Communication

This article is about communication between man languages use patterns of sound or gesture for sym-
living things. For technological aspects, see bols which enable communication with others around
telecommunications. For other uses, see Communication them. Languages tend to share certain properties, al-
(disambiguation). though there are exceptions. There is no defined line be-
“Communicate” redirects here. For other uses, see tween a language and a dialect. Constructed languages
Communicate (disambiguation). such as Esperanto, programming languages, and various
mathematical formalisms are not necessarily restricted to
Communication (from Latin commūnicāre, meaning “to the properties shared by human languages. The commu-
share”[1] ) is the activity of conveying meaning through a nication is two way process instead of one way.
shared system of signs and semiotic rules.
Communication in biology often occurs through visual, 3 Written communication and its
auditory, or biochemical means. Human communication
is unique for its extensive use of language. Non-human historical development
communication is studied in the field of biosemiotics.
Over time the forms of and ideas about communication
have evolved through the continuing progression of tech-
1 Nonverbal communication nology. Advances include communications psychology
and media psychology, an emerging field of study.
Main article: Nonverbal communication The progression of written communication can be divided
into three “information communication revolutions":[3]
Nonverbal communication describes the process of con-
veying meaning in the form of non-word messages. Ex- 1. Written communication first emerged through the
amples of nonverbal communication include haptic com- use of pictographs. The pictograms were made in
munication, chronemic communication, gestures, body stone, hence written communication was not yet mo-
language, facial expression, eye contact, and how one bile.
dresses. Speech also contains nonverbal elements known 2. The next step occurred when writing began to ap-
as paralanguage, e.g. rhythm, intonation, tempo, and pear on paper, papyrus, clay, wax, etc. with com-
stress. Research has shown that up to 55% of human mon alphabets. Communication became mobile.
communication may occur through non verbal facial ex-
pressions, and a further 38% through paralanguage.[2] 3. The final stage is characterized by the trans-
Likewise, written texts include nonverbal elements such fer of information through controlled waves of
as handwriting style, spatial arrangement of words and electromagnetic radiation (i.e., radio, microwave,
the use of emoticons to convey emotional expressions in infrared) and other electronic signals.
pictorial form.
Communication is thus a process by which meaning is as-
signed and conveyed in an attempt to create shared under-
2 Verbal communication standing. This process, which requires a vast repertoire
of skills in interpersonal processing, listening, observing,
Effective verbal or spoken communication is dependent speaking, questioning, analyzing, gestures, [4]
and evaluating
on a number of factors and cannot be fully isolated from enables collaboration and cooperation.
other important interpersonal skills such as non-verbal Misunderstandings can be anticipated and solved through
communication, listening skills and clarification. Human formulations, questions and answers, paraphrasing, ex-
language can be defined as a system of symbols (some- amples, and stories of strategic talk. Written commu-
times known as lexemes) and the grammars (rules) by nication can be clarified by planning follow-up talks on
which the symbols are manipulated. The word “lan- critical written communication as part of the every-day
guage” also refers to common properties of languages. way of doing business. A few minutes spent talking in
Language learning normally occurs most intensively dur- the present will save valuable time later by avoiding mis-
ing human childhood. Most of the thousands of hu- understandings in advance. A frequent method for this

1
2 6 BARRIERS TO EFFECTIVE HUMAN COMMUNICATION

purpose is reiterating what one heard in one’s own words tions, language, silence, communication apprehension,
and asking the other person if that really was what was gender differences and political correctness[6]
meant.[5] This also includes a lack of expressing “knowledge-
appropriate” communication, which occurs when a per-
son uses ambiguous or complex legal words, medical jar-
4 Business communication gon, or descriptions of a situation or environment that is
not understood by the recipient.
Main article: Business communication
• Physical barriers. Physical barriers are often due
to the nature of the environment. An example of
Business communications is a term for a wide variety
this is the natural barrier which exists if staff are
of activities including but not limited to: strategic com-
located in different buildings or on different sites.
munications planning, media relations, public relations
Likewise, poor or outdated equipment, particularly
(which can include social media, broadcast and written
the failure of management to introduce new tech-
communications, and more), brand management, reputa-
nology, may also cause problems. Staff shortages
tion management, speech=writing, customer-client rela-
are another factor which frequently causes commu-
tions, and internal/employee communications.
nication difficulties for an organization.
Companies with limited resources may only choose to en-
gage in a few of these activities while larger organizations • System design. System design faults refer to prob-
may employ a full spectrum of communications. Since it lems with the structures or systems in place in an
is difficult to develop such a broad range of skills, com- organization. Examples might include an organiza-
munications professionals often specialize in one or two tional structure which is unclear and therefore makes
of these areas but usually have at least a working knowl- it confusing to know whom to communicate with.
edge of most of them. By far, the most important qual- Other examples could be inefficient or inappropriate
ifications communications professionals can possess are information systems, a lack of supervision or train-
excellent writing ability, good 'people' skills, and the ca- ing, and a lack of clarity in roles and responsibilities
pacity to think critically and strategically. which can lead to staff being uncertain about what
is expected of them.

