Transport

See also Transportation (disambiguation) or Transport helicopters, watercraft, spacecraft and aircraft. Opera-
(disambiguation). tions deal with the way the vehicles are operated, and the
Transport or transportation is the movement of procedures set for this purpose including financing, le-
galities and policies. In the transport industry, operations
and ownership of infrastructure can be either public or
private, depending on the country and mode.
Passenger transport may be public, where operators pro-
vide scheduled services, or private. Freight transport has
become focused on containerization, although bulk trans-
port is used for large volumes of durable items. Trans-
port plays an important part in economic growth and
globalization, but most types cause air pollution and use
large amounts of land. While it is heavily subsidized by
governments, good planning of transport is essential to
make traffic flow and restrain urban sprawl.

People walking in front of the bulk carrier BW Fjord

1 Mode
Main article: Mode of transport

A mode of transport is a solution that makes use of a par-

ticular type of vehicle, infrastructure and operation. The
transport of a person or of cargo may involve one mode
or several of the modes, with the latter case being called
intermodal or multimodal transport. Each mode has its
own advantages and disadvantages, and will be chosen for
a trip on the basis of cost, capability, and route.

1.1 Human-powered
French National Police use several modes of transport, each with
their distinct advantages. Main article: Human-powered transport
Human powered transport, a form of sustainable trans-
people, animals and goods from one location to an-
portation, is the transport of people and/or goods us-
other. Modes of transport include air, rail, road, water, ing human muscle-power, in the form of walking,
cable, pipeline and space. The field can be divided into running and swimming. Modern technology has allowed
infrastructure, vehicles and operations. Transport is im- machines to enhance human power. Human-powered
portant because it enables trade between persons, which transport remains popular for reasons of cost-saving,
is essential for the development of civilizations. leisure, physical exercise, and environmentalism; it is
Transport infrastructure consists of the fixed installations sometimes the only type available, especially in under-
including roads, railways, airways, waterways, canals and developed or inaccessible regions.
pipelines and terminals such as airports, railway stations,
Although humans are able to walk without infrastructure,
bus stations, warehouses, trucking terminals, refueling
the transport can be enhanced through the use of roads,
depots (including fueling docks and fuel stations) andespecially when using the human power with vehicles,
seaports. Terminals may be used both for interchange such as bicycles and inline skates. Human-powered vehi-
of passengers and cargo and for maintenance. cles have also been developed for difficult environments,
Vehicles traveling on these networks may include such as snow and water, by watercraft rowing and skiing;
automobiles, bicycles, buses, trains, trucks, people, even the air can be entered with human-powered aircraft.

1
2 1
Human-powered transport remains common in developing coun-
tries.
1.2 Animal-powered
Main article: Animal-powered transport
Main article: Rail transport
Animal-powered transport is the use of working animals Rail transport is where a train runs along a set of two
for the movement of people and goods. Humans may ride
some of the animals directly, use them as pack animals
for carrying goods, or harness them, alone or in teams, to
pull sleds or wheeled vehicles.
1.3 Air
Main article: Aviation
A fixed-wing aircraft, commonly called airplane, is a
An Air France Airbus A318 lands at London Heathrow Airport.
MODE
heavier-than-air craft where movement of the air in re-
lation to the wings is used to generate lift. The term is
used to distinguish this from rotary-wing aircraft, where
the movement of the lift surfaces relative to the air gen-
erates lift. A gyroplane is both fixed-wing and rotary-
wing. Fixed-wing aircraft range from small trainers and
recreational aircraft to large airliners and military cargo
aircraft.
Two things necessary for aircraft are air flow over the
wings for lift and an area for landing. The majority of
aircraft also need an airport with the infrastructure to re-
ceive maintenance, restocking, refueling and for the load-
ing and unloading of crew, cargo and passengers. While
the vast majority of aircraft land and take off on land,
some are capable of take off and landing on ice, snow
and calm water.
The aircraft is the second fastest method of transport,
after the rocket. Commercial jets can reach up to 955
kilometres per hour (593 mph), single-engine aircraft
555 kilometres per hour (345 mph). Aviation is able to
quickly transport people and limited amounts of cargo
over longer distances, but incur high costs and energy use;
for short distances or in inaccessible places helicopters
can be used.[1] As of April 28, 2009 The Guardian ar-
ticle notes that, “the WHO estimates that up to 500,000
people are on planes at any time.”[2]
1.4 Rail
The New York City Subway is the world’s largest rapid transit
system by length of routes and by number of stations.
parallel steel rails, known as a railway or railroad. The
rails are anchored perpendicular to ties (or sleepers) of
timber, concrete or steel, to maintain a consistent distance
apart, or gauge. The rails and perpendicular beams are
placed on a foundation made of concrete, or compressed
earth and gravel in a bed of ballast. Alternative methods
include monorail and maglev.
1.6 Water 3

