History of medicine

The history of medicine shows how societies have changed in their approach to
illness and disease from ancient times to the present. Early medical traditions
include those of Babylon, China, Egypt and India. The Indians introduced the
concepts of medical diagnosis, prognosis, and advanced medical ethics. The
Hippocratic Oath was written in ancient Greece in the 5th century BCE, and is a
direct inspiration for oaths of office that physicians swear upon entry into the
profession today. In the Middle Ages, surgical practices inherited from the ancient
masters were improved and then systematized in Rogerius's The Practice of Surgery.
Universities began systematic training of physicians around 1220 CE in Italy
.

During the Renaissance, understanding of anatomy improved, and the microscope

was invented. Prior to the 19th century, humorism (also known as humoralism) was
thought to explain the cause of disease but it was gradually replaced by the germ
theory of disease, leading to effective treatments and even cures for many infectious
diseases. Military doctors advanced the methods of trauma treatment and surgery.
Public health measures were developed especially in the 19th century as the rapid
growth of cities required systematic sanitary measures. Advanced research centers The Hippocratic Corpus
opened in the early 20th century, often connected with major hospitals. The mid- A collection of early medical works
may be associated withHippocrates
20th century was characterized by new biological treatments, such as antibiotics.
These advancements, along with developments in chemistry, genetics, and
radiography led to modern medicine. Medicine was heavily professionalized in the 20th century, and new careers opened to women
as nurses (from the 1870s) and as physicians (especially after 1970).

Contents
Prehistoric medicine
Early civilizations
Mesopotamia
Egypt
India
China
Greece and Roman Empire
Hippocrates
Herophilus and Erasistratus
Galen
Roman contributions
The Middle Ages, 400 to 1400
Byzantine Empire and Sassanid Empire
Islamic world
Europe
Schools
Humours
Women

Renaissance to early modern period 16th–18th century

Paracelsus
Padua and Bologna
 Women
Age of Enlightenment
Britain
Spain and Spanish Empire
19th century: rise of modern medicine
Germ theory and bacteriology
Women
Women as nurses
Women as physicians
Paris
Vienna
Berlin
U.S. Civil War
Statistical methods
Worldwide dissemination
United States
Japan
Psychiatry
20th century and beyond
Twentieth-century warfare and medicine
Public health
Second World War
Nazi and Japanese medical research
Malaria
Post-World War II
Modern surgery

See also
Explanatory notes
References
Further reading
Physicians
Britain
Historiography
Primary sources
External links

Prehistoric medicine
Although there is no record to establish when plants were first used for medicinal purposes (herbalism), the use of plants as healing
agents, as well as clays and soils is ancient. Over time through emulation of the behavior of fauna a medicinal knowledge base
developed and passed between generations. As tribal culture specialized specific castes,
shamans and apothecaries fulfilled the role of
healer.[1] The first known dentistry dates to c. 7000 BC in Baluchistan where Neolithic dentists used flint-tipped drills and
bowstrings.[2] The first known trepanning operation was carried out c. 5000 BC in Ensisheim, France.[3] A possible amputation was
[4]
carried out c. 4,900 BC in Buthiers-Bulancourt, France.

[5]
Even earlier, Neanderthals may have engaged in medical practices.

Early civilizations

Mesopotamia
 The ancient Mesopotamians had no
distinction between "rational science" and
magic.[8][9][10] When a person became ill,
doctors would prescribe both magical
formulas to be recited as well as medicinal
treatments.[8][9][10][7] The earliest medical
prescriptions appear inSumerian during the
Third Dynasty of Ur (c. 2112 BC – c. 2004
BC).[11] The oldest Babylonian texts on
medicine date back to the Old Babylonian
period in the first half of the
2nd millennium BCE.[12] The most
extensive Babylonian medical text,
however, is the Diagnostic Handbook
written by the ummânū, or chief scholar,
Esagil-kin-apli of Borsippa,[13][14] during
Medical recipe concerning poisoning. the reign of the Babylonian king Adad-
Terracotta tablet, from Nippur, Iraq, apla-iddina (1069–1046 BCE).[15] Along
18th century BCE. Ancient Orient with the Egyptians, the Babylonians
Museum, Istanbul introduced the practice of diagnosis,
Monumental stone relief of a
prognosis, physical examination, and
fish-garbed figure from the
remedies. In addition, the Diagnostic Temple of Ninurta in the
Handbook introduced the methods of therapy and cause. The text contains a list of medical Assyrian city of Kalhu,
symptoms and often detailed empirical observations along with logical rules used in believed by some experts to
combining observed symptoms on the body of a patient with its diagnosis and prognosis.[16] be a representation of an
The Diagnostic Handbook was based on a logical set of axioms and assumptions, including āšipu, or exorcist-priest,[6]:83
who functioned as a kind of
the modern view that through the examination and inspection of the symptoms of a patient,
healer and primitive doctor[7]
it is possible to determine the patient's disease, its cause and future development, and the
chances of the patient's recovery. The symptoms and diseases of a patient were treated
through therapeutic means such as bandages, herbs andcreams.[13]

In East Semitic cultures, the main medicinal authority was a kind of exorcist-healer known as an āšipu.[8][9][10] The profession was
generally passed down from father to son[8] and was held in extremely high regard.[8] Of less frequent recourse was another kind of
healer known as an asu, who corresponds more closely to a modern physician[7] and treated physical symptoms using primarily folk
remedies composed of various herbs, animal products, and minerals, as well as potions, enemas, and ointments or poultices.[7] These
physicians, who could be either male or female, also dressed wounds, set limbs, and performed simple surgeries.[7] The ancient
Mesopotamians also practicedprophylaxis[7] and took measures to prevent the spread of disease.
[7]

Mental illnesses were well known in ancient Mesopotamia,[17] where diseases and mental disorders were believed to be caused by
specific deities.[6] Because hands symbolized control over a person, mental illnesses were known as "hands" of certain deities.[6] One
psychological illness was known as Qāt Ištar, meaning "Hand of Ishtar".[6] Others were known as "Hand of Shamash", "Hand of the
Ghost", and "Hand of the God".[6] Descriptions of these illnesses, however, are so vague that it is usually impossible to determine
which illnesses they correspond to in modern terminology.[6] Mesopotamian doctors kept detailed record of their patients'
hallucinations and assigned spiritual meanings to them.[17] A patient who hallucinated that he was seeing a dog was predicted to
die;[17] whereas, if he saw a gazelle, he would recover.[17] The royal family of Elam was notorious for its members frequently
suffering from insanity.[17] Erectile dysfunction was recognized as being rooted in psychological problems.
[17]

Egypt
Ancient Egypt developed a large, varied and fruitful medical tradition. Herodotus described
the Egyptians as "the healthiest of all men, next to the Libyans",[18] because of the dry
climate and the notable public health system that they possessed. According to him, "the
practice of medicine is so specialized among them that each physician is a healer of one
disease and no more." Although Egyptian medicine, to a considerable extent, dealt with the
supernatural,[19] it eventually developed a practical use in the fields of anatomy, public The Edwin Smith Surgical
health, and clinical diagnostics. Papyrus, written in the 17th
century BC, contains the
Medical information in the Edwin Smith Papyrus may date to a time as early as earliest recorded reference to
3000 BC.[20] Imhotep in the 3rd dynasty is sometimes credited with being the founder of the brain
ancient Egyptian medicine and with being the original author of the Edwin Smith Papyrus,
detailing cures, ailments andanatomical observations. The Edwin Smith Papyrus is regarded
as a copy of several earlier works and was written c. 1600 BC. It is an ancient textbook on surgery almost completely devoid of
magical thinking and describes in exquisite detail theexamination, diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis of numerous ailments.[21]

The Kahun Gynaecological Papyrus[22] treats women's complaints, including problems with conception. Thirty four cases detailing
diagnosis and[23] treatment survive, some of them fragmentarily.[24] Dating to 1800 BCE, it is the oldest surviving medical text of
any kind.

[25]
Medical institutions, referred to asHouses of Life are known to have been established in ancient Egypt as early as 2200 BC.

The earliest known physician is also credited to ancient Egypt: Hesy-Ra, "Chief of Dentists and Physicians" for King Djoser in the
27th century BCE.[26] Also, the earliest known woman physician,Peseshet, practiced in Ancient Egypt at the time of the 4th dynasty.
Her title was "Lady Overseer of the Lady Physicians." In addition to her supervisory role, Peseshet trained midwives at an ancient
Egyptian medical school inSais.

India
The Atharvaveda, a sacred text of Hinduism dating from the Early Iron Age, is one of the first
Indian text dealing with medicine. The Atharvaveda also contain prescriptions of herbs for
various ailments. The use of herbs to treat ailments would later form a lar
ge part of Ayurveda.

Ayurveda, meaning the "complete knowledge for long life" is another medical system of
India. Its two most famous texts belong to the schools of Charaka and Sushruta. The earliest
foundations of Ayurveda were built on a synthesis of traditional herbal practices together with
a massive addition of theoretical conceptualizations, new nosologies and new therapies dating
from about 600 BCE onwards, and coming out of the communities of thinkers who included
the Buddha and others.[27]

According to the compendium of Charaka, the Charakasamhitā, health and disease are not Ayurvedic herbal medicines
predetermined and life may be prolonged by human effort. The compendium of Suśruta, the
Suśrutasamhitā defines the purpose of medicine to cure the diseases of the sick, protect the
healthy, and to prolong life. Both these ancient compendia include details of the examination, diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis of
numerous ailments. The Suśrutasamhitā is notable for describing procedures on various forms of surgery, including rhinoplasty, the
repair of torn ear lobes, perineal lithotomy, cataract surgery, and several other excisions and other surgical procedures. Most
remarkable is Sushruta's penchant for scientific classification: His medical treatise consists of 184 chapters, 1,120 conditions are
listed, including injuries and illnesses relating to aging and mental illness.