5 Effective communication • Attitudinal barriers. Attitudinal barriers come

Effective communication occurs when a desired thought
is the result of intentional or unintentional information
sharing, which is interpreted between multiple entities
and acted on in a desired way. This effect also ensures
that messages are not distorted during the communication
process. Effective communication should generate the
desired effect and maintain the effect, with the potential
to increase the effect of the message. Therefore, effec-
tive communication serves the purpose for which it was
planned or designed. Possible purposes might be to elicit
change, generate action, create understanding, inform or
communicate a certain idea or point of view. When the
desired effect is not achieved, factors such as barriers to
communication are explored, with the intention being to
discover how the communication has been ineffective.
6 Barriers to effective human com-
munication
Barriers to effective communication can retard or distort
the message and intention of the message being conveyed
which may result in failure of the communication pro-
cess or an effect that is undesirable. These include fil-
tering, selective perception, information overload, emo-
about as a result of problems with staff in an organi-
zation. These may be brought about, for example, by
such factors as poor management, lack of consulta-
tion with employees, personality conflicts which can
result in people delaying or refusing to communi-
cate, the personal attitudes of individual employees
which may be due to lack of motivation or dissatis-
faction at work, brought about by insufficient train-
ing to enable them to carry out particular tasks, or
simply resistance to change due to entrenched atti-
tudes and ideas.
• Ambiguity of words/phrases. Words sounding the
same but having different meaning can convey a dif-
ferent meaning altogether. Hence the communica-
tor must ensure that the receiver receives the same
meaning. It is better if such words are avoided by
using alternatives whenever possible.
• Individual linguistic ability. The use of jargon,
difficult or inappropriate words in communication
can prevent the recipients from understanding the
message. Poorly explained or misunderstood mes-
sages can also result in confusion. However, re-
search in communication has shown that confusion
can lend legitimacy to research when persuasion
fails.[7][8]
7.2 Plants and fungi
• Physiological barriers. These may result from 7.2 Plants and fungi
individuals’ personal discomfort, caused—for
example—by ill health, poor eyesight or hearing
difficulties.
• Cultural differences. These may result from
the cultural differences of communities around the
world, within an individual country (tribal/regional
differences, dialects etc), between religious groups
and in organisations or at an organisational level -
where companies, teams and units may have differ-
ent expectations, norms and idiolects. Families and
family groups may also experience the effect of cul-
tural barriers to communicaiton within and between
different family members or groups. For example:
words, colours and symbols have different meanings
in different cultures. In most parts of the world,
nodding your head means agreement, shaking your
[9] the genomes they inherited from their parents and revert
head means no, except in some parts of the world.
7 Nonhuman communication
See also: Biocommunication (science), Interspecies
communication and Biosemiotics
Every information exchange between living organisms —
i.e. transmission of signals that involve a living sender
and receiver can be considered a form of communi-
cation; and even primitive creatures such as corals are
competent to communicate. Nonhuman communication
also include cell signaling, cellular communication, and
chemical transmissions between primitive organisms like
bacteria and within the plant and fungal kingdoms.
7.1 Animals
The broad field of animal communication encompasses
most of the issues in ethology. Animal communication
can be defined as any behavior of one animal that af-
fects the current or future behavior of another animal.
The study of animal communication, called zoo semiotics
(distinguishable from anthroposemiotics, the study of hu-
man communication) has played an important part in the
development of ethology, sociobiology, and the study of
animal cognition. Animal communication, and indeed
the understanding of the animal world in general, is a
rapidly growing field, and even in the 21st century so far,
a great share of prior understanding related to diverse
fields such as personal symbolic name use, animal emo-
tions, animal culture and learning, and even sexual con-
duct, long thought to be well understood, has been revo-
lutionized.
3
Communication is observed within the plant organism,
i.e. within plant cells and between plant cells, between
plants of the same or related species, and between plants
and non-plant organisms, especially in the root zone.
Plant roots communicate with rhizome bacteria, fungi,
and insects within the soil. These interactions are gov-
erned by syntactic, pragmatic, and semantic rules, and
are possible because of the decentralized “nervous sys-
tem” of plants. The original meaning of the word “neu-
ron” in Greek is “vegetable fiber” and recent research has
shown that most of the microorganism plant communica-
tion processes are neuron-like.[10] Plants also communi-
cate via volatiles when exposed to herbivory attack behav-
ior, thus warning neighboring plants.[11] In parallel they
produce other volatiles to attract parasites which attack
these herbivores. In stress situations plants can overwrite
to that of their grand- or great-grandparents.
Fungi communicate to coordinate and organize their
growth and development such as the formation of
Marcelia and fruiting bodies. Fungi communicate with
their own and related species as well as with non fungal
organisms in a great variety of symbiotic interactions, es-
pecially with bacteria, unicellular eukaryote, plants and
insects through biochemicals of biotic origin. The bio-
chemicals trigger the fungal organism to react in a spe-
cific manner, while if the same chemical molecules are
not part of biotic messages, they do not trigger the fungal
organism to react. This implies that fungal organisms can
differentiate between molecules taking part in biotic mes-
sages and similar molecules being irrelevant in the situa-
tion. So far five different primary signalling molecules are
known to coordinate different behavioral patterns such as
filamentation, mating, growth, and pathogenicity. Behav-
ioral coordination and production of signaling substances
is achieved through interpretation processes that enables
the organism to differ between self or non-self, a biotic
indicator, biotic message from similar, related, or non-
related species, and even filter out “noise”, i.e. similar
molecules without biotic content.[12]
7.3 Bacteria quorum sensing
Communication is not a tool used only by humans, plants
and animals, but it is also used by microorganisms like
bacteria. The process is called quorum sensing. Through
quorum sensing, bacteria are able to sense the density of
cells, and regulate gene expression accordingly. This can
be seen in both gram positive and gram negative bacte-
ria. This was first observed by Fuqua et al. in marine
microorganisms like V. harveyi and V. fischeri.[13]
4 8 MODELS OF COMMUNICATION
8 Models of communication
Main article: Models of communication
The first major model for communication was intro-
Shannon and Weaver Model of Communication
Communication major dimensions scheme
Interactional Model of Communication
duced by Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver for Bell
Laboratories in 1949[14] The original model was designed
to mirror the functioning of radio and telephone tech-
nologies. Their initial model consisted of three primary
Berlo’s Sender-Message-Channel-Receiver Model of Communi-
cation
Transactional model of communication
Communication code scheme
Linear Communication Model
parts: sender, channel, and receiver. The sender was the
part of a telephone a person spoke into, the channel was
the telephone itself, and the receiver was the part of the
phone where one could hear the other person. Shannon
and Weaver also recognized that often there is static that
interferes with one listening to a telephone conversation,
 5