InterCityExpress, a German high-speed passenger train The Harbor Freeway is often heavily congested at rush hour in
Downtown Los Angeles.

A train consists of one or more connected vehicles that

from one lane to the other and from one road to another
operate on the rails. Propulsion is commonly provided
according to the need and convenience. This flexibil-
by a locomotive, that hauls a series of unpowered cars,
ity of changes in location, direction, speed, and timings
that can carry passengers or freight. The locomotive can
of travel is not available to other modes of transport. It
be powered by steam, diesel or by electricity supplied by
is possible to provide door to door service only by road
trackside systems. Alternatively, some or all the cars can
transport.
be powered, known as a multiple unit. Also, a train can
be powered by horses, cables, gravity, pneumatics and Automobiles provide high flexibility with low capacity,
gas turbines. Railed vehicles move with much less fric- but require high energy and area use, and are the main
tion than rubber tires on paved roads, making trains more source of noise and air pollution in cities; buses allow for
energy efficient, though not as efficient as ships. more efficient travel at the cost of reduced flexibility.[8]
Road transport by truck is often the initial and final stage
Intercity trains are long-haul services connecting cities;[3]
of freight transport.
modern high-speed rail is capable of speeds up to 350
km/h (220 mph), but this requires specially built track.
Regional and commuter trains feed cities from suburbs 1.6 Water
and surrounding areas, while intra-urban transport is per-
formed by high-capacity tramways and rapid transits, of- Main article: Ship transport
ten making up the backbone of a city’s public transport. Water transport is movement by means of a watercraft—
Freight trains traditionally used box cars, requiring man-
ual loading and unloading of the cargo. Since the 1960s,
container trains have become the dominant solution for
general freight, while large quantities of bulk are trans-
ported by dedicated trains.