The Ayurvedic classics mention eight branches of medicine: kāyācikitsā (internal medicine), śalyacikitsā (surgery including
anatomy), śālākyacikitsā (eye, ear, nose, and throat diseases), kaumārabhṛtya (pediatrics with obstetrics and gynaecology),
bhūtavidyā (spirit and psychiatric medicine), agada tantra (toxicology with treatments of stings and bites), rasāyana (science of
rejuvenation), and vājīkaraṇa (aphrodisiac and fertility). Apart from learning these, the student of Āyurveda was expected to know
ten arts that were indispensable in the preparation and application of his medicines: distillation, operative skills, cooking, horticulture,
metallurgy, sugar manufacture, pharmacy, analysis and separation of minerals, compounding of metals, and preparation of alkalis.
The teaching of various subjects was done during the instruction of relevant clinical subjects. For example, teaching of anatomy was
a part of the teaching of surgery, embryology was a part of training in pediatrics and obstetrics, and the knowledge of physiology and
pathology was interwoven in the teaching of all the clinical disciplines. The normal length of the student's training appears to have
been seven years. But the physician was to continue to learn.[28]

As an alternative form of medicine in India, Unani medicine got deep roots and royal patronage during medieval times. It progressed
during Indian sultanate and mughal periods. Unani medicine is very close to Ayurveda. Both are based on theory of the presence of
the elements (in Unani, they are considered to be fire, water, earth and air) in the human body. According to followers of Unani
[29]
medicine, these elements are present in different fluids and their balance leads to health and their imbalance leads to illness.

By the 18th century CE, Sanskrit medical wisdom still dominated. Muslim rulers built large hospitals in 1595 in Hyderabad, and in
[30]
Delhi in 1719, and numerous commentaries on ancient texts were written.

China
China also developed a large body of traditional medicine. Much of the philosophy
of traditional Chinese medicine derived from empirical observations of disease and
illness by Taoist physicians and reflects the classical Chinese belief that individual
human experiences express causative principles effective in the environment at all
scales. These causative principles, whether material, essential, or mystical, correlate
as the expression of the natural order of the universe.

The foundational text of Chinese medicine is the Huangdi neijing, (or Yellow
Emperor's Inner Canon), written 5th century to 3rd century BCE.[31] Near the end
Assorted dried plant and animal parts
of the 2nd century CE, during the Han dynasty, Zhang Zhongjing, wrote a Treatise
used in traditional Chinese
on Cold Damage, which contains the earliest known reference to the Neijing Suwen.
medicines, clockwise from top left
The Jin Dynasty practitioner and advocate of acupuncture and moxibustion, corner: dried Lingzhi (lit. "spirit
Huangfu Mi (215–282), also quotes the Yellow Emperor in his Jiayi jing, c. 265. mushrooms"), ginseng, Luo Han
During the Tang Dynasty, the Suwen was expanded and revised, and is now the best Guo, turtle shell underbelly
extant representation of the foundational roots of traditional Chinese medicine. (plastron), and dried curled snakes
Traditional Chinese Medicine that is based on the use of herbal medicine,
acupuncture, massage and other forms of therapy has been practiced in China for
thousands of years.

In the 18th century, during the Qing dynasty, there was a proliferation of popular books as well as more advanced encyclopedias on
traditional medicine. Jesuit missionaries introduced Western science and medicine to the royal court, the Chinese physicians ignored
them.[32]

Finally in the 19th century, Western medicine was introduced at the local level by Christian medical missionaries from the London
Missionary Society (Britain), the Methodist Church (Britain) and the Presbyterian Church (US). Benjamin Hobson (1816–1873) in
1839, set up a highly successful Wai Ai Clinic in Guangzhou, China.[33] The Hong Kong College of Medicine for Chinese was
founded in 1887 by the London Missionary Society, with its first graduate (in 1892) being Sun Yat-sen, who later led the Chinese
Revolution (1911). The Hong Kong College of Medicine for Chinese was the forerunner of the School of Medicine of the University
of Hong Kong, which started in 1911.

Because of the social custom that men and women should not be near to one another, the women of China were reluctant to be treated
by male doctors. The missionaries sent women doctors such as Dr. Mary Hannah Fulton (1854–1927). Supported by the Foreign
Missions Board of the Presbyterian Church (US) she in 1902 founded the first medical college for women in China, the Hackett
Medical College for Women, in Guangzhou.[34]
Greece and Roman Empire
Around 800 BCE Homer in The Iliad gives descriptions of wound treatment by the two sons of Asklepios, the admirable physicians
Podaleirius and Machaon and one acting doctor, Patroclus. Because Machaon is wounded and Podaleirius is in combat Eurypylus
asks Patroclus to cut out this arrow from my thigh, wash off the blood with warm water and spread soothing ointment on the
wound.[35] Asklepios like Imhotep becomes god of healing over time.

Temples dedicated to the healer-god Asclepius, known as Asclepieia

(Ancient Greek: Ἀσκληπιεῖα, sing. Ἀσκληπιεῖον, 'Asclepieion), functioned
as centers of medical advice, prognosis, and healing.[36] At these shrines,
patients would enter a dream-like state of induced sleep known asenkoimesis
(ἐγκοίμησις) not unlike anesthesia, in which they either received guidance
from the deity in a dream or were cured by surgery.[37] Asclepeia provided
carefully controlled spaces conducive to healing and fulfilled several of the
requirements of institutions created for healing.[36] In the Asclepeion of
Epidaurus, three large marble boards dated to 350 BCE preserve the names, View of the Askleipion of Kos, the best
case histories, complaints, and cures of about 70 patients who came to the preserved instance of an Asklepieion.
temple with a problem and shed it there. Some of the surgical cures listed,
such as the opening of an abdominal abscess or the removal of traumatic
foreign material, are realistic enough to have taken place, but with the patient in a state of enkoimesis induced with the help of
soporific substances such as opium.[37] Alcmaeon of Croton wrote on medicine between 500 and 450 BCE. He argued that channels
[38]
linked the sensory organs to the brain, and it is possible that he discovered one type of channel, the optic nerves, by dissection.

Hippocrates
A towering figure in the history of medicine was the physician Hippocrates of Kos (c. 460 – c. 370 BCE), considered the "father of
modern medicine."[39][40] The Hippocratic Corpus is a collection of around seventy early medical works from ancient Greece
strongly associated with Hippocrates and his students. Most famously, the Hippocratics invented the Hippocratic Oath for physicians.
Contemporary physicians swear an oath of office which includes aspects found in early editions of the Hippocratic Oath.

Hippocrates and his followers were first to describe many diseases and medical conditions. Though humorism (humoralism) as a
medical system predates 5th-century Greek medicine, Hippocrates and his students systemetized the thinking that illness can be
explained by an imbalance of blood, phlegm, black bile, and yellow bile.[41] Hippocrates is given credit for the first description of
clubbing of the fingers, an important diagnostic sign in chronic suppurative lung disease, lung cancer and cyanotic heart disease. For
this reason, clubbed fingers are sometimes referred to as "Hippocratic fingers".[42] Hippocrates was also the first physician to
describe the Hippocratic face in Prognosis. Shakespeare famously alludes to this description when writing of Falstaff's death in Act
II, Scene iii. of Henry V.[43]

Hippocrates began to categorize illnesses as acute, chronic, endemic and epidemic, and use terms such as, "exacerbation, relapse,
resolution, crisis, paroxysm, peak, and convalescence."[44][45][46]

Another of Hippocrates's major contributions may be found in his descriptions of the symptomatology, physical findings, surgical
treatment and prognosis of thoracic empyema, i.e. suppuration of the lining of the chest cavity. His teachings remain relevant to
present-day students of pulmonary medicine and surgery. Hippocrates was the first documented person to practise cardiothoracic
surgery, and his findings are still valid.

Some of the techniques and theories developed by Hippocrates are now put into practice by the fields of Environmental and
Integrative Medicine. These include recognizing the importance of taking a complete history which includes environmental
exposures as well as foods eaten by the patient which might play a role in his or her illness.

Herophilus and Erasistratus

Two great Alexandrians laid the foundations for the scientific study of anatomy and
physiology, Herophilus of Chalcedon and Erasistratus of Ceos.[48] Other
Alexandrian surgeons gave us ligature (hemostasis), lithotomy, hernia operations,
ophthalmic surgery, plastic surgery, methods of reduction of dislocations and
fractures, tracheotomy, and mandrake as an anaesthetic. Some of what we know of
them comes from Celsus and Galen of Pergamum.[49]

Herophilus of Chalcedon, working at the medical school of Alexandria placed

intelligence in the brain, and connected the nervous system to motion and sensation.
Herophilus also distinguished between veins and arteries, noting that the latter pulse The plinthios brochos as described
while the former do not. He and his contemporary, Erasistratus of Chios, researched by Greek physician Heraklas, a sling
for binding a fractured jaw. These
the role of veins and nerves, mapping their courses across the body. Erasistratus
writings were preserved in one of
connected the increased complexity of the surface of the human brain compared to
Oribasius' collections.[47]
other animals to its superior intelligence. He sometimes employed experiments to
further his research, at one time repeatedly weighing a caged bird, and noting its
weight loss between feeding times. In Erasistratus' physiology, air enters the body, is then drawn by the lungs into the heart, where it
is transformed into vital spirit, and is then pumped by the arteries throughout the body. Some of this vital spirit reaches the brain,
[50]
where it is transformed into animal spirit, which is then distributed by the nerves.

Galen
The Greek Galen (c. 129–216 CE) was one of the greatest physicians of the ancient world, studying and traveling widely in ancient
Rome. He dissected animals to learn about the body, and performed many audacious operations—includingbrain and eye surgeries—
that were not tried again for almost two millennia. In Ars medica ("Arts of Medicine"), he explained mental properties in terms of
specific mixtures of the bodily parts.[51][52]

Galen's medical works were regarded as authoritative until well into the Middle Ages. Galen left a physiological model of the human
body that became the mainstay of the medieval physician's university anatomy curriculum, but it suffered greatly from stasis and
intellectual stagnation because some of Galen's ideas were incorrect; he did not dissect a human body.[53] Greek and Roman taboos
[54][55]
had meant that dissection was usually banned in ancient times, but in the Middle Ages it changed.

