Gr 12

Physical Science

Laws
and Definitions

Compiled by Mr. M. Harneker

 Islamia College
Note to the Learner

• Any examination paper must adhere to a weighting of different cognitive levels.

• Level 1 questions are based on remembering memorised facts or statements. This typically involves
stating a law or principle, or defining a term.

• Level 1 questions constitute 15% of both Paper 1 and Paper 2. , i.e. 22 / 23 marks of a 150 mark
paper.

• It is thus essential that you score full marks for this type of question as it will go a long way to
ensuring that you pass the paper, and it is the easiest type of question you will encounter in the paper.

• To ease the process of memorising these laws and definitions for you, all of them have been extracted
from the Exam Guidelines and placed in this document.

• Ideally, you should memorise all of them, as any of them can be tested.

• However, should you find it difficult to do so, then you should at the very least memorise those of
them that have been highlighted in this document.

• The highlighted laws and definitions are those that have been asked at least once in the Final
Examinations over the past seven years. I have indicated in a footnote in which paper the particular
law or definition was asked. Many of them have been asked more than once so you should pay special
attention to those.

• The highlighted laws and definitions contain certain terms or phrases that are underlined. If you omit
any of these terms when stating the law or definition, you will be penalised.

• It is thus essential that you memorise the laws or definitions word-for-word as they are found in this
document, and not give them in your own words.

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Paper 1
Vectors in two dimensions
• Define a resultant as the vector sum of two or more vectors, i.e. a single vector having the same
effect as two or more vectors together.

• Equilibrant: the vector that brings a system into equilibrium. It has the same magnitude as the
resultant but the opposite direction.

Newton's laws and application of Newton's law

• Newton's first law of motion: A body will remain in its state of rest or motion at constant velocity
unless a non-zero resultant/net force acts on it.1 ✓✓

• Newton's second law of motion: When a resultant/net force acts on an object, the object will
accelerate in the direction of the force at an acceleration directly proportional to the force ✓
and inversely proportional to the mass ✓ of the object.2

• Newton's third law of motion: When object A exerts a force on object B, object B
SIMULTANEOUSLY exerts an oppositely directed force of equal magnitude on object A.

• Newton's law of universal gravitation: Each body in the universe attracts every other body with a
gravitational force that is directly proportional to the product of their masses ✓
and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between their centres.3 ✓

• Define normal force, N: the force or the component of a force which a surface exerts on an object in
contact with it, and which is perpendicular to the surface.4 ✓✓

• Define frictional force, f, as the force that opposes the motion of an object and which acts parallel to
the surface.

• Define the static frictional force, fs, as the force that opposes the tendency of motion of a stationary
object relative to a surface.

• Define the kinetic frictional force, fk, as the force that opposes the motion of a moving object relative
to a surface.

• Define inertia as the resistance of an object to any change in its state of motion.5

• Describe weight as the gravitational force the Earth exerts on any object on or near its surface.

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2017. 2021.
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2016. 2018. 2019. 2022.
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2017.
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2020. 2021.
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2016. 2018. This term was tested as one of the MCQs in these papers.

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• Describe mass as the amount of matter in a body measured in kilogram (kg).

• Explain weightlessness as the sensation experienced when all contact forces are removed, i.e. no
external objects touch one's body.

Momentum and Impulse

• Define momentum: the product of an object's mass and its velocity.6 ✓✓ (2 or none.)

• Describe linear momentum as a vector quantity with the same direction as the velocity of the object.

• Define impulse as the product of the resultant/net force acting on an object and the time the net force
acts on the object.
• State Newton's second law of motion in terms of momentum: The net (or resultant) force acting on
an object is equal to the rate of change of momentum of the object in the direction of the net force.

• Define a system as a small part of space that we are considering when investigating and solving a
particular problem.
• Define an isolated system as a system on which the net external force is zero. An isolated system
excludes external forces that originate outside the colliding bodies, e.g. friction. Only internal forces,
e.g. contact forces between the colliding objects, are considered.

• Define an internal force as a force that objects exert on each other within a system, e.g. contact
forces between colliding cars.
• Define an external force as a force from outside a system that acts on the objects within a system,
e.g. applied force, frictional force, air resistance, tension in a rope.
• State the principle of conservation of linear momentum: The total linear momentum of an isolated
system remains constant (is conserved).7 ✓✓
• Define an elastic collision as a collision in which the total kinetic energy of the objects in the system
during the collision is conserved.
• Define an inelastic collision as a collision in which the total kinetic energy of the objects in the
system during the collision is NOT conserved.

Vertical Projectile Motion

• Define a projectile as an object which has been given an initial velocity and then it moves under the
influence of the gravitational force only.
• Define free fall: motion during which the only force acting on an object is the gravitational force.8
✓✓ (2 or none.)