which they deemed noise. destination / receiver / target / decoder (to whom), and
In a simple model, often referred to as the transmission Receiver. Wilbur Schram (1954) also indicated that we
model or standard view of communication, information should also examine the impact that a message has (both
or content (e.g. a message in natural language) is sent in desired and undesired) on the target of the message.[17]
some form (as spoken language) from an emisor/ sender/ Between parties, communication includes acts that confer
encoder to a destination/ receiver/ decoder. This com- knowledge and experiences, give advice and commands,
mon conception of communication simply views com- and ask questions. These acts may take many forms, in
munication as a means of sending and receiving infor- one of the various manners of communication. The form
depends on the abilities of the group communicating. To-
mation. The strengths of this model are simplicity, gen-
erality, and quantifiability. Claude Shannon and Warren gether, communication content and form make messages
that are sent towards a destination. The target can be one-
Weaver structured this model based on the following el-
ements: self, another person or being, another entity (such as a
corporation or group of beings).
1. An information source, which produces a message. Communication can be seen as processes of information
transmission governed by three levels of semiotic rules:
2. A transmitter, which encodes the message into sig-
nals
1. Pragmatic (concerned with the relations between
3. A channel, to which signals are adapted for trans- signs/expressions and their users)
mission
2. Semantic (study of relationships between signs and
4. A receiver, which 'decodes’ (reconstructs) the mes- symbols and what they represent) and
sage from the signal.
3. Syntactic (formal properties of signs and symbols).
5. A destination, where the message arrives.
Therefore, communication is social interaction where at
Shannon and Weaver argued that there were three levels least two interacting agents share a common set of signs
of problems for communication within this theory. and a common set of semiotic rules. This commonly held
rule in some sense ignores autocommunication, including
The technical problem: how accurately can the intrapersonal communication via diaries or self-talk, both
message be transmitted? secondary phenomena that followed the primary acquisi-
The semantic problem: how precisely is the tion of communicative competences within social inter-
meaning 'conveyed'? actions.
The effectiveness problem: how effectively In light of these weaknesses, Barnlund (2008) proposed
does the received meaning affect behavior? a transactional model of communication.[18] The basic
premise of the transactional model of communication is
Daniel Chandler[15] critiques the transmission model by that individuals are simultaneously engaging in the send-
stating: ing and receiving of messages.
In a slightly more complex form a sender and a receiver
It assumes communicators are isolated individ- are linked reciprocally. This second attitude of commu-
uals. nication, referred to as the constitutive model or construc-
No allowance for differing purposes. tionist view, focuses on how an individual communicates
as the determining factor of the way the message will be
No allowance for differing interpretations. interpreted. Communication is viewed as a conduit; a
No allowance for unequal power relations. passage in which information travels from one individual
No allowance for situational contexts. to another and this information becomes separate from
the communication itself. A particular instance of com-
munication is called a speech act. The sender’s personal
In 1960, David Berlo expanded on Shannon and Weaver’s filters and the receiver’s personal filters may vary depend-
(1949) linear model of communication and created ing upon different regional traditions, cultures, or gen-
the SMCR Model of Communication.[16] The Sender- der; which may alter the intended meaning of message
Message-Channel-Receiver Model of communication contents. In the presence of "communication noise" on
separated the model into clear parts and has been ex- the transmission channel (air, in this case), reception and
panded upon by other scholars. decoding of content may be faulty, and thus the speech
Communication is usually described along a few major act may not achieve the desired effect. One problem
dimensions: Message (what type of things are commu- with this encode-transmit-receive-decode model is that
nicated), source / emisor / sender / encoder (by whom), the processes of encoding and decoding imply that the
form (in which form), channel (through which medium), sender and receiver each possess something that functions
6 12 REFERENCES