1.5 Road

Main article: Road transport

A road is an identifiable route, way or path between two
or more places.[4] Roads are typically smoothed, paved,
or otherwise prepared to allow easy travel;[5] though they
need not be, and historically many roads were simply
recognizable routes without any formal construction or
maintenance.[6] In urban areas, roads may pass through Built by the Dutch to transport spices, now used by the local fish-
a city or village and be named as streets, serving a dual ermen to get to the sea, Negombo Dutch canal, Sri Lanka
function as urban space easement and route.[7]
The most common road vehicle is the automobile; a such as a barge, boat, ship or sailboat—over a body of
wheeled passenger vehicle that carries its own motor. water, such as a sea, ocean, lake, canal or river. The need
Other users of roads include buses, trucks, motorcycles, for buoyancy is common to watercraft, making the hull
bicycles and pedestrians. As of 2010, there were 1.015 a dominant aspect of its construction, maintenance and
billion automobiles worldwide. Road transport offers a appearance.
complete freedom to road users to transfer the vehicle In the 19th century the first steam ships were developed,
4 2 ELEMENTS
Automobile ferry in Croatia
using a steam engine to drive a paddle wheel or propeller
to move the ship. The steam was produced in a boiler us-
ing wood or coal and fed through a steam external com-
bustion engine. Now most ships have an internal com-
bustion engine using a slightly refined type of petroleum
called bunker fuel. Some ships, such as submarines, use
nuclear power to produce the steam. Recreational or
educational craft still use wind power, while some smaller
craft use internal combustion engines to drive one or more
propellers, or in the case of jet boats, an inboard water jet.
In shallow draft areas, hovercraft are propelled by large
pusher-prop fans. (See Marine propulsion.)
Although slow, modern sea transport is a highly efficient
method of transporting large quantities of goods. Com- Main article: Infrastructure
mercial vessels, nearly 35,000 in number, carried 7.4 bil- Infrastructure is the fixed installations that allow a vehicle
lion tons of cargo in 2007.[9] Transport by water is signif-
icantly less costly than air transport for transcontinental
shipping;[10] short sea shipping and ferries remain viable
in coastal areas.[11][12]
1.7 Other modes
Trans-Alaska Pipeline for crude oil
Pipeline transport sends goods through a pipe; most com-
monly liquid and gases are sent, but pneumatic tubes can
also send solid capsules using compressed air. For liq-
uids/gases, any chemically stable liquid or gas can be
sent through a pipeline. Short-distance systems exist for
sewage, slurry, water and beer, while long-distance net-
works are used for petroleum and natural gas.
Cable transport is a broad mode where vehicles are pulled
by cables instead of an internal power source. It is most
commonly used at steep gradient. Typical solutions in-
clude aerial tramway, elevators, escalator and ski lifts;
some of these are also categorized as conveyor transport.
Spaceflight is transport out of Earth’s atmosphere into
outer space by means of a spacecraft. While large
amounts of research have gone into technology, it is rarely
used except to put satellites into orbit, and conduct scien-
tific experiments. However, man has landed on the moon,
and probes have been sent to all the planets of the Solar
System.
Suborbital spaceflight is the fastest of the existing and
planned transport systems from a place on Earth to a
distant other place on Earth. Faster transport could be
achieved through part of a low Earth orbit, or follow-
ing that trajectory even faster using the propulsion of the
rocket to steer it.
2 Elements
2.1 Infrastructure
Bridges, such as Golden Gate Bridge, allow roads and railways
to cross bodies of water.
to operate. It consists of a way, a terminal and facilities
for parking and maintenance. For rail, pipeline, road and
cable transport, the entire way the vehicle travels must
be built up. Air and water craft are able to avoid this,
since the airway and seaway do not need to be built up.
However, they require fixed infrastructure at terminals.
Terminals such as airports, ports and stations, are lo-
cations where passengers and freight can be transferred
from one vehicle or mode to another. For passenger
transport, terminals are integrating different modes to
allow riders to interchange to take advantage of each
mode’s advantages. For instance, airport rail links con-
nect airports to the city centers and suburbs. The ter-
minals for automobiles are parking lots, while buses and
 5

coaches can operate from simple stops.[13] For freight,

terminals act as transshipment points, though some cargo
is transported directly from the point of production to the
point of use.
The financing of infrastructure can either be public or
private. Transport is often a natural monopoly and a ne-
cessity for the public; roads, and in some countries rail-
ways and airports are funded through taxation. New in-
frastructure projects can have high cost, and are often fi-
nanced through debt. Many infrastructure owners there-
fore impose usage fees, such as landing fees at airports, or
toll plazas on roads. Independent of this, authorities may
impose taxes on the purchase or use of vehicles. Because
of poor forecasting and overestimation of passenger num-
bers by planners, there is frequently a benefits shortfall for Incheon International Airport, South Korea
transport infrastructure projects.[14]
lic transport and freight transport, operations are done
through private enterprise or by governments. The in-
2.2 Vehicles
frastructure and vehicles may be owned and operated by
the same company, or they may be operated by differ-
Main article: Vehicle
ent entities. Traditionally, many countries have had a
A vehicle is any non-living device that is used to move
national airline and national railway. Since the 1980s,
many of these have been privatized. International ship-
ping remains a highly competitive industry with little
regulation,[15] but ports can be public owned.[16]

3 Functions
Relocation of travelers and cargo are the most common
uses of transport. However, other uses exist, such as the
strategic and tactical relocation of armed forces during
warfare, or the civilian mobility construction or emer-
A Fiat Uno in 2008 gency equipment.

