Engineering and Physical
Science Research Council of the United Kingdom.
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