In 1523 Galen's On the Natural Faculties was published in London. In the 1530s Belgian anatomist and physician Andreas Vesalius
launched a project to translate many of Galen's Greek texts into Latin. Vesalius's most famous work,De humani corporis fabrica was
greatly influenced by Galenic writing and form.[56]

Roman contributions
The Romans invented numerous surgical instruments, including the first instruments unique to
women,[57] as well as the surgical uses of forceps, scalpels, cautery, cross-bladed scissors, the
surgical needle, the sound, and speculas.[58][59] Romans also performedcataract surgery.[60]

The Roman army physician Dioscorides (c. 40–90 CE), was a Greek botanist and
pharmacologist. He wrote the encyclopedia De Materia Medica describing over 600 herbal
cures, forming an influential pharmacopoeia which was used extensively for the following
1,500 years.[61]

Mandrake (written
The Middle Ages, 400 to 1400 'ΜΑΝΔΡΑΓΟΡΑ' in Greek
capitals). Naples
Dioscurides, 7th century

Byzantine Empire and Sassanid Empire

Byzantine medicine encompasses the common medical practices of theByzantine Empire from about 400 AD to 1453 AD. Byzantine
medicine was notable for building upon the knowledge base developed by its Greco-Roman predecessors. In preserving medical
practices from antiquity, Byzantine medicine influenced Islamic medicine as well as fostering the Western rebirth of medicine during
the Renaissance.

Byzantine physicians often compiled and standardized medical knowledge into textbooks. Their records tended to include both
diagnostic explanations and technical drawings. The Medical Compendium in Seven Books, written by the leading physician Paul of
Aegina, survived as a particularly thorough source of medical knowledge. This compendium, written in the late seventh century,
remained in use as a standard textbook for the following 800 years.

Late antiquity ushered in a revolution in medical science, and historical records often mention civilian hospitals (although battlefield
medicine and wartime triage were recorded well before Imperial Rome). Constantinople stood out as a center of medicine during the
Middle Ages, which was aided by its crossroads location, wealth, and accumulated knowledge. copied content from Byzantine
medicine; see that page's history for attribution

The first ever known example of separating conjoined twins occurred in the Byzantine Empire in the 10th century. The next example
[62][63]
of separating conjoined twins will be first recorded many centuries later in Germany in 1689.

The Byzantine Empire's neighbors, the Persian Sassanid Empire, also made their noteworthy contributions mainly with the
establishment of the Academy of Gondeshapur, which was "the most important medical center of the ancient world during the 6th
and 7th centuries."[64] In addition, Cyril Elgood, British physician and a historian of medicine in Persia, commented that thanks to
medical centers like the Academy of Gondeshapur, "to a very large extent, the credit for the whole hospital system must be given to
Persia."[65]

Islamic world
The Islamic civilization rose to primacy in medical science as its physicians contributed
significantly to the field of medicine, including anatomy, ophthalmology, pharmacology,
pharmacy, physiology, surgery, and the pharmaceutical sciences. The Arabs were influenced
by ancient Indian, Persian, Greek, Roman and Byzantine medical practices, and helped them
develop further.[66] Galen & Hippocrates were pre-eminent authorities. The translation of 129
of Galen's works into Arabic by the Nestorian Christian Hunayn ibn Ishaq and his assistants,
and in particular Galen's insistence on a rational systematic approach to medicine, set the
template for Islamic medicine, which rapidly spread throughout the Arab Empire.[67] while
Europe was in its Dark Ages, Islam expanded in West Asia and enjoyed a golden age. Its most
famous physicians included the Persian polymaths Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi and
Avicenna, who wrote more than 40 works on health, medicine, and well-being. Taking leads
from Greece and Rome, Islamic scholars kept both the art and science of medicine alive and Arabic manuscript, Anatomy
moving forward.[68] of the Eye, by al-Mutadibih,
1200 CE

Europe
After AD 400, the study and practice of medicine in the Western Roman Empire went into deep decline. Medical services were
provided, especially for the poor, in the thousands of monastic hospitals that sprang up across Europe, but the care was rudimentary
and mainly palliative.[69] Most of the writings of Galen and Hippocrates were lost to the West, with the summaries and compendia of
St. Isidore of Seville being the primary channel for transmitting Greek medical ideas.[70] The Carolingian renaissance brought
increased contact with Byzantium and a greater awareness of ancient medicine,[71] but only with the twelfth-century renaissanceand
the new translations coming from Muslim and Jewish sources in Spain, and the fifteenth-century flood of resources after the fall of
Constantinople did the West fully recover its acquaintance with classical antiquity
.
Greek and Roman taboos had meant that dissection was usually banned in ancient times, but in the Middle Ages it changed: medical
teachers and students at Bologna began to open human bodies, and Mondino de Luzzi (c. 1275–1326) produced the first known
anatomy textbook based on human dissection.[54][55]

Wallis identifies a prestige hierarchy with university educated physicians on top, followed by learned surgeons; craft-trained
s.[72]
surgeons; barber surgeons; itinerant specialists such as dentist and oculists; empirics; and midwive

Schools
The first medical schools were opened in the 9th century, most notably the Schola
Medica Salernitana at Salerno in southern Italy. The cosmopolitan influences from
Greek, Latin, Arabic, and Hebrew sources gave it an international reputation as the
Hippocratic City. Students from wealthy families came for three years of preliminary
studies and five of medical studies. The medicine, following the laws of Federico II,
that he founded in 1224 the University ad improved the Schola Salernitana, in the
period between 1200 and 1400, it had in Sicily (so-called Sicilian Middle Ages) a
[73]
particular development so much to create a true school of Jewish medicine.

As a result of which, after a legal examination, was conferred to a Jewish Sicilian

woman, Virdimura, wife of another physician Pasquale of Catania, the hystorical A miniature depicting the Schola
record of before woman officially trained to exercise of the medical profession.[74] Medica Salernitana

By the thirteenth century, the medical school at Montpellier began to eclipse the
Salernitan school. In the 12th century, universities were founded in Italy, France, and
England, which soon developed schools of medicine. The University of Montpellier
in France and Italy's University of Padua and University of Bologna were leading
schools. Nearly all the learning was from lectures and readings in Hippocrates,
Galen, Avicenna, and Aristotle.

Humours Jagiellonian University Collegium

Medicum founded 1364 AD
The underlying principle of most medieval medicine was Galen's theory of humours.
This was derived from the ancient medical works, and dominated all western
medicine until the 19th century. The theory stated that within every individual there were four
humours, or principal fluids—black bile, yellow bile, phlegm, and blood, these were produced
by various organs in the body, and they had to be in balance for a person to remain healthy.
Too much phlegm in the body, for example, caused lung problems; and the body tried to
cough up the phlegm to restore a balance. The balance of humours in humans could be
achieved by diet, medicines, and by blood-letting, using leeches. The four humours were also
associated with the four seasons, black bile-autumn, yellow bile-summer, phlegm-winter and
blood-spring.[75]

Healing included both physical and spiritual therapeutics, such as the right herbs, a suitable
diet, clean bedding, and the sense that care was always at hand. Other procedures used to help
patients included the Mass, prayers, relics of saints, and music used to calm a troubled mind
or quickened pulse.[76]
13th-century illustration
showing the veins.
Women
In 1376, in Sicily, it was historically given, in relationship to the laws of Federico II that they
foresaw an examination with a regal errand of physicists, the first qualification to the exercise of the medicine to a woman, Virdimura
a Jewess of Catania, whose document is preserved inPalermo to the Italian national archives.[77]
Renaissance to early modern period 16th–18th century
The Renaissance brought an intense focus on scholarship to Christian Europe. A major effort to translate the Arabic and Greek
scientific works into Latin emerged. Europeans gradually became experts not only in the ancient writings of the Romans and Greeks,
but in the contemporary writings of Islamic scientists. During the later centuries of the Renaissance came an increase in experimental
.[78]
investigation, particularly in the field of dissection and body examination, thus advancing our knowledge of human anatomy

The development of modernneurology began in the 16th century in Italy and France
with Niccolò Massa, Jean Fernel, Jacques Dubois and Andreas Vesalius. Vesalius
described in detail the anatomy of the brain and other organs; he had little
knowledge of the brain's function, thinking that it resided mainly in the ventricles.
Over his lifetime he corrected over 200 of Galen's mistakes. Understanding of
medical sciences and diagnosis improved, but with little direct benefit to health care.
Few effective drugs existed, beyond opium and quinine. Folklore cures and
potentially poisonous metal-based compounds were popular treatments.
An experiment from William Harvey's Independently from Ibn al-Nafis, Michael Servetus rediscovered the pulmonary
de Motu Cordis, 1628 circulation, but this discovery did not reach the public because it was written down
for the first time in the "Manuscript of Paris"[79] in 1546, and later published in the
theological work which he paid with his life in 1553. Later this was perfected by
Renaldus Columbus and Andrea Cesalpino. Later William Harvey correctly described the circulatory system. The most useful tomes
in medicine used both by students and expert physicians wereDe Materia Medica and Pharmacopoeia.