people and goods. Unlike the infrastructure, the vehi-

cle moves along with the cargo and riders. Unless be- 3.1 Passenger
ing pulled by a cable or muscle-power, the vehicle must
provide its own propulsion; this is most commonly done Main articles: Travel and Public transit
through a steam engine, combustion engine, electric mo- Passenger transport, or travel, is divided into public and
tor, a jet engine or a rocket, though other means of
propulsion also exist. Vehicles also need a system of con-
verting the energy into movement; this is most commonly
done through wheels, propellers and pressure.
Vehicles are most commonly staffed by a driver. How-
ever, some systems, such as people movers and some
rapid transits, are fully automated. For passenger trans-
port, the vehicle must have a compartment for the pas-
sengers. Simple vehicles, such as automobiles, bicycles
or simple aircraft, may have one of the passengers as a
driver.

2.3 Operation A local transit bus operated by ACTION in Canberra, Australia

Private transport is only subject to the owner of the ve- private transport. Public transport is scheduled services
hicle, who operates the vehicle themselves. For pub- on fixed routes, while private is vehicles that provide ad
6 4 HISTORY

hoc services at the riders desire. The latter offers better

flexibility, but has lower capacity, and a higher environ-
mental impact. Travel may be as part of daily commuting,
for business, leisure or migration.
Short-haul transport is dominated by the automobile and
mass transit. The latter consists of buses in rural and
small cities, supplemented with commuter rail, trams
and rapid transit in larger cities. Long-haul transport
involves the use of the automobile, trains, coaches and
aircraft, the last of which have become predominantly
used for the longest, including intercontinental, travel.
Intermodal passenger transport is where a journey is per-
formed through the use of several modes of transport;
since all human transport normally starts and ends with
walking, all passenger transport can be considered in- Freight train with shipping containers in the United Kingdom
termodal. Public transport may also involve the inter-
mediate change of vehicle, within or across modes, at a roughly without deterioration; typical examples are ore,
transport hub, such as a bus or railway station. coal, cereals and petroleum. Because of the uniformity
Taxis and buses can be found on both ends of the public of the product, mechanical handling can allow enormous
transport spectrum. Buses are the cheaper mode of trans- quantities to be handled quickly and efficiently. The low
port but are not necessarily flexible, and taxis are very value of the cargo combined with high volume also means
flexible but more expensive. In the middle is demand- that economies of scale become essential in transport,
responsive transport, offering flexibility whilst remaining and gigantic ships and whole trains are commonly used
affordable. to transport bulk. Liquid products with sufficient volume
may also be transported by pipeline.
International travel may be restricted for some individuals
due to legislation and visa requirements. Air freight has become more common for products of
high value; while less than one percent of world trans-
port by volume is by airline, it amounts to forty percent
3.2 Freight of the value. Time has become especially important in re-
gards to principles such as postponement and just-in-time
Main article: Shipping within the value chain, resulting in a high willingness to
pay for quick delivery of key components or items of high
value-to-weight ratio.[23] In addition to mail, common
Freight transport, or shipping, is a key in the value chain
items sent by air include electronics and fashion clothing.
in manufacturing.[17] With increased specialization and
globalization, production is being located further away
from consumption, rapidly increasing the demand for
transport.[18] While all modes of transport are used for 4 History
cargo transport, there is high differentiation between the
nature of the cargo transport, in which mode is chosen.[19] Main article: History of transport
Logistics refers to the entire process of transferring prod- Humans’ first means of transport were walking and swim-
ucts from producer to consumer, including storage, trans-
port, transshipment, warehousing, material-handling and
packaging, with associated exchange of information.[20]
Incoterm deals with the handling of payment and respon-
sibility of risk during transport.[21]
Containerization, with the standardization of ISO con-
tainers on all vehicles and at all ports, has revolutionized
international and domestic trade, offering huge reduction
in transshipment costs. Traditionally, all cargo had to be
manually loaded and unloaded into the haul of any ship or
car; containerization allows for automated handling and
transfer between modes, and the standardized sizes allow
for gains in economy of scale in vehicle operation. This
has been one of the key driving factors in international
Bullock team hauling wool in Australia
trade and globalization since the 1950s.[22]
Bulk transport is common with cargo that can be handled ming. The domestication of animals introduces a new