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Work, Energy and Power
• Define the work done on an object by a constant force F as FΔxcos θ, where F is the magnitude of
the force, Δx the magnitude of the displacement and  the angle between the force and the
displacement.

• The work-energy theorem: the work done on an object by a net force is equal ✓ to the change in the
object's kinetic energy.9 ✓

• Define a conservative force: a force for which the work done in moving an object between two
points is independent of the path taken.10 ✓✓

o Examples are gravitational force,11 the elastic force in a spring and electrostatic forces
(coulombic forces).

• Define a non-conservative force: a force for which the work done in moving an object between two
points depends on the path taken.12 ✓✓

o Examples are frictional force, air resistance, tension in a chord, etc.

• The principle of conservation of mechanical energy: The total mechanical energy (sum of
gravitational potential energy and kinetic energy) in an isolated system remains constant.13 ✓✓

o NOTE: A system is isolated when the net external force (excluding the gravitational force)
acting on the system is zero.

• Define power: the rate ✓ at which work is done or energy is expended.14 ✓

W
o In symbols: P = ∆t

Doppler Effect
• State the Doppler effect: the change in frequency (or pitch) of the sound detected by a listener, ✓
because the sound source and the listener have different velocities relative to the medium of sound
propagation.15 ✓

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2016. 2017. 2018.
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2019.
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This is the ONLY conservative force you need to deal with in calculations.
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2018. 2020. 2022.
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2021.
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2021.
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2016. 2017. 2018. 2020. 2021.

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Electrostatics
• Coulomb's law: The magnitude of the electrostatic force exerted by one point charge (Q1) on another
point charge (Q2) is directly proportional to the product of the magnitudes of the charges ✓
and inversely proportional to the square of the distance (r) between them.16 ✓
(N.B. If mass is mentioned, then zero marks.)

• Describe an electric field as a region in space in which an electric charge experiences a force. The direction of the
electric field at a point is the direction that a positive test charge would move if placed at that point.

• Define electric field at a point: The electric field at a point is the electrostatic force ✓ experienced
per unit positive charge placed at that point.17 ✓

Electric circuits
• Ohm's law: The potential difference across a conductor is directly proportional to the current in the
conductor at constant temperature.18 ✓✓

• Define power: the rate ✓ at which work is done (or energy is transferred). ✓

• Define the term emf: the maximum energy provided ✓ by a battery per unit charge passing through
it.19 ✓

Electrodynamics
• Define the term rms for an alternating voltage/current.
The rms potential difference is the AC potential difference which dissipates/produces the same
amount of energy ✓ as an equivalent DC potential difference.20 ✓
The rms current is the alternating current which dissipates/produces the same amount of energy as an
equivalent direct current (DC).

Photo-electric effect
• Define the photoelectric effect: the process whereby electrons are ejected from a metal surface ✓
when light of suitable frequency is incident ✓ on that surface.21

• Define threshold frequency, fo: the minimum frequency of light needed ✓ to emit electrons from a
certain metal surface.22 ✓

• Define work function, Wo: the minimum energy that an electron in the metal needs ✓ to be emitted
from the metal surface. ✓23

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2016. 2017. 2018. 2022.
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2017. 2019. 2021.
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2017. 2022.
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2016. 2019. 2020. 2022.
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2019. 2020. 2021.
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2019.
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2016. 2021.
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2018. 2020. 2022.

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Paper 2
Atomic combinations: molecular structure
• Define a chemical bond as a mutual attraction between two atoms resulting from the simultaneous
attraction between their nuclei and the outer electrons.

• Define a covalent bond as the sharing of electrons between two atoms to form a molecule.

• Molecule: A group of two or more atoms covalently bonded and that function as a unit.

• Define a bonding pair as a pair of electrons that is shared between two atoms in a covalent bond.

• Define a lone pair as a pair of electrons in the valence shell of an atom that is not shared with another
atom

• Define electronegativity as a measure of the tendency of an atom in a molecule to attract bonding

electrons.

• Describe a non-polar covalent bond as a bond in which the electron density is shared equally
between the two atoms.

• Describe a polar covalent bond as a bond in which the electron density is shared unequally between
the two atoms.

• Define bond energy of a compound as the energy needed to break one mole of its molecules into
separate atoms.

• Define bond length as the average distance between the nuclei of two bonded atoms.

Intermolecular forces
• Boiling point: The temperature ✓ at which the vapour pressure of a substance equals atmospheric
pressure.24 ✓

o The stronger the intermolecular forces, the higher the boiling point.

• Melting point: The temperature ✓ at which the solid and liquid phases of a substance are at
equilibrium.25 ✓

o The stronger the intermolecular forces, the higher the melting point

• Vapour pressure: The pressure exerted by a vapour at equilibrium with its liquid ✓
in a closed system.26 ✓

o The stronger the intermolecular forces, the lower the vapour pressure.