as a codebook, and that these two code books are, at the • Cultural noise. Stereotypical assumptions can
very least, similar if not identical. Although something cause misunderstandings, such as unintentionally of-
like code books is implied by the model, they are nowhere fending a non-Christian person by wishing them a
represented in the model, which creates many conceptual “Merry Christmas”.
difficulties.
Theories of coregulation describe communication as a • Psychological noise. Certain attitudes can also
creative and dynamic continuous process, rather than make communication difficult. For instance, great
a discrete exchange of information. Canadian media anger or sadness may cause someone to lose focus on
scholar Harold Innis had the theory that people use dif- the present moment. Disorders such as autism may
ferent types of media to communicate and which one also severely hamper effective communication.[19]
they choose to use will offer different possibilities for the
shape and durability of society (Wark, McKenzie 1997).
His famous example of this is using ancient Egypt and 10 Communication as academic
looking at the ways they built themselves out of media
with very different properties stone and papyrus. Pa- discipline
pyrus is what he called 'Space Binding'. it made possible
the transmission of written orders across space, empires Main article: Communication studies
and enables the waging of distant military campaigns and
colonial administration. The other is stone and 'Time
Binding', through the construction of temples and the
pyramids can sustain their authority generation to gen- 11 See also
eration, through this media they can change and shape
communication in their society (Wark, McKenzie 1997).
• Advice

• Augmentative and alternative communication

9 Noise • Communication rights

In any communication model, noise is interference with • Data communication

the decoding of messages sent over a channel by an en-
• Inter Mirifica
coder. There are many examples of noise:
• Human communication
• Environmental noise. Noise that physically dis-
• Ishin-denshin
rupts communication, such as standing next to loud
speakers at a party, or the noise from a construction • Sign system
site next to a classroom making it difficult to hear
the professor. • Small talk

• SPEAKING
• Physiological-impairment noise. Physical mal-
adies that prevent effective communication, such • Telecommunication
as actual deafness or blindness preventing messages
from being received as they were intended. • Telepathy

• Understanding
• Semantic noise. Different interpretations of the
meanings of certain words. For example, the word
“weed” can be interpreted as an undesirable plant in 12 References
a yard, or as a euphemism for marijuana.
[1] Harper, Douglas. “communication”. Online Etymology
• Syntactical noise. Mistakes in grammar can dis- Dictionary. Retrieved 2013-06-23.
rupt communication, such as abrupt changes in verb
[2] Mehrabian, A. (1972). Nonverbal communication.
tense during a sentence. Transaction Publishers.