Bacteria and protists were first observed with a microscope by Antonie van Leeuwenhoek in
1676, initiating the scientific field ofmicrobiology.[80]

Paracelsus
Paracelsus (1493–1541), was an erratic and abusive innovator who rejected Galen and
bookish knowledge, calling for experimental research, with heavy doses of mysticism,
alchemy and magic mixed in.He rejected sacred magic (miracles) under Church auspisces and
looked for cures in nature.[81] He preached but he also pioneered the use of chemicals and
minerals in medicine. Hishermetical views were that sickness and health in the body relied on
the harmony of man (microcosm) and Nature (macrocosm). He took an approach different
from those before him, using this analogy not in the manner of soul-purification but in the
manner that humans must have certain balances of minerals in their bodies, and that certain
illnesses of the body had chemical remedies that could cure them.[82] Most of his influence
came after his death. Paracelsus is a highly controversial figure in the history of medicine, Replica of Antonie van
with most experts hailing him as a Father of Modern Medicine for shaking off religious Leeuwenhoek's microscope
orthodoxy and inspiring many researchers; others say he was a mystic more than a scientist of the 1670s
and downplay his importance.[83][84]

Padua and Bologna

University training of physicians began in the 13th century
.

The University of Padua was founded about 1220 by walkouts from theUniversity of Bologna, and began teaching medicine in 1222.
It played a leading role in the identification and treatment of diseases and ailments, specializing in autopsies and the inner workings
of the body.[85] Starting in 1595, Padua's famous anatomical theatre drew artists and scientists studying the human body during
public dissections. The intensive study of Galen led to critiques of Galen modeled on his own writing, as in the first book of
Vesalius's De humani corporis fabrica. Andreas Vesalius held the chair of Surgery and Anatomy (explicator chirurgiae) and in 1543
published his anatomical discoveries inDe Humani Corporis Fabrica. He portrayed the human
body as an interdependent system of organ groupings. The book triggered great public interest
[86]
in dissections and caused many other European cities to establish anatomical theatres.

At the University of Bologna the training of physicians began in 1219. The Italian city
attracted students from across Europe. Taddeo Alderotti built a tradition of medical education
that established the characteristic features of Italian learned medicine and was copied by
medical schools elsewhere. Turisanus (d. 1320) was his student.[87] The curriculum was
revised and strengthened in 1560–1590.[88] A representative professor was Julius Caesar
Aranzi (Arantius) (1530–89). He became Professor of Anatomy and Surgery at the University
of Bologna in 1556, where he established anatomy as a major branch of medicine for the first
time. Aranzi combined anatomy with a description of pathological processes, based largely on
his own research, Galen, and the work of his contemporary Italians. Aranzi discovered the
'Nodules of Aranzio' in the semilunar valves of the heart and wrote the first description of the
superior levator palpebral and the coracobrachialis muscles. His books (in Latin) covered
surgical techniques for many conditions, including hydrocephalus, nasal polyp, goitre and Vesalius's 1543 De humani
tumours to phimosis, ascites, haemorrhoids, anal abscess and fistulae.[89] corporis fabrica contained
intricately detailed drawings
of human dissections, often
Women in allegorical poses.
Catholic women played large roles in health and healing in medieval and early modern
Europe.[90] A life as a nun was a prestigious role; wealthy families provided dowries for their
.[91]
daughters, and these funded the convents, while the nuns provided free nursing care for the poor

The Catholic elites provided hospital services because of their theology of salvation that good works were the route to heaven. The
Protestant reformers rejected the notion that rich men could gain God's grace through good works—and thereby escape purgatory—
by providing cash endowments to charitable institutions. They also rejected the Catholic idea that the poor patients earned grace and
salvation through their suffering.[92] Protestants generally closed all the convents[93] and most of the hospitals, sending women home
to become housewives, often against their will.[94] On the other hand, local officials recognized the public value of hospitals, and
[95]
some were continued in Protestant lands, but without monks or nuns and in the control of local governments.

In London, the crown allowed two hospitals to continue their charitable work, under nonreligious control of city officials.[96] The
convents were all shut down but Harkness finds that women—some of them former nuns—were part of a new system that delivered
essential medical services to people outside their family. They were employed by parishes and hospitals, as well as by private
gical services.[97]
families, and provided nursing care as well as some medical, pharmaceutical, and sur

Meanwhile, in Catholic lands such as France, rich families continued to fund convents and monasteries, and enrolled their daughters
as nuns who provided free health services to the poor. Nursing was a religious role for the nurse, and there was little call for
science.[98]

Age of Enlightenment
During the Age of Enlightenment, the 18th century, science was held in high esteem and physicians upgraded their social status by
becoming more scientific. The health field was crowded with self-trained barber-surgeons, apothecaries, midwives, drug peddlers,
and charlatans.

Across Europe medical schools relied primarily on lectures and readings. The final year student would have limited clinical
experience by trailing the professor through the wards.Laboratory work was uncommon, and dissections were rarely done because of
legal restrictions on cadavers. Most schools were small, and only Edinburgh, Scotland, with 11,000 alumni, produced large numbers
of graduates.[99][100]
Britain
In Britain, there were but three small hospitals after 1550. Pelling and Webster
estimate that in London in the 1580 to 1600 period, out of a population of nearly
200,000 people, there were about 500 medical practitioners. Nurses and midwives
are not included. There were about 50 physicians, 100 licensed surgeons, 100
apothecaries, and 250 additional unlicensed practitioners. In the last category about
25% were women.[101] All across Britain—and indeed all of the world—the vast
majority of the people in city, town or countryside depended for medical care on
local amateurs with no professional training but with a reputation as wise healers
who could diagnose problems and advise sick people what to do—and perhaps set
broken bones, pull a tooth, give some traditional herbs or brews or perform a little
magic to cure what ailed them.

The London Dispensary opened in 1696, the first clinic in the British Empire to
dispense medicines to poor sick people. The innovation was slow to catch on, but
new dispensaries were open in the 1770s. In the colonies, small hospitals opened in
Philadelphia in 1752, New York in 1771, and Boston (Massachusetts General
Hospital) in 1811.[102]
18th-century medical remedies
Guy's Hospital, the first great British hospital opened in 1721 in London, with collected by a British Gentry family
funding from businessman Thomas Guy. In 1821 a bequest of £200,000 by William
Hunt in 1829 funded expansion for an additional hundred beds. Samuel Sharp
(1709–78), a surgeon at Guy's Hospital, from 1733 to 1757, was internationally
famous; his A Treatise on the Operations of Surgery (1st ed., 1739), was the first
[103]
British study focused exclusively on operative technique.

English physician Thomas Percival (1740–1804) wrote a comprehensive system of

medical conduct, Medical Ethics; or, a Code of Institutes and Precepts, Adapted to
the Professional Conduct of Physicians and Surgeons (1803) that set the standard for
many textbooks.[104]
Guy's Hospital in 1820

Spain and Spanish Empire

In the Spanish Empire, the viceregal capital of Mexico City was a site of medical
training for physicians and the creation of hospitals. Epidemic disease had decimated
indigenous populations starting with the early sixteenth-century Spanish conquest of
the Aztec empire, when a black auxiliary in the armed forces of conqueror Hernán
Cortés, with an active case of smallpox, set off a virgin land epidemic among
indigenous peoples, Spanish allies and enemies alike. Aztec emperor Cuitlahuac
died of smallpox.[105][106] Disease was a significant factor in the Spanish conquest
elsewhere as well.[107]

Depiction of smallpox in Franciscan Medical education instituted at the Royal and Pontifical University of Mexico
Bernardino de Sahagún's history of chiefly served the needs of urban elites. Male and female curanderos or lay
the conquest of Mexico, Book XII of
practitioners, attended to the ills of the popular classes. The Spanish crown began
the Florentine Codex, from the
regulating the medical profession just a few years after the conquest, setting up the
defeated Aztecs' point of view
Royal Tribunal of the Protomedicato, a board for licensing medical personnel in
1527. Licensing became more systematic after 1646 with physicians, druggists,
surgeons, and bleeders requiring a license before they could publicly practice.[108] Crown regulation of medical practice became
more general in the Spanish empire.[109]
Elites and the popular classes alike called on divine intervention in personal and society-wide
health crises, such as the epidemic of 1737. The intervention of the Virgin of Guadalupe was
depicted in a scene of dead and dying Indians, with elites on their knees praying for her aid. In
the late eighteenth century, the crown began implementing secularizing policies on the Iberian
peninsula and its overseas empire to control disease more systematically and
scientifically.[110][111][112]

19th century: rise of modern medicine

The practice of medicine changed in the face of rapid advances in science, as well as new
approaches by physicians. Hospital doctors began much more systematic analysis of patients'
symptoms in diagnosis.[113] Among the more powerful new techniques were anaesthesia, and
the development of both antiseptic and aseptic operating theatres.[114] Effective cures were
developed for certain endemic infectious diseases. However the decline in many of the most Mexico City epidemic of
lethal diseases was due more to improvements in public health and nutrition than to advances 1737, with elites calling on
in medicine. the Virgin of Guadalupe

Medicine was revolutionized in the 19th century and beyond by advances in chemistry,
laboratory techniques, and equipment. Old ideas of infectious disease epidemiology were gradually replaced by advances in
bacteriology and virology.[80]

Germ theory and bacteriology

In the 1830s in Italy, Agostino Bassi traced the silkworm disease muscardine to microorganisms. Meanwhile, in Germany, Theodor
Schwann led research on alcoholic fermentation by yeast, proposing that living microorganisms were responsible. Leading chemists,
such as Justus von Liebig, seeking solely physicochemical explanations, derided this claim and alleged that Schwann was regressing
to vitalism.

In 1847 in Vienna, Ignaz Semmelweis (1818–1865), dramatically reduced the death rate of new mothers (due to childbed fever) by
requiring physicians to clean their hands before attending childbirth, yet his principles were marginalized and attacked by
professional peers.[115] At that time most people still believed that infections were caused by foul odors called
miasmas.

Eminent French scientist Louis Pasteur confirmed Schwann's fermentation

experiments in 1857 and afterwards supported the hypothesis that yeast were
microorganisms. Moreover, he suggested that such a process might also explain
contagious disease. In 1860, Pasteur's report on bacterial fermentation of butyric
acid motivated fellow Frenchman Casimir Davaine to identify a similar species
(which he called bacteridia) as the pathogen of the deadly disease anthrax. Others
dismissed "bacteridia" as a mere byproduct of the disease. British surgeon Joseph
Lister, however, took these findings seriously and subsequently introducedantisepsis
to wound treatment in 1865.