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2018. 2019. 2020.
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2021.
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• Solubility: The property of a solid, liquid, or gaseous chemical substance (solute) to dissolve in a
solid, liquid, or gaseous solvent to form a homogeneous solution.

• State the relationship between intermolecular forces and molecular size: for non-polar molecules, the
strength of induced dipole forces increases with molecular size.

Organic Chemistry
• Define organic molecules as molecules containing carbon atoms.
• Molecular formula: A chemical formula that indicates the element and numbers of each of the atoms
in a molecule. Example: C4H8O.
• Structural formula: A structural formula of a compound shows which atoms are attached to which
within the molecule. Atoms are represented by their chemical symbols and lines are used to represent
ALL the bonds that hold the atoms together. Example:

• Condensed structural formula: This notation shows the way in which atoms are bonded together in
the molecule, but DOES NOT SHOW ALL bond lines. Example:

• Hydrocarbon: Organic compounds that consist of hydrogen and carbon only.

• Homologous series: A series of organic compounds that can be described by the same general
formula. ✓✓ OR in which one member differs from the next with a CH2 group.27 ✓✓ (2 or none.)
• Saturated compounds: Compounds in which there are no multiple bonds between C atoms in their
hydrocarbon chains.
• Unsaturated compounds: Compounds with one or more multiple bonds between C atoms in their
hydrocarbon chains.28 ✓✓ (2 or none.)
• Functional group: A bond or an atom or a group of atoms that determine(s) the physical and
chemical properties of a group of organic compounds.

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2018.
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• Structural isomer: Organic molecules with the same molecular formula, ✓ but different structural
formulae.29 ✓
• Chain isomers: Same molecular formula, but different types of chains,
e.g. butane and 2-methylpropane.

• Positional isomers: Compounds with the same molecular formula, ✓ but different positions of the
side chain, substituents or functional groups ✓ on the parent chain.30
• E.g.1-chloropropane and 2-chloropropane

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2016.
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2019.

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• Eg. but-1-ene and but-2-ene.

• Functional isomers: Same molecular formula, ✓ but different functional groups.31 ✓

e.g. methyl methanoate and ethanoic acid.

• Primary alcohol: The C atom bonded to the hydroxyl group is bonded to only one other
C-atom.32 ✓✓ (2 or none.)
• Secondary alcohol: The C atom bonded to the hydroxyl group is bonded to two other
C-atoms.
• Tertiary alcohol: The C atom bonded to the hydroxyl group is bonded to three other
C-atoms.
• When naming haloalkanes:
o Halogen substituents do not get preference over alkyl groups.
o Numbering should start from the end nearest to the first substituent.
o When substituents, e.g. Br and Cℓ or Cℓ and methyl, have the same number when numbered
from different ends of chain, preference is given to alphabetical order, e.g. bromo- over
chloro-; chloro- over methyl-.
• When writing IUPAC names, substituents are written alphabetically namely bromo, chloro, ethyl,
methyl. Ignore prefixes di and tri.

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2021.
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2020.

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Organic Reactions

• Hydrohalogenation: The addition ✓ of a hydrogen halide ✓ to an alkene.33

• Halogenation: The reaction of a halogen (Br2, Cℓ2) with a compound.
• Hydration: The addition of water to a compound.
• Hydrogenation: The addition of hydrogen to an alkene.
• Cracking of alkanes: The chemical process in which longer chain hydrocarbon molecules ✓
are broken down to shorter more useful molecules.34 ✓
• Hydrolysis: The reaction of a compound with water.

Ideal gases and thermal properties

• Boyle's law: The pressure of an enclosed gas is inversely proportional to the volume it occupies at
constant temperature

Quantitative aspects of chemical change

• Define one mole as the amount of substance having the same number of particles as there are atoms
in 12 g carbon-12

• Describe Avogadro's number, NA, as the number of particles (atoms, molecules, formula units)
present in one mole (NA = 6,023 x 1023 particles∙mol-1 ).

• Define molar mass as the mass of one mole of a substance measured in g·mol-1 .

• Avogadro's Law, i.e. one mole of any gas occupies the same volume at the same temperature and
pressure.

• Define concentration as the amount of solute per litre of solution.

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Energy and chemical change
• Define heat of reaction (ΔH) as the energy absorbed or released (per mole) in a chemical reaction.

• Define exothermic reactions as reactions that release energy.

o State that ΔH < 0 for exothermic reactions, i.e. reactions in which energy is released.

• Define endothermic reactions as reactions that absorb energy.

o State that ΔH > 0 for endothermic reactions, i.e. reactions in which energy is absorbed.

• Define activation energy: the minimum energy needed for a reaction to take place.35 ✓✓

• Define an activated complex as the unstable transition state from reactants to products.