• Organizational noise. Poorly structured commu-
nication can prevent the receiver from accurate in-
terpretation. For example, unclear and badly stated
directions can make the receiver even more lost.
[3] Xin Li. “Complexity Theory – the Holy Grail of 21st Cen-
tury”. Lane Dept of CSEE, West Virginia University.
[4] “communication”. The office of superintendent of Public
Instruction. Washington.
 7

[5] Heyman, Richard. Why Didn't You Say That in the First
Place? How to Be Understood at Work.
[6] Robbins, S., Judge, T., Millett, B., & Boyle, M. (2011).
Organisational Behaviour. 6th ed. Pearson, French’s For-
est, NSW p315-317.
[7] What Should Be Included in a Project Plan - Retrieved
December 18th, 2009
[8] J. Scott Armstrong (1980). “Bafflegab Pays” (PDF). Psy-
chology Today: 12.
[9] Nageshwar Rao, Rajendra P.Das, Communication skills,
Himalaya Publishing House, 9789350516669, p.48
[10] Baluska, F.; Marcuso, Stefano; Volkmann, Dieter (2006).
Communication in plants: neuronal aspects of plant life.
Taylor & Francis US. p. 19. ISBN 3-540-28475-3. ...the
emergence of plant neurobiology as the most recent area
of plant sciences.
[11] Ian T. Baldwin, Jack C. Schultz (1983). “Rapid Changes
in Tree Leaf Chemistry Induced by Damage: Evidence
for Communication Between Plants”. Science 221 (4607):
277–279. doi:10.1126/science.221.4607.277.
[12] Witzany, G (ed) (2012). Biocommunication of Fungi.
Springer. ISBN 978-94-007-4263-5
[13] Anand, Sandhya. Quorum Sensing- Communication Plan
For Microbes. Article dated 2010-12-28, retrieved on
2012-04-03.
[14] Shannon, C. E., & Weaver, W. (1949). The mathematical
theory of communication. Urbana, Illinois: University of
Illinois Press
[15] Daniel Chandler, “The Transmission Model of Commu-
nication”, Aber.ac.uk
[16] Berlo, D. K. (1960). The process of communication. New
York, New York: Holt, Rinehart, & Winston.
[17] Schramm, W. (1954). How communication works. In W.
Schramm (Ed.), The process and effects of communication
(pp. 3–26). Urbana, Illinois: University of Illinois Press.
[18] Barnlund, D. C. (2008). A transactional model of com-
munication. In. C. D. Mortensen (Eds.), Communication
theory (2nd ed., pp47-57). New Brunswick, New Jersey:
Transaction.
[19] Roy M. Berko, et al., Communicating. 11th ed. (Boston,
MA: Pearson Education, Inc., 2010) 9-12

13 Further reading
• Innis, Harold. Empire and Communications. Rev.
by Mary Q. Innis; foreword by Marshall McLuhan.
Toronto, Ont.: University of Toronto Press, 1972.
xii, 184 p. N.B.: “Here he [i.e. Innis] develops his
theory that the history of empires is determined to
a large extent by their means of communication.”—
From the back cover of the book’s pbk. ed. ISBN
0-8020-6119-2 pbk
8 14 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