German physician Robert Koch, noting fellow German Ferdinand Cohn's report of a
spore stage of a certain bacterial species, traced the life cycle of Davaine's
bacteridia, identified spores, inoculated laboratory animals with them, and Louis Pasteur experimenting on
reproduced anthrax—a breakthrough for experimental pathology and germ theory of bacteria, c. 1870
disease. Pasteur's group added ecological investigations confirming spores' role in
the natural setting, while Koch published a landmark treatise in 1878 on the bacterial
pathology of wounds.In 1881, Koch reported discovery of the t"ubercle bacillus", cementing germ theory and Koch's acclaim.
Upon the outbreak of acholera epidemic in Alexandria, Egypt, two medical missions went to investigate and attend the sick, one was
sent out by Pasteur and the other led by Koch.[116] Koch's group returned in 1883, having successfully discovered the cholera
pathogen.[116] In Germany, however, Koch's bacteriologists had to vie against Max von Pettenkofer, Germany's leading proponent of
miasmatic theory.[117] Pettenkofer conceded bacteria's casual involvement, but maintained that other, environmental factors were
required to turn it pathogenic, and opposed water treatment as a misdirected effort amid more important ways to improve public
health.[117] The massive cholera epidemic inHamburg in 1892 devastasted Pettenkoffer's position, and yielded German public health
to "Koch's bacteriology".[117]

On losing the 1883 rivalry in Alexandria, Pasteur switched research direction, and introduced his third vaccine—rabies vaccine—the
first vaccine for humans since Jenner's for smallpox.[116] From across the globe, donations poured in, funding the founding of
Pasteur Institute, the globe's first biomedical institute, which opened in 1888.[116] Along with Koch's bacteriologists, Pasteur's group
—which preferred the term microbiology—led medicine into the new era of "scientific medicine" upon bacteriology and germ
theory.[116] Accepted from Jakob Henle, Koch's steps to confirm a species' pathogenicity became famed as "Koch's postulates".
Although his proposed tuberculosis treatment, tuberculin, seemingly failed, it soon was used to test for infection with the involved
species. In 1905, Koch was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, and remains renowned as the founder of medical
microbiology.[118]

Women

Women as nurses
Women had always served in ancillary roles, and as midwives and healers. The
professionalization of medicine forced them increasingly to the sidelines. As hospitals
multiplied they relied in Europe on orders of Roman Catholic nun-nurses, and German
Protestant and Anglican deaconesses in the early 19th century
. They were trained in traditional
methods of physical care that involved little knowledge of medicine. The breakthrough to
professionalization based on knowledge of advanced medicine was led by Florence
Nightingale in England. She resolved to provide more advanced training than she saw on the
Continent. At Kaiserswerth, where the first German nursing schools were founded in 1836 by
Theodor Fliedner, she said, "The nursing was nil and the hygiene horrible."[119] ) Britain's
male doctors preferred the old system, but Nightingale won out and her Nightingale Training
School opened in 1860 and became a model. The Nightingale solution depended on the
patronage of upper class women, and they proved eager to serve. Royalty became involved. In Florence Nightingale
1902 the wife of the British king took control of the nursing unit of the British army, became triggered the
its president, and renamed it after herself as the Queen Alexandra's Royal Army Nursing professionalization of
Corps; when she died the next queen became president. Today its Colonel In Chief is Sophie, nursing. Photograph c. 1860
Countess of Wessex, the daughter-in-law of Queen Elizabeth II. In the United States, upper
middle class women who already supported hospitals promoted nursing. The new profession
proved highly attractive to women of all backgrounds, and schools of nursing opened in the late 19th century
. They soon a function of
large hospitals, where they provided a steady stream of low-paid idealistic workers. The International Red Cross began operations in
[120]
numerous countries in the late 19th century,promoting nursing as an ideal profession for middle class women.

The Nightingale model was widely copied. Linda Richards (1841–1930) studied in London and became the first professionally
trained American nurse. She established nursing training programs in the United States and Japan, and created the first system for
keeping individual medical records for hospitalized patients.[121] The Russian Orthodox Church sponsored seven orders of nursing
sisters in the late 19th century. They ran hospitals, clinics, almshouses, pharmacies, and shelters as well as training schools for nurses.
In the Soviet era (1917–1991), with the aristocratic sponsors gone, nursing became a low-prestige occupation based in poorly
maintained hospitals.[122]
Women as physicians
It was very difficult for women to become doctors in any field before the 1970s. Elizabeth Blackwell (1821–1910) became the first
woman to formally study and practice medicine in the United States. She was a leader in women's medical education. While
Blackwell viewed medicine as a means for social and moral reform, her student Mary Putnam Jacobi (1842–1906) focused on curing
disease. At a deeper level of disagreement, Blackwell felt that women would succeed in medicine because of their humane female
values, but Jacobi believed that women should participate as the equals of men in all medical specialties using identical methods,
values and insights.[123] In the Soviet Union although the majority of medical doctors were women, they were paid less than the
mostly male factory workers.[124]

Paris
Paris (France) and Vienna were the two leading medical centers on the Continent in the era 1750–1914.

In the 1770s–1850s Paris became a world center of medical research and teaching. The "Paris School" emphasized that teaching and
research should be based in large hospitals and promoted the professionalization of the medical profession and the emphasis on
sanitation and public health. A major reformer was Jean-Antoine Chaptal (1756–1832), a physician who was Minister of Internal
Affairs. He created the Paris Hospital, health councils, and other bodies.[125]

Louis Pasteur (1822–1895) was one of the most important founders of medical microbiology. He is remembered for his remarkable
breakthroughs in the causes and preventions of diseases. His discoveries reduced mortality from puerperal fever, and he created the
first vaccines for rabies and anthrax. His experiments supported the germ theory of disease. He was best known to the general public
for inventing a method to treat milk and wine in order to prevent it from causing sickness, a process that came to be called
pasteurization. He is regarded as one of the three main founders ofmicrobiology, together with Ferdinand Cohn and Robert Koch. He
worked chiefly in Paris and in 1887 founded the Pasteur Institute there to perpetuate his commitment to basic research and its
practical applications. As soon as his institute was created, Pasteur brought together scientists with various specialties. The first five
departments were directed byEmile Duclaux (general microbiology research) and Charles Chamberland (microbe research applied to
hygiene), as well as a biologist, Ilya Ilyich Mechnikov (morphological microbe research) and two physicians, Jacques-Joseph
Grancher (rabies) and Emile Roux (technical microbe research). One year after the inauguration of the Institut Pasteur, Roux set up
the first course of microbiology ever taught in the world, then entitled Cours de Microbie Technique (Course of microbe research
[126][127]
techniques). It became the model for numerous research centers around the world named "Pasteur Institutes."

Vienna
The First Viennese School of Medicine, 1750–1800, was led by the Dutchman Gerard van Swieten (1700–1772), who aimed to put
medicine on new scientific foundations—promoting unprejudiced clinical observation, botanical and chemical research, and
introducing simple but powerful remedies. When the Vienna General Hospital opened in 1784, it at once became the world's largest
hospital and physicians acquired a facility that gradually developed into the most important research centre.[128] Progress ended with
the Napoleonic wars and the government shutdown in 1819 of all liberal journals and schools; this caused a general return to
traditionalism and eclecticism in medicine.[129]

Vienna was the capital of a diverse empire and attracted not just Germans but Czechs, Hungarians, Jews, Poles and others to its
world-class medical facilities. After 1820 the Second Viennese School of Medicine emerged with the contributions of physicians
such as Carl Freiherr von Rokitansky, Josef Škoda, Ferdinand Ritter von Hebra, and Ignaz Philipp Semmelweis. Basic medical
science expanded and specialization advanced. Furthermore, the first dermatology, eye, as well as ear, nose, and throat clinics in the
world were founded in Vienna. The textbook of ophthalmologist Georg Joseph Beer (1763–1821) Lehre von den Augenkrankheiten
[130]
combined practical research and philosophical speculations, and became the standard reference work for decades.

Berlin
After 1871 Berlin, the capital of the new German Empire, became a leading center for medical research. Robert Koch (1843–1910)
was a representative leader. He became famous for isolating Bacillus anthracis (1877), the Tuberculosis bacillus (1882) and Vibrio
cholerae (1883) and for his development of Koch's postulates. He was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1905
for his tuberculosis findings. Koch is one of the founders of microbiology, inspiring such major figures as Paul Ehrlich and Gerhard
Domagk.[127]

U.S. Civil War

In the American Civil War (1861–65), as was typical of the 19th century, more
soldiers died of disease than in battle, and even larger numbers were temporarily
incapacitated by wounds, disease and accidents.[131] Conditions were poor in the
Confederacy, where doctors and medical supplies were in short supply.[132] The war
had a dramatic long-term impact on medicine in the U.S., from surgical technique to
hospitals to nursing and to research facilities. Weapon development -particularly the
appearance of Springfield Model 1861, mass-produced and much more accurate than
muskets led to generals underestimating the risks of long range rifle fire; risks
exemplified in the death of John Sedgwick and the disastrous Pickett's Charge. The
American Civil War hospital at
rifles could shatter bone forcing amputation and longer ranges meant casualties were Gettysburg, 1863
sometimes not quickly found. Evacuation of the wounded from Second Battle of
Bull Run took a week.[133] As in earlier wars, untreated casualties sometimes
survived unexpectedly due to maggots debriding the wound -an observation which led to the surgical use of maggots -still a useful
method in the absence of effective antibiotics.