way to lay the burden of transport on more powerful crea-
tures, allowing heavier loads to be hauled, or humans to
ride the animals for higher speed and duration. Inventions
such as the wheel and sled helped make animal transport
more efficient through the introduction of vehicles. Also
water transport, including rowed and sailed vessels, dates
back to time immemorial, and was the only efficient way
to transport large quantities or over large distances prior
to the Industrial Revolution.
The first forms of road transport were horses, oxen or
even humans carrying goods over dirt tracks that often
followed game trails. Paved roads were built by many
early civilizations, including Mesopotamia and the Indus
Valley Civilization. The Persian and Roman empires built
stone-paved roads to allow armies to travel quickly. Deep
roadbeds of crushed stone underneath ensured that the
roads kept dry. The medieval Caliphate later built tar-
paved roads. The first watercraft were canoes cut out
from tree trunks. Early water transport was accomplished
with ships that were either rowed or used the wind for
propulsion, or a combination of the two. The importance
of water has led to most cities, that grew up as sites for
trading, being located on rivers or at sea, often at the in-
tersection of two bodies of water. Until the Industrial
Revolution, transport remained slow and costly, and pro-
duction and consumption were located as close to each
other as feasible.
The Wright Brothers' first flight in 1903
The Industrial Revolution in the 19th century saw a num-
ber of inventions fundamentally change transport. With
telegraphy, communication became instant and indepen-
dent of transport. The invention of the steam engine,
closely followed by its application in rail transport, made
land transport independent of human or animal muscles.
Both speed and capacity increased rapidly, allowing spe-
cialization through manufacturing being located indepen-
dent of natural resources. The 19th century also saw the
development of the steam ship, that sped up global trans-
port.
With the development of the combustion engine and
the automobile at the turn into the 20th century, road
transport became more viable, allowing the introduc- Transport is a key component of growth and globalization, such
tion of mechanical private transport. The first highways as in Seattle, Washington, United States.
7
were constructed during the 19th century with macadam.
Later, tarmac and concrete became the dominant paving
material. In 1903, the first controllable airplane was
demonstrated, and after World War I, it became a fast
way to transport people and express goods over long
distances.[24]
After World War II, the automobile and airlines took
higher shares of transport, reducing rail and water to
freight and short-haul passenger.[25] Scientific spaceflight
was launched in the 1950s, with rapid growth until the
1970s, when interest dwindled. In the 1950s, the in-
troduction of containerization gave massive efficiency
gains in freight transport, permitting globalization.[22] In-
ternational air travel became much more accessible in
the 1960s, with the commercialization of the jet engine.
Along with the growth in automobiles and motorways,
this introduced a decline for rail and water transport.
After the introduction of the Shinkansen in 1964, high-
speed rail in Asia and Europe started taking passengers
on long-haul routes from airlines.[25]
Early in U.S. history, most aqueducts, bridges, canals,
railroads, roads, and tunnels were owned by private joint-
stock corporations. Most such transportation infrastruc-
ture came under government control in the late 19th and
early 20th centuries, culminating in the nationalization
of inter-city passenger rail service with the creation of
Amtrak. Recently, however, a movement to privatize
roads and other infrastructure has gained some ground
and adherents.[26]
Further information: Timeline of transportation technol-
ogy
5 Impact
Main article: Sustainable transport
5.1 Economic
8 5 IMPACT