14 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

14.1 Text
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drew Levine, Doidimais Brasil, Hadal, Wereon, Michael Snow, Dhodges, Ruakh, Tobias Bergemann, Alan Liefting, Ancheta Wis, Do-
minick, Giftlite, Christopher Parham, Mintleaf~enwiki, Adasi~enwiki, Kenny sh, Zigger, Adamk, Emuzesto~enwiki, NeoJustin, Ben-
saccount, Borisgloger, Malyctenar, Piman, Steve-o~enwiki, SWAdair, Edcolins, Christopherlin, ALargeElk, Peter Ellis, Chowbok, Gad-
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per7, Porterjoh, Martins.Dzelde, Zarex, Unionhawk, Tensionjt, GHe, Kaune, Noel.Dietrich, ShelfSkewed, Iokseng, Kemrin, Bobnorwal,
Gregbard, Funnyfarmofdoom, Warp9wb, Slazenger, Mike2000~enwiki, Meno25, Gogo Dodo, Flowerpotman, ST47, Chasingsol, Julian
Mendez, Skittleys, Cbaxter1, SymlynX, Tawkerbot4, Doug Weller, AndersFeder, DumbBOT, Bookgrrl, NaLalina, Lee, Kozuch, Xanthar-
ius, Omicronpersei8, Lo2u, Nfslpu, Satori Son, FrancoGG, Letranova, Epbr123, Doct.proloy, Qwyrxian, TonyTheTiger, Greg hill, Hap-
pyInGeneral, Andyjsmith, Marek69, John254, Bobblehead, Maximilian Schönherr, Tellyaddict, BauerPower, Pkapitola, Siggis, Escarbot,
Mentifisto, Porqin, AntiVandalBot, BokicaK, Luna Santin, Seaphoto, CZmarlin, Goodmansasha, Antique Rose, DeepJR, Smartse, Jacqke,
Alexthurleyratcliff, Dylan Lake, PseudoChron, Jenny Wong, Jaredroberts, MikeLynch, JAnDbot, DuncanHill, MER-C, The Transhuman-
ist, JonBernstein, Charanhere, Acroterion, Rose455, Pablothegreat85, Freedomlinux, .snoopy., Hayduke lives, Bongwarrior, VoABot II,
Usereed, JamesBWatson, D1doherty, Autie 808, Swpb, Ling.Nut, Bwhack, I JethroBT, Champvirgomartin, Animum, Cgingold, Ciac-
cona, Hazukisan, Cpl Syx, Spellmaster, Vssun, DerHexer, JaGa, Edward321, Khalid Mahmood, Oicumayberight, 0612, MartinBot, Yrrah,
Management Culture, Rettetast, CommonsDelinker, AlexiusHoratius, Jarhed, EdBever, Mausy5043, Erkan Yilmaz, J.delanoy, Pharaoh
of the Wizards, Trusilver, Petreg, Adavidb, Hanteng, Silverxxx, Wtimrock, MistyMorn, Maurice Carbonaro, Extransit, Amanda Renee,
Cdamama, Athalia~enwiki, Joe fob, Aqwis, Katalaveno, Allanhgilbertson, McSly, Bryantnorland, Lovely seungmi, Brolsma, Babochka18,
Gemena, The Transhumanist (AWB), NewEnglandYankee, Arun0070, Johnabolarin, Jorfer, EyeRmonkey, Cometstyles, Warlordwolf,
Treisijs, Sjwk, Kvdveer, Pdcook, Ja 62, Inwind, S, DASonnenfeld, KGV, Funandtrvl, Black Kite, Deor, VolkovBot, Jeff G., Maxwell-
Bliss, Nburden, Tomer T, Aesopos, Philip Trueman, Tcaruso2, TXiKiBoT, AllanManangan, Yupi666, Anne1024, NPrice, Anonymous