The hygiene of the training and field camps was poor, especially at the beginning of the war when men who had seldom been far
from home were brought together for training with thousands of strangers. First came epidemics of the childhood diseases of chicken
pox, mumps, whooping cough, and, especially, measles. Operations in the South meant a dangerous and new disease environment,
bringing diarrhea, dysentery, typhoid fever, and malaria. There were no antibiotics, so the surgeons prescribed coffee, whiskey, and
quinine. Harsh weather, bad water, inadequate shelter in winter quarters, poor policing of camps, and dirty camp hospitals took their
toll.[134]

This was a common scenario in wars from time immemorial, and conditions faced by the Confederate army were even worse. The
Union responded by building army hospitals in every state. What was different in the Union was the emergence of skilled, well-
funded medical organizers who took proactive action, especially in the much enlarged United States Army Medical Department,[135]
and the United States Sanitary Commission, a new private agency.[136] Numerous other new agencies also targeted the medical and
morale needs of soldiers, including theUnited States Christian Commissionas well as smaller private agencies.[137]

The U.S. Army learned many lessons and in August 1886, it established the Hospital Corps.

Statistical methods
A major breakthrough in epidemiology came with the introduction of statistical
maps and graphs. They allowed careful analysis of seasonality issues in disease
incidents, and the maps allowed public health officials to identify critical loci for the
dissemination of disease. John Snow in London developed the methods. In 1849, he
observed that the symptoms of cholera, which had already claimed around 500 lives
within a month, were vomiting and diarrhoea. He concluded that the source of
contamination must be through ingestion, rather than inhalation as was previously
thought. It was this insight that resulted in the removal of The Pump On Broad "Diagram of the causes of mortality in
Street, after which deaths from cholera plummeted afterwards. English nurse the army in the East" by Florence
Florence Nightingale pioneered analysis of large amounts of statistical data, using Nightingale.
graphs and tables, regarding the condition of thousands of patients in the Crimean War to evaluate the efficacy of hospital services.
Her methods proved convincing and led to reforms in military and civilian hospitals, usually with the full support of the
government.[138][139][140]

By the late 19th and early 20th century English statisticians led by Francis Galton, Karl Pearson and Ronald Fisher developed the
mathematical tools such as correlations and hypothesis tests that made possible much more sophisticated analysis of statistical
data.[141]

During the U.S. Civil War the Sanitary Commission collected enormous amounts of statistical data, and opened up the problems of
storing information for fast access and mechanically searching for data patterns.
The pioneer was John Shaw Billings (1838–1913). A
senior surgeon in the war, Billings built the Library of the Surgeon General's Office (now the National Library of Medicine), the
[142] Billings figured out how to mechanically analyze medical and demographic
centerpiece of modern medical information systems.
data by turning facts into numbers and punching the numbers onto cardboard cards that could be sorted and counted by machine. The
applications were developed by his assistant Herman Hollerith; Hollerith invented the punch card and counter-sorter system that
dominated statistical data manipulation until the 1970s. Hollerith's company became International Business Machines (IBM) in
1911.[143]

Worldwide dissemination

United States
Johns Hopkins Hospital, founded in 1889, originated several modern medical practices, includingresidency and rounds.

Japan
European ideas of modern medicine were spread widely through the world by medical missionaries, and the dissemination of
textbooks. Japanese elites enthusiastically embraced Western medicine after the Meiji Restoration of the 1860s. However they had
been prepared by their knowledge of the Dutch and German medicine, for they had some contact with Europe through the Dutch.
Highly influential was the 1765 edition of Hendrik van Deventer's pioneer work Nieuw Ligt ("A New Light") on Japanese obstetrics,
especially on Katakura Kakuryo's publication in 1799 of Sanka Hatsumo ("Enlightenment of Obstetrics").[144][145] A cadre of
Japanese physicians began to interact with Dutch doctors, who introduced smallpox vaccinations. By 1820 Japanese ranpô medical
practitioners not only translated Dutch medical texts, they integrated their readings with clinical diagnoses. These men became
leaders of the modernization of medicine in their country. They broke from Japanese traditions of closed medical fraternities and
[146]
adopted the European approach of an open community of collaboration based on expertise in the latest scientific methods.

Kitasato Shibasaburō (1853–1931) studied bacteriology in Germany under Robert Koch. In 1891 he founded the Institute of
Infectious Diseases in Tokyo, which introduced the study of bacteriology to Japan. He and French researcher Alexandre Yersin went
to Hong Kong in 1894, where; Kitasato confirmed Yersin's discovery that the bacterium Yersinia pestis is the agent of the plague. In
1897 he isolates and described the organism that caused dysentery. He became the first dean of medicine at Keio University, and the
first president of the Japan Medical Association.[147][148]

Japanese physicians immediately recognized the values of X-Rays. They were able to purchase the equipment locally from the
Shimadzu Company, which developed, manufactured, marketed, and distributed X-Ray machines after 1900.[149] Japan not only
adopted German methods of public health in the home islands, but implemented them in its colonies, especially Korea and Taiwan,
and after 1931 in Manchuria.[150] A heavy investment in sanitation resulted in a dramatic increase of life expectancy
.[151]

Psychiatry
Until the nineteenth century, the care of the insane was largely a communal and family responsibility rather than a medical one. The
vast majority of the mentally ill were treated in domestic contexts with only the most unmanageable or burdensome likely to be
institutionally confined.[152] This situation was transformed radically from the late eighteenth century as, amid changing cultural
conceptions of madness, a new-found optimism in the curability of insanity within
the asylum setting emerged.[153] Increasingly, lunacy was perceived less as a
physiological condition than as a mental and moral one[154] to which the correct
response was persuasion, aimed at inculcating internal restraint, rather than external
coercion.[155] This new therapeutic sensibility, referred to as moral treatment, was
epitomised in French physician Philippe Pinel's quasi-mythological unchaining of
the lunatics of the Bicêtre Hospital in Paris[156] and realised in an institutional
-run York Retreat in England.[23]
setting with the foundation in 1796 of the Quaker
The Quaker-run York Retreat,
From the early nineteenth century, as lay-led founded in 1796, gained international
lunacy reform movements gained in prominence as a centre for moral
influence,[157] ever more state governments treatment and a model of asylum
reform following the publication of
in the West extended their authority and
Samuel Tuke's Description of the
responsibility over the mentally ill.[158] Retreat (1813).
Small-scale asylums, conceived as
instruments to reshape both the mind and
behaviour of the disturbed,[159] proliferated across these regions.[160] By the 1830s, moral
treatment, together with the asylum itself, became increasingly medicalised[161] and asylum
doctors began to establish a distinct medical identity with the establishment in the 1840s of
associations for their members in France, Germany, the United Kingdom and America,
together with the founding of medico-psychological journals.[23] Medical optimism in the
Patient, Surrey County
capacity of the asylum to cure insanity soured by the close of the nineteenth century as the
Lunatic Asylum, c. 1850–58.
growth of the asylum population far outstripped that of the general population.[a][162]
The asylum population in
England and Wales rose Processes of long-term institutional segregation, allowing for the psychiatric conceptualisation
from 1,027 in 1827 to of the natural course of mental illness, supported the perspective that the insane were a distinct
74,004 in 1900. population, subject to mental pathologies stemming from specific medical causes.[159] As
,[163] heredity was seen
degeneration theory grew in influence from the mid-nineteenth century
as the central causal element in chronic mental illness,[164] and, with national asylum systems
overcrowded and insanity apparently undergoing an inexorable rise, the focus of psychiatric therapeutics shifted from a concern with
[165]
treating the individual to maintaining the racial and biological health of national populations.

Emil Kraepelin (1856–1926) introduced new medical categories of mental illness, which eventually came into psychiatric usage
despite their basis in behavior rather than pathology or underlying cause. Shell shock among frontline soldiers exposed to heavy
artillery bombardment was first diagnosed by British Army doctors in 1915. By 1916, similar symptoms were also noted in soldiers
not exposed to explosive shocks, leading to questions as to whether the disorder was physical or psychiatric.[166] In the 1920s
surrealist opposition to psychiatry was expressed in a number of surrealist publications. In the 1930s several controversial medical
practices were introduced including inducing seizures (by electroshock, insulin or other drugs) or cutting parts of the brain apart
(leucotomy or lobotomy). Both came into widespread use by psychiatry, but there were grave concerns and much opposition on
grounds of basic morality, harmful effects, or misuse.[167]

In the 1950s new psychiatric drugs, notably the antipsychotic chlorpromazine, were designed in laboratories and slowly came into
preferred use. Although often accepted as an advance in some ways, there was some opposition, due to serious adverse effects such
as tardive dyskinesia. Patients often opposed psychiatry and refused or stopped taking the drugs when not subject to psychiatric
control. There was also increasing opposition to the use of psychiatric hospitals, and attempts to move people back into the
community on a collaborative user-led group approach ("therapeutic communities") not controlled by psychiatry. Campaigns against
masturbation were done in the Victorian era and elsewhere. Lobotomy was used until the 1970s to treat schizophrenia. This was
denounced by the anti-psychiatric movement in the 1960s and later.

20th century and beyond

Twentieth-century warfare and medicine
The ABO blood group systemwas discovered in 1901, and theRhesus blood group systemin 1937, facilitating blood transfusion.

During the 20th century, large-scale wars were attended with medics and mobile hospital units which developed advanced techniques
for healing massive injuries and controlling infections rampant in battlefield conditions. During the Mexican Revolution (1910–
1920), General Pancho Villa organized hospital trains for wounded soldiers. Boxcars marked Servicio Sanitario ("sanitary service")
were re-purposed as surgical operating theaters and areas for recuperation, and staffed by up to 40 Mexican and U.S. physicians.
Severely wounded soldiers were shuttled back to base hospitals.[168] Canadian physician Norman Bethune, M.D. developed a mobile
blood-transfusion service for frontline operations in the Spanish Civil War (1936–1939), but ironically, he himself died of blood
poisoning.[169] Thousands of scarred troops provided the need for improved prosthetic limbs and expanded techniques in plastic
surgery or reconstructive surgery. Those practices were combined to broadencosmetic surgery and other forms of elective surgery.