Rate and Extent of Reaction

• Define reaction rate: the change in concentration of reactants or products per unit time.36 ✓✓
c
• Rate = (Unit: mol∙dm-3∙s-1).
t

• Define the term catalyst as a substance that increases the rate of a chemical reaction without itself
undergoing a permanent change.

• A catalyst increases the rate of a reaction by providing an alternative path of lower activation energy.
It therefore decreases the net activation energy.

Chemical Equilibrium

• Open and closed systems: An open system continuously interacts with its environment, while a
closed system is isolated from its surroundings.

• A reversible reaction: A reaction is reversible when products can be converted back to reactants ✓
and vice versa.37

• Define chemical equilibrium: it is a dynamic equilibrium when the rate of the forward reaction
equals the rate of the reverse reaction.38 ✓✓ (2 marks or no marks).

• Le Chatelier's principle: When the equilibrium in a closed system is disturbed, the system will
re-instate a new equilibrium ✓ by favouring the reaction that will oppose the disturbance.39 ✓

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2016.
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2017. 2018. 2021.
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2020.
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2016. 2017. 2019. 2021.
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2018. 2022.

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Acid-base reactions
• Arrhenius theory:

o Acids produce hydrogen ions (H+/H3O+/hydronium ions) in aqueous solution.

o Bases produce hydroxide ions (OH-) in aqueous solution.

• Lowry-Brønsted theory:

o An acid is a proton donor.40 ✓✓ (2 or none.)

o A base is a proton acceptor.

• Strong and Weak Acids and Bases:

o Strong acids ionise completely in water to form a high concentration of H3O+ ions.
Examples of strong acids are hydrochloric acid, sulphuric acid and nitric acid.

o Weak acids ionise incompletely in water to form a low concentration of H3O+ ions.
Examples of weak acids are ethanoic acid and oxalic acid.

o Strong bases dissociate completely in water to form a high concentration of OH- ions.
Examples of strong bases are sodium hydroxide and potassium hydroxide.

o Weak bases dissociate/ionise incompletely in water to form a low concentration of OH- ions.
Examples of weak bases are ammonia, calcium carbonate, potassium carbonate, and sodium
hydrogen carbonate.

• Concentrated and Dilute Acids and Bases:

o Concentrated acids/bases contain a large amount (number of moles) of acid/base in

proportion to the volume of water.

o Dilute acids/bases contain a small amount (number of moles) of acid/base in proportion to the
volume of water.

• Describe a substance that can act as either acid or base, as amphiprotic or as an ampholyte.

o Water is a good example of an ampholyte substance.

• Define hydrolysis: the reaction of a salt with water.41 ✓✓ (2 marks or none).

• Describe an acid-base indicator as a weak acid, or a weak base, which colour changes as the H+ ion
concentration or the OH- ion concentration in a solution changes.

• Equivalence point of a titration: the point at which the acid/base has completely reacted with the
base/acid.

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• Define the endpoint of a titration as the point where the indicator changes colour.

• pH scale: a scale of numbers from 0 to 14 used to express the acidity or alkalinity of a solution.

• Define Kw as the equilibrium constant for the ionisation of water or the ion product of water or the
ionisation constant of water, i.e. Kw = [H3O+][OH-] = 1 x 1014 by 298 K.

• Auto-ionisation of water, i.e. the reaction of water with itself to form H3O+ ions and OH-ions.

Electrochemical Reactions
• Define the galvanic cell as a cell in which chemical energy is converted to electrical energy.

• Describe a redox (oxidation-reduction) reaction as involving an electron transfer.

• Describe a redox (oxidation-reduction) reaction as always involving changes in oxidation numbers.

• Define oxidation and reduction in terms of electron (e-) transfer:

o Oxidation is a loss of electrons.42 ✓✓ (2 or none.) Reduction is a gain of electrons.

• Define oxidation and reduction in terms of oxidation numbers:

o Oxidation: an increase in oxidation number. Reduction: a decrease in oxidation number.

• Define an oxidising agent and a reducing agent in terms of oxidation and reduction:
o Oxidising agent: a substance that is reduced/gains electrons.
o Reducing agent: a substance that is oxidised ✓✓ OR a substance that loses electrons.43 ✓✓

• Define an anode and a cathode in terms of oxidation and reduction:

o Anode: the electrode where oxidation takes place.44 ✓✓ (2 or none.)

o Cathode: the electrode where reduction takes place.

• Define an electrolyte: a substance of which the aqueous solution contains ions. ✓✓

OR a substance that dissolves in water to give a solution that conducts electricity.45 ✓✓

• Define the electrolytic cell: a cell in which electrical energy is converted into chemical energy.46 ✓✓
(2 or none.)
Electrolysis: The chemical process in which electrical energy is converted to chemical energy.47 ✓✓
(2 or none.)

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2018.
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2020.
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2018.
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2019. 2020. 2022.

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