Dissident, Nl74, GcSwRhIc, Qxz, Anna Lincoln, Brainresearch, Corvus cornix, Don4of4, C7796E2C, Butterscotch, Andy Dingley, Lova
Falk, Chuthuy20262, Enviroboy, Xsamanthaxwoodsx, Cnilep, Brianga, Rlanigan, DennisRivers, Raenico, Kalivd, Irishdunn, NHRHS2010,
Anon The Nitpicker, EJF, SieBot, John.n-irl, Danielden, Jauerback, Fantastic fred, Dawn Bard, Viskonsas, RJaguar3, Triwbe, Lucasbfr-
bot, Yintan, Keilana, Hebisddave, Bentogoa, Breawycker, Flyer22, MaynardClark, Oda Mari, JetLover, SPACKlick, Yerpo, Wombat-
cat, Tmorin, Sbowers3, Ayudante, Doctorfluffy, Oxymoron83, OKBot, Nancy, Svick, Reneeholle, Capitalismojo, WikiLaurent, Aalucas,
Asikhi, Denisarona, Sasha Callahan, Linforest, Atif.t2, Loren.wilton, Martarius, ClueBot, Thedosmann, Avenged Eightfold, GorillaWar-
fare, Snigbrook, The Thing That Should Not Be, EoGuy, Jacob F. Roecker, Lawrence Cohen, PrometheusArisen, Gaia Octavia Agrippa,
Tanglewood4, Frogys4me, Bradka, Uncle Milty, Ictlecturer, Arunsingh16, Auntof6, Excirial, Alexbot, Mynameisnotpj, Jusdafax, Desig-
nanddraft, Ameher, Vanisheduser12345, Children.of.the.Kron, Vivio Testarossa, Henninb, Lartoven, ParisianBlade, Arjayay, Hans Adler,
Санта Клаус, S19991002, Aleksd, Humdhan, Unmerklich, Andrewlau1022, Aitias, 7, Ranjithsutari, JDPhD, Versus22, Lambtron, Doriftu,
MelonBot, Meske, SoxBot III, Vanished user uih38riiw4hjlsd, Tanya.Christine, XLinkBot, Pichpich, Gnowor, Jebylicious, Samira19, Old-
ekop, Bmbenson2, JewerlyGirl18, Stickee, Kebell2, Samwise1, Valeva, Jovianeye, Rror, Feinoha, Svgalbertian, XDouglas, Dr sign, Wik-
Head, Mischievousmaddy, PL290, Frood, Alexius08, Noctibus, Vianello, Chinese language is the bubonic plague, Addbot, Jomackiewicz,
Manuel Trujillo Berges, Liefjes, Some jerk on the Internet, Imark 02, Fgnievinski, Blethering Scot, Ronhjones, Fieldday-sunday, Moose-
hadley, Ynaztiw, Fluffernutter, Ccnc, MrOllie, Download, CarsracBot, Facilitation Author, 5 albert square, Tassedethe, Numbo3-bot,
Tide rolls, OlEnglish, Krano, Luckas Blade, Gail, MuZemike, Jarble, ‫זרם‬-‫טבעת‬, Albeiror24, Legobot, Luckas-bot, Postalprimesmock,
Yobot, Senator Palpatine, Fraggle81, TaBOT-zerem, Thescimitar, AmaraBot, Timir Saxa, Eric-Wester, Tempodivalse, SD93981, Rpf 81,
AnomieBOT, Quangbao, Hairhorn, Rubinbot, ThaddeusB, Sonia, Jim1138, IRP, Galoubet, Piano non troppo, AdjustShift, Drdac, King-
pin13, Justme89, NickK, Flewis, Materialscientist, ArdWar, Citation bot, Nifky?, LilHelpa, MauritsBot, Xqbot, Brown tabel, Sketchmoose,
14.2 Images 9