During the First World War, Alexis Carrel and Henry Dakin developed the Carrel-Dakin method of treating wounds with an
irrigation, Dakin's solution, agermicide which helped preventgangrene.[170]

The Great War spurred the usage of Roentgen's X-ray, and the electrocardiograph, for the monitoring of internal bodily functions.
This was followed in the inter-war period by the development of the first anti-bacterial agents such as thesulpha antibiotics.

Public health
Public health measures became particular important during the 1918 flu pandemic, which killed at least 50 million people around the
world.[171] It became an important case study in epidemiology.[172] Bristow shows there was a gendered response of health
caregivers to the pandemic in the United States. Male doctors were unable to cure the patients, and they felt like failures. Women
nurses also saw their patients die, but they took pride in their success in fulfilling their professional role of caring for, ministering,
[173]
comforting, and easing the last hours of their patients, and helping the families of the patients cope as well.

From 1917 to 1923, the American Red Cross moved into Europe with a battery of long-term child health projects. It built and
operated hospitals and clinics, and organized antituberculosis and antityphus campaigns. A high priority involved child health
programs such as clinics, better baby shows, playgrounds, fresh air camps, and courses for women on infant hygiene. Hundreds of
U.S. doctors, nurses, and welfare professionals administered these programs, which aimed to reform the health of European youth
[174]
and to reshape European public health and welfare along American lines.

Second World War

The advances in medicine made a dramatic difference for Allied troops, while the
Germans and especially the Japanese and Chinese suffered from a severe lack of
newer medicines, techniques and facilities. Harrison finds that the chances of
recovery for a badly wounded British infantryman were as much as 25 times better
than in the First World War. The reason was that:

"By 1944 most casualties were receiving treatment

within hours of wounding, due to the increased mobility
of field hospitals and the extensive use of aeroplanes as
ambulances. The care of the sick and wounded had also
been revolutionized by new medical technologies, such American combat surgery during the
as active immunization against tetanus, sulphonamide Pacific War, 1943. Major wars
drugs, and penicillin."[175] showed the need for effective
hygiene and medical treatment.

Nazi and Japanese medical research

Unethical human subject research, and killing of patients with disabilities, peaked during the Nazi era, with Nazi human
experimentation and Aktion T4 during the Holocaust as the most significant examples. Many of the details of these and related events
were the focus of the Doctors' Trial. Subsequently, principles of medical ethics, such as the Nuremberg Code, were introduced to
prevent a recurrence of such atrocities.[176] After 1937, the Japanese Army established programs of biological warfare in China. In
Unit 731, Japanese doctors and research scientists conducted large numbers of vivisections and experiments on human beings, mostly
Chinese victims.[177]

Malaria
Starting in World War II, DDT was used as insecticide to combatinsect vectors carrying malaria, which was endemic in most tropical
regions of the world.[178] The first goal was to protect soldiers, but it was widely adopted as a public health device. In Liberia, for
example, the United States had large military operations during the war and the U.S. Public Health Service began the use of DDT for
indoor residual spraying (IRS) and as a larvicide, with the goal of controlling malaria in Monrovia, the Liberian capital. In the early
1950s, the project was expanded to nearby villages. In 1953, theWorld Health Organization (WHO) launched an antimalaria program
in parts of Liberia as a pilot project to determine the feasibility of malaria eradication in tropical Africa. However these projects
encountered a spate of difficulties that foreshadowed the general retreat from malaria eradication efforts across tropical Africa by the
mid-1960s.[179]

Post-World War II
The World Health Organization was founded in 1948 as a United Nations agency to improve
global health. In most of the world,life expectancy has improved since then, and was about 67
years as of 2010, and well above 80 years in some countries. Eradication of infectious
diseases is an international effort, and several new vaccines have been developed during the
post-war years, against infections such as measles, mumps, several strains of influenza and
human papilloma virus. The long-known vaccine against Smallpox finally eradicated the
disease in the 1970s, and Rinderpest was wiped out in 2011. Eradication of polio is underway.
Tissue culture is important for development of vaccines. Though the early success of antiviral
vaccines and antibacterial drugs, antiviral drugs were not introduced until the 1970s. Through
the WHO, the international community has developed a response protocol against epidemics,
displayed during the SARS epidemic in 2003, theInfluenza A virus subtype H5N1from 2004,
the Ebola virus epidemic in West Africa and onwards. Smallpox vaccination in
Niger, 1969. A decade later,
As infectious diseases have become less lethal, and the most common causes of death in this was the first infectious
developed countries are now tumors and cardiovascular diseases, these conditions have disease to be eradicated.
received increased attention in medical research. Tobacco smoking as a cause of lung cancer
was first researched in the 1920s,
but was not widely supported by
publications until the 1950s.Cancer
treatment has been developed with
radiotherapy, chemotherapy and
surgical oncology.

Oral rehydration therapy has been

A cochlear implant is a common kind
of neural prosthesis, a device
replacing part of the human nervous
system.
extensively used since the 1970s to
treat cholera and other diarrhea-
inducing infections.
The sexual revolution included
taboo-breaking research in human
Most countries have seen a
tremendous increase in life
expectancy since 1945. However, in
southern Africa, the HIV epidemic
beginning around 1990 has eroded
national health.

sexuality such as the 1948 and 1953 Kinsey reports, invention of hormonal
contraception, and the normalization ofabortion and homosexuality in many countries. Family planning has promoted a demographic
transition in most of the world. With threatening sexually transmitted infections, not least HIV, use of barrier contraception has
become imperative. The struggle against HIV has improvedantiretroviral treatments.

X-ray imaging was the first kind of medical imaging, and later ultrasonic imaging, CT scanning, MR scanning and other imaging
methods became available.

Genetics have advanced with the discovery of the DNA molecule, genetic mapping and gene therapy. Stem cell research took off in
the 2000s (decade), withstem cell therapy as a promising method.

Evidence-based medicineis a modern concept, not introduced to literature until the 1990s.

Prosthetics have improved. In 1958, Arne Larsson in Sweden became the first patient to depend on an artificial cardiac pacemaker.
He died in 2001 at age 86, having outlived its inventor, the surgeon, and 26 pacemakers. Lightweight materials as well as neural
prosthetics emerged in the end of the 20th century.

Modern surgery
Cardiac surgery was revolutionized in 1948 as open-heart surgery was introduced for the first time since 1925.

In 1954 Joseph Murray, J. Hartwell Harrison and others accomplished the first kidney transplantation. Transplantations of other
organs, such as heart, liver and pancreas, were also introduced during the later 20th century. The first partial face transplant was
performed in 2005, and the first full one in 2010. By the end of the 20th century, microtechnology had been used to create tiny
robotic devices to assist microsurgery using micro-video and fiber-optic cameras to view internal tissues during surgery with
minimally invasive practices.[180]

Laparoscopic surgery was broadly introduced in the 1990s. Natural orifice surgery has followed. Remote surgery is another recent
development, with theLindbergh operation in 2001 as a groundbreaking example.

See also
Health care in the United States
History of herbalism
History of hospitals
History of medicine in Canada
History of medicine in the United States
History of nursing
History of pathology
History of pharmacy
History of surgery
Thomas Clifford Allbutt[181]
Timeline of nursing history
Timeline of medicine and medical technology
History of health care (disambiguation)

Explanatory notes
a. England and Wales had nine county and borough asylums in 1827 with an average capacity of a little over 100
patients, but by 1890 there were 66 such asylums containing on average 800 patients each; [182] the total number of

patients so confined increased from 1,027 in 1827 to 74,004 in 1900.[183] Similarly, in Germany, between 1852 and

1898 the asylum population increased seven-fold from 11,622 to 74,087 patients during a period when the total
population had only grown by ten per cent.[158] In America the asylum population had risen to almost 250,000 on the
eve of the First World War.[184]
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om/books?id=xiaa2hMYRokC). Yale University Press. p. 281.ISBN 978-0300107548.
183. Jones, Kathleen (1993).Asylums and after: a revised history of the mental health services: from the early 18th
century to the 1990s (https://books.google.com/?id=ej8QAQAAMAAJ&q=1%2C046#search_anchor) . Athlone Press.
p. 116. ISBN 978-0485120912.
184. Wright, D. (1997). "Getting Out of the Asylum: Understanding the Confinement of the Insane in the Nineteenth
Century". Social History of Medicine. 10 (1): 137–55. doi:10.1093/shm/10.1.137 (https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fshm%2
F10.1.137). PMID 11619188 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11619188).