Transport is a key necessity for specialization—allowing the flexibility and comfort for the individual deteriorate
production and consumption of products to occur at dif- the natural and urban environment for all. Density of
ferent locations. Transport has throughout history been a development depends on mode of transport, with pub-
spur to expansion; better transport allows more trade and lic transport allowing for better spacial utilization. Good
a greater spread of people. Economic growth has always land use keeps common activities close to people’s homes
been dependent on increasing the capacity and rational- and places higher-density development closer to transport
ity of transport.[27] But the infrastructure and operation oflines and hubs, to minimize the need for transport. There
transport has a great impact on the land and is the largest are economies of agglomeration. Beyond transportation
drainer of energy, making transport sustainability a major some land uses are more efficient when clustered. Trans-
issue. portation facilities consume land, and in cities, pavement
(devoted to streets and parking) can easily exceed 20 per-
Modern society dictates a physical distinction between
home and work, forcing people to transport themselves cent of the total land use. An efficient transport system
can reduce land waste.
to places of work or study, as well as to temporarily relo-
cate for other daily activities. Passenger transport is also Too much infrastructure and too much smoothing for
the essence of tourism, a major part of recreational trans- maximum vehicle throughput means that in many cities
port. Commerce requires the transport of people to con- there is too much traffic and many—if not all—of the
duct business, either to allow face-to-face communication negative impacts that come with it. It is only in recent
for important decisions or to move specialists from their years that traditional practices have started to be ques-
regular place of work to sites where they are needed. tioned in many places, and as a result of new types of
analysis which bring in a much broader range of skills
than those traditionally relied on—spanning such areas
5.2 Planning as environmental impact analysis, public health, sociolo-
gists as well as economists—the viability of the old mo-
Main article: Transport planning bility solutions is increasingly being questioned. Euro-
pean cities are leading this transition.
Transport planning allows for high utilization and less
impact regarding new infrastructure. Using models of
transport forecasting, planners are able to predict future
5.3 Environment
transport patterns. On the operative level, logistics al-
lows owners of cargo to plan transport as part of the
supply chain. Transport as a field is studied through
transport economics, the backbone for the creation of
regulation policy by authorities. Transport engineering, a
sub-discipline of civil engineering, must take into account
trip generation, trip distribution, mode choice and route
assignment, while the operative level is handled through
traffic engineering.

Traffic congestion persists in São Paulo, Brazil despite the no-

drive days based on license numbers.

Main article: Transport and the environment

Transport is a major use of energy and burns most of the

The engineering of this roundabout in Bristol, United Kingdom,
attempts to make traffic flow free-moving.
Because of the negative impacts incurred, transport often
becomes the subject of controversy related to choice of
mode, as well as increased capacity. Automotive trans-
port can be seen as a tragedy of the commons, where
world’s petroleum. This creates air pollution, including
nitrous oxides and particulates, and is a significant con-
tributor to global warming through emission of carbon
dioxide,[28] for which transport is the fastest-growing
emission sector.[29] By subsector, road transport is the
largest contributor to global warming.[30] Environmental
regulations in developed countries have reduced individ-
ual vehicles’ emissions; however, this has been offset
by increases in the numbers of vehicles and in the use
of each vehicle.[28] Some pathways to reduce the car-
 9

bon emissions of road vehicles considerably have been [12] Cooper et al., 1998: 280
studied.[31][32] Energy use and emissions vary largely be-
tween modes, causing environmentalists to call for a tran- [13] Cooper et al., 1998: 275–76
sition from air and road to rail and human-powered trans- [14] Bent Flyvbjerg, Mette K. Skamris Holm, and Søren L.
port, as well as increased transport electrification and Buhl, “How (In)Accurate Are Demand Forecasts in Pub-
energy efficiency. lic Works Projects”, Journal of the American Planning As-
Other environmental impacts of transport systems in- sociation 71:2, pp. 131–146.
clude traffic congestion and automobile-oriented urban [15] Stopford, 1997: 422
sprawl, which can consume natural habitat and agricul-
tural lands. By reducing transportation emissions glob- [16] Stopford, 1997: 29
ally, it is predicted that there will be significant positive
effects on Earth’s air quality, acid rain, smog and climate [17] Chopra and Meindl, 2007: 3
change.[33] [18] Chopra and Meindl, 2007: 63–64

[19] Chopra and Meindl, 2007: 54

6 See also [20] Bardi, Coyle and Novack, 2006: 4

• Public transport [21] Bardi, Coyle and Novack, 2006: 473

• Environmental impact of aviation [22] Bardi, Coyle and Novack, 2006: 211–14

• Fuel efficiency in transportation [23] Chopra and Meindl, 2007: 328

• List of emerging transportation technologies
• Outline of transport
• Wikipedia Books: Transport
• IEEE Intelligent Transportation Systems Society
• Journal of Transport and Land Use
[24] Bardi, Coyle and Novack, 2006: 158
[25] Cooper et al., 1998: 277
[26] Clifford Winston, Last Exit: Privatization and Deregula-
tion of the U.S. Transportation System (Washington, D.C.:
Brookings Institution, 2010).
[27] Stopford, 1997: 2