Sionus, Khodeirmas229, JimVC3, Capricorn42, Mankapr, Wingroad2, Meewam, Millahnna, Nasnema, Batesmas214, Venkaat, Ched,
GrandKokla, MiniBill, Anna Frodesiak, Wazofski, Dr Oldekop, Cat1project, Tdjewell, Frosted14, Omnipaedista, Charismatic Verma,
Frankie0607, Brandon5485, Simon321, Saalstin, JasonSWrench, Spiderwriter, Shadowjams, Amitkhullar, Griffinofwales, Altraul, Nywici,
Fingerz, FrescoBot, Mshuda, Voxii, Fortdj33, Rmcnabb91, Sky Attacker, Wgpers, Webknguyen, Hiapale21, Comm&emotion, Rnagar4,
Jamesooders, Cinomancaca, DivineAlpha, Intelligentsium, MacMed, Pinethicket, I dream of horses, Rokaszil, Abductive, Invision2020,
D(r)ead End, MJ94, Hellknowz, JuliaBaxter51, AnandaDaldal, Calint, RedBot, Ania Lian, Ezhuttukari, Madameoctopus, Boolsyet, Fu-
mitol, Crimanats3, Dude1818, PSY7, Ceecee1212, FoxBot, Thrissel, TobeBot, Schmiggidy, Train2104, Antara singhania, Exagon, Fox
Wilson, Dinamik-bot, Vrenator, UNIT A4B1, LilyKitty, Joey1978, Vancouver Outlaw, ArielForeman, Amirsmile, Arsmanimegalai, Para-
lympiakos, Sivakumar.sachin, Reaper Eternal, Diannaa, Dmkolobov, Suffusion of Yellow, Jd Tendril, Tbhotch, Csmithslca, DARTH SIDI-
OUS 2, Obankston, Chy1991, Im-tha-one, Stj6, RjwilmsiBot, Coast123, Ripchip Bot, Slice637636, Regancy42, Noommos, Rlholden, Yash
k bhatt, Knoweco, Skamecrazy123, Idea101, DASHBot, Gloomofdom, Esoglou, EmausBot, John of Reading, Yuhter, WikitanvirBot, Jns-
dfbjisdfbjsfdjnsfd, Spamerman, Racerx11, GoingBatty, ShilpaSV, ShakeeraDMyers, Mylaramkrishna, Teerickson, Forestn101, Solarra,
Encilee, Tommy2010, Sillybillypiggy, Wikipelli, K6ka, Sanghera2685281, AsceticRose, Erpert, Savh, Evanh2008, Prayerfortheworld,
Daonguyen95, Fæ, Josve05a, Traxs7, Érico Júnior Wouters, Lateg, Jeyda007, The Nut, Matthewcgirling, Alpha Quadrant (alt), Cobaltcigs,
Pingu.dbl96, Monterey Bay, Gz33, Ocaasi, Tolly4bolly, RaptureBot, Tridibbhowmik, Thine Antique Pen, L Kensington, Donner60, Funny-
mind, Puffin, Rathen69185, Orange Suede Sofa, Wakebrdkid, Musicguy24, Krbibin, Ortmana, Sven Manguard, DASHBotAV, Ltaylor20,
28bot, Rocketrod1960, Cgt, Xanchester, Gjholt, ClueBot NG, Gowtamrajk, Gareth Griffith-Jones, Jack Greenmaven, Change67, Mel-
bourneStar, This lousy T-shirt, Satellizer, Jenova20, CloveWiki, Jasperspeicher, Rainstarlight, Snotbot, Theboymusic, Cntras, BabyGirl-
Courtney, Braincricket, O.Koslowski, ScottSteiner, Widr, Antiqueight, C63205, Stomasz71, Vibhijain, Ashokrajaballa, North Atlanticist
Usonian, Iopsycho, Magallon17, Helpful Pixie Bot, Irrc irri, Ratman2000, Rablanken, Bachelorcourse, Calabe1992, Tylerbesh, WNYY98,
Anu.gnath, Lowercase sigmabot, Kmalekian, BG19bot, Vectevs, Hz.tiang, Wiki13, MusikAnimal, JasonPLK, Ronkays, Zachzab, Mark Ar-
sten, AdventurousSquirrel, Anittisathiaraj, Pravincumar pek, Jgatti09, Altaïr, Mahen1201, Kammit102, N.manoraj, Balivernes, Dhamal07,
Gobler18, Mohamedadeed, Tanuruya Roy, Sonal6578, Iksar babes, Snow Blizzard, MrBill3, Ahmek001, Marjoleinkl, Awanishbvi, P dig-
gle, Ammarkhan05693, Klilidiplomus, Rapaddhu, Angelakanksha, Bells2012, Ace001TheBoss999, KGun10, Fylbecatulous, Several Pend-
ing, Liam987, Pratyya Ghosh, Mrt3366, ChrisGualtieri, Gdfusion, EuroCarGT, Devenpro, RogerBryenton, Sarasapo, EagerToddler39,
Webclient101, Mogism, Sundeep k lal, Saehry, Wallybblue, Frosty, Graphium, Syum90, Ferniewernie, TANWIR HASSAN, Jituparida,
AVlonely, Tami Allen, Faizan, Avwezel, Epicgenius, OverMyJob, Dddege, LogertGilby, Zalunardo8, BreakfastJr, Tentinator, Kogmaw,
GingerGeek, Avatto123, Yankeesfan1234, Cherubinirules, Penperson, Lilythamzil, Taniquab2014, Babitaarora, Haminoon, Arpitmau-
rya, 1Halpo1, Ugog Nizdast, Giematt, Ginsuloft, Civiello m, Someone not using his real name, Jianhui67, Werddemer, Javiergustav,
Chrissuba2013, Sereiakata, DannyFangles, Mallywazhere, Dude200116, Vhiggs1, JaconaFrere, Epic Failure, Csutric, TuxLibNit, Bob-
vancleef38, Proudcommunist111111, Fauziya Muhammad, Mk bataiya, Znorth0818, Jim Carter, IvanZhilin, Berlinlasers, Morrisonann,
Molhv, William Tölöberg, Raymondlay, Radueno, KatBerg52, Dwikicowan, Crystallizedcarbon, Ryanhw, WikiTechPresentation, Tymon.r,
Explicit fire, Ismailzabee92, Ss9704895, Lalith269, Syam prathipati, Gibralter123, Venkatesh doli, Rageetha, Nicolecheek17, Gragarian,
Mediavalia, Bottlesd, Shakfastlink, NewAtSchool, PAULFERNZ, Jnm230, Silvermoney1963, KasparBot, Steve12040234, Donnerclan,
Lathay and Anonymous: 1740

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10 14 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

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