Further reading
Bowers, Barbara S. ed.The Medieval Hospital and Medical Practice(Ashgate, 2007); 258 pp; essays by scholars
Breslaw, Elaine G. (2014). Lotions, Potions, Pills, and Magic: Health Care in Early America. ISBN 978-1479807048.
Brockliss, Laurence and Colin Jones.The Medical World of Early Modern France(1997). 984 pp; detailed survey,
1600–1790s excerpt and text search
Burnham, John C. Health Care in America: A History(2015), Comprehensive scholarly history
Bynum, W.F. and Roy Porter, eds. Companion Encyclopedia of the History of Medicine(2 vol. 1997); 1840 pp; 36
essays by scholars excerpt and text search
Bynum, W.F. et al. The Western Medical Tradition: 1800–2000 (2006) 610 pp; 4 essaysexcerpt and text search
Conrad, Lawrence I. et al.The Western Medical Tradition: 800 BC to AD 1800(1995); excerpt and text search
Cooter, Roger; Pickstone, John V., eds. (2003). Companion to Medicine in the 20th Century. Taylor & Francis.
756pp. ISBN 978-0415286039.
Donahue, M. Patricia. Nursing, The Finest Art: An Illustrated History(3r ed. 2010) excerpt and text search
Horstmanshoff, H.F.J.; Tilburg, CR Van; Stol, M (2004). Magic and Rationality in Ancient Near Eastern and Graeco-
Roman Medicine. Leiden: Brill. ISBN 978-9004136663.
Jackson, Mark, ed. (2011).The Oxford Handbook of the History of Medicine . Oxford University Press. 672pp.
ISBN 978-0199546497.
Loudon, Irvine, ed. Western Medicine: An Illustrated History(1997) online
Majno, Guido (1991). The Healing Hand: Man and Wound in the Ancient World . ISBN 978-0674383319.
McGrew, Roderick. Encyclopedia of Medical History(1985)
Porter, Roy (1997). The Greatest Benefit to Mankind: A Medical History of Humanity from Antiquity to the Present
.
Harper Collins. ISBN 978-0393319804.
Nutton, Vivian. Ancient Medicine (2004) 489 pp. online
Porter, Roy, ed. The Cambridge Illustrated History of Medicine(2001) excerpt and text search
 Porter, Roy, ed. The Cambridge History of Medicine(2006); 416 pp; excerpt and text searchsame text without
the illustrations
Porter, Roy. Blood and Guts: A Short History of Medicine(2004) 224 pp; excerpt and text search
Rosenberg, Charles Ernest, ed. (1992).Framing Disease: Studies in Cultural History. Rutgers University Press.
326pp. ISBN 978-0813517575.
Rousseau Rousseau, George S., ed. (2003).Framing and Imagining Disease in Cultural History . Basingstoke:
Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-1403912923. With Miranda Gill, David Haycock andMalte Herwig.
Singer, Charles, and E. Ashworth Underwood.A Short History of Medicine(2nd ed. 1962)
Siraisi, Nancy G (2012). "Medicine, 1450–1620, and the History of Science".
Isis. 103 (3): 491–514.
doi:10.1086/667970. PMID 23286188.
Siraisi, Nancy G. Medieval and Early Renaissance Medicine: An Introduction to Knowledge and Practice (1990)
excerpt and text search
Watts, Sheldon. Disease and Medicine in World History(2003), 166 pp. online
Wear, Andrew, ed. (1992). Medicine in Society: Historical Essays. Cambridge University Press. 397pp.ISBN 978-
0521336390.
Weatherall, Miles. In Search of a Cure: A History of Pharmaceutical Discovery(1990), emphasis on antibiotics.

Physicians
Bonner, Thomas Neville. Becoming a Physician: Medical Education in Britain, France, Germany, and the United
States, 1750–1945 (Johns Hopkins U.P. 2000) excerpt and text search
Bonner, Thomas Neville. To the Ends of the Earth: Women's Search for Education in Medicine(Harvard U.P., 1992)
More, Ellen S. Restoring the Balance: Women Physicians and the Profession of Medicine, 1850–1995 (Harvard U.P.
1999), focus on U.S. online

Britain
Berridge, Virginia. "Health and Medicine" in FM.L. Thompson, ed., The Cambridge Social History of Britain, 1750–
1950, vol. 3, Social Agencies and Institutions,(1990). pp. 171–242.
Borsay A. (ed.) Medicine in Wales c. 1800–2000: Public Service or Private Commodity?(University of Wales Press,
2003).
Cherry, Stephen. Medical Services and the Hospital in Britain, 1860–1939(1996) excerpt and text search
Dingwall, Helen M. A history of Scottish medicine: themes and influences(Edinburgh UP, 2003).
Howe G. M. People, Environment, Death and Disease: A Medical Geography of Britain Through the Ages (U of
Wales Press, 1997).
Kirby, Peter. Child Workers and Industrial Health in Britain, 1780–1850(2013).
Miller, Ian. A Modern History of the Stomach: Gastric Illness, Medicine and British Society
, 1800–1950 (Routledge,
2015).
Nagy D. Popular Medicine in Seventeenth-Century England(Bowling Green State UP, 1988).
Porter, Roy. Bodies politic: disease, death, and doctors in Britain, 1650–1900(Cornell UP, 2001). online review
Porter, Roy, and Dorothy Porter. In Sickness and in Health: The British Experience, 1650–1850(1988).
Porter, Roy. Mind forg'd manacles: madness and psychiatry in England from restoration to regency (1987).
Riley, James C. Sick not dead: the health of British workingmen during the mortality decline (Johns Hopkins UP,
1997).
Wall, Rosemary. Bacteria in Britain, 1880–1939(Routledge, 2015). excerpt
Withey, Alun. "Unhealthy Neglect? The Medicine and Medical Historiography of Early Modern W ales." Social history
of medicine 21.1 (2008): 163–74. online
Withey, Alun. "Health, Medicine and the Family in Wales, c. 1600–1750." (2009).online
Wohl, Anthony S. Endangered Lives: Public Health in Victorian Britain (1983).

Historiography
Andrews, Jonathan (2011)."History of Medicine: Health, Medicine and Disease in the Eighteenth Century" . Journal
for Eighteenth-Century Studies. 34 (4): 503–15. doi:10.1111/j.1754-0208.2011.00448.x. PMC 4113931.
PMID 25083003.
Birn Anne-Emanuelle; Necochea López Raúl (2011). "Footprints on the Future: Looking Forward to the History of
Health and Medicine in Latin America in the Twenty-First Century". Hispanic American Historical Review. 91 (3):
 503–27. doi:10.1215/00182168-1300164.
Brieger, Gert H. "History of Medicine," in Paul T. Durbin, ed. A Guide to the Culture of Science, Technology, and
Medicine (1980) pp. 121–94
Burnham, John C. What Is Medical History?(2005) 163 pp. excerpt
Chaplin Simon (2016)."Why Creating a Digital Library for the History of Medicine is Harder than ou'd Y Think!".
Medical History. 60 (1): 126–129. doi:10.1017/mdh.2015.83. PMC 4847390. PMID 26651203.
Cooter, R. (2007). "After Death/After-'Life': The Social History of Medicine in Post-Postmodernity".Social History of
Medicine. 20 (3): 441–64. doi:10.1093/shm/hkm074.
Digby, Anne (2008). "The Medical History of South Africa: An Overview".History Compass. 6 (5): 1194–1210.
doi:10.1111/j.1478-0542.2008.00544.x.
Gorsky, Martin (2008). "The British National Health Service 1948–2008: A Review of the Historiography".Social
History of Medicine. 21 (3): 437–60. doi:10.1093/shm/hkn064.
Green, Monica H. "Gendering the History of W omen's Healthcare," Gender & History (2008) 20#3 pp. 487–518.
online
Harrison, Mark (1996). "The Medicalization of W ar – The Militarization of Medicine".Social History of Medicine. 9 (2):
267–76. doi:10.1093/shm/9.2.267. PMID 11613451.
Huisman, Frank, and John Harley Warner, eds. Locating Medical History: The Stories and Their Meanings(2006)
excerpt and text search530 pp. 21 various essays by scholars
Lewenson, Sandra B. and Eleanor Krohn Herrmann, eds.Capturing Nursing History: A Guide to Historical Methods
in Research (2008) 236 pp.
Lo, Vivienne (2009). "But is it [History of] Medicine?Twenty Years in the History of the Healing Arts of China" . Social
History of Medicine. 22 (2): 283–303. doi:10.1093/shm/hkp004. PMC 3304084.
Mossensohn, Miri Shefer (2008). "A T ale of Two Discourses: The Historiography of Ottoman–Muslim Medicine".
Social History of Medicine. 21 (1): 1–12. doi:10.1093/shm/hkn002.
Sturdy, Steve (2011). "Looking for Trouble: Medical Science and Clinical Practice in the Historiography of Modern
Medicine". Social History of Medicine. 24 (3): 739–57. doi:10.1093/shm/hkq106.
Sweet Helen (2007). "Establishing Connections, Restoring Relationships: Exploring the Historiography of Nursing in
Britain". Gender & History. 19 (3): 565–80. doi:10.1111/j.1468-0424.2007.00490.x.

Primary sources
Elmer, Peter, and Ole Peter Grell, eds.Health, Disease and Society in Europe, 1500–1800: A Sourcebook(, 2004)
excerpt and text search
Unschuld, Paul U. Huang Di Nei Jing Su Wen: Nature, Knowledge, Imagery in an Ancient Chinese Medical T ext.
(2003). online
Wallis, Faith. ed. Medieval Medicine: A Reader(2010) excerpt and text search
Warner, John Harley, and Janet A. Tighe, eds. Major Problems in the History of American Medicine and Public
Health (2006), 560 pp; readings in primary and secondary sourcesexcerpt and text search

External links
Texts on Wikisource:

Merrigan, Thomas Davis (1907). A " natomy". Catholic Encyclopedia. 1.

Parsons, Frederick Gymer (1911). A " natomy". Encyclopædia Britannica. 1 (11th ed.). pp. 920–43.
Payne Joseph, Frank;Allbutt, Thomas Clifford (1911). "Medicine". Encyclopædia Britannica. 18 (11th ed.).
pp. 41–64. – WARNING: this copy still contains many OCR errors
Senfelder, Leopold (1911). "History of Medicine". Catholic Encyclopedia. 10.
Schechter, Solomon; et al. (1904). "Medicine". Jewish Encyclopedia. 8. pp. 409–22.
Medical History open access scholarly journal; quarterly since 1957
American Association for the History of Medicine ,
Science Museum's History of Medicine Website
History of Medicine, United States National Library of Medicine
Directory of History of Medicine Collections
The history of medicine and surgery as portrayed by various artists
Info Britain – History of medicine in the UK
Wellcome Library History of Medicine
Digital Clendening Library at the University of Kansas Medical Center
 "MacKinney Collection of Medieval Medical Illustrations"
The Center for the History of Medicine, Countway Library
, Harvard Medical School (includes the Warren Anatomical
Museum)
Medical Heritage Librarydigital curation collaborative
Centre for History in Public Health, London School of Hygiene and ropical
T Medicine
Anatomia 1522–1867: Anatomical Plates from the Thomas Fisher Rare Book Library

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