[28] Fuglestvet et al., Center for International Climate and En-

7 Notes
[1] Cooper et al., 1998: 281
[2] Swine flu prompts EU warning on travel to US. The
Guardian. April 28, 2009.
[3] Cooper et al., 1998: 279
[4] “Major Roads of the United States”. United States De-
partment of the Interior. 2006-03-13. Retrieved 24
March 2007.
[5] “Road Infrastructure Strategic Framework for South
Africa”. National Department of Transport (South
Africa). Retrieved 24 March 2007.
[6] Lay, 1992: 6–7
[7] “What is the difference between a road and a street?".
Word FAQ. Lexico Publishing Group. 2007. Retrieved
24 March 2007.
vironmental Research (2007). “Climate forcing from the
transport sectors” (PDF).
[29] Worldwatch Institute (16 January 2008). “Analysis: Nano
Hypocrisy?".
[30] Climate forcing from the transport sectors, Jan Fu-
glestvedt, Terje Berntsen, Gunnar Myhre, Kristin Rypdal,
and Ragnhild Bieltvedt Skeie, January 15, 2008, vol. 105,
no. 2, PNAS.org
[31] “Claverton-Energy.com”. Claverton-Energy.com. 2009-
02-17. Retrieved 2010-05-23.
[32] Data on the barriers and motivators to more sustainable
transport behaviour is available in the UK Department for
Transport study "Climate Change and Transport Choices"
published in December 2010.
[33] Environment Canada. “Transportation”. Retrieved 30
July 2008.

[8] Cooper et al., 1998: 278

[9] The United Nations Conference on Trade and Develop- 8 Bibliography

ment (UNCTAD) 2007, p. x and p. 32.
• Bardi, Edward; John Coyle and Robert Novack
[10] Stopford, 1997: 4–6
(2006). Management of Transportation. Thomson
[11] Stopford, 1997: 8–9 South-Western. ISBN 0-324-31443-4.
10 9 EXTERNAL LINKS

• Chopra, Sunil and Peter Meindl (2007). Supply

Chain Management. Pearson. ISBN 0-13-208608-
5.

• Christopher P. Cooper; Rebecca Shepherd (1998).

Tourism: Principles and Practice. Financial Times
Prent.Int. ISBN 978-0-582-31273-9. Retrieved 22
December 2012.

• Lay, Maxwell G (1992). Ways of the World: A His-

tory of the World’s Roads and of the Vehicles that
Used Them. Rutgers University Press. ISBN 0-
8135-2691-4.

• Stopford, Martin (1997). Maritime Economics.

London: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-15310-7.

9 External links
• Transportation from UCB Libraries GovPubs

• Transportation at DMOZ
• America On the Move An online transportation ex-
hibition from the National Museum of American
History, Smithsonian Institution

• World Transportation Organization The world

transportation organization (The Non-Profit Advi-
sory Organization)
 11

10 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

10.1 Text

• Transport Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transport?oldid=664695855 Contributors: Carey Evans, Brion VIBBER, Mav, Robert
Merkel, Tarquin, Koyaanis Qatsi, Ap, Rjstott, Andre Engels, Rmhermen, Subtle Trouble, Qbmessiah, DavidLevinson, Anthere, Hannes
Hirzel, Heron, Hotlorp, Youandme, Hephaestos, Edward, Quintessent, Patrick, RTC, Michael Hardy, Llywrch, Lexor, Norm, Gabbe,
Psi~enwiki, Ixfd64, Arpingstone, Chadloder, Minesweeper, Ellywa, Ahoerstemeier, Stan Shebs, Mac, Setu, Glenn, Kwekubo, An-
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12 10 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

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data-file-width='1052' data-file-height='1052' /></a><a href='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:Romanceor' title='User:Romanceor'>
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