T3 From atoms to materials cotta, 13.4 Metals Watch this and answer 8 the questions In Section 13.1, we learnt that metals are a group of elements and they Pre-lesson have unique properties. Metals are very useful to us. In this section, ideo 13:4, we will study this useful material in detail. © History of the use of metals Humans began using metals thousands of years ago. Today, many objects around us are made of metal or contain metal. Fig 13.22 Metal objects are all around us. Can you give some examples? The metals we use ees the rocks (called metal ores") in the Earth’s crust. Metals take up about 24% by mass of the Earth's crust. The pie chart below shows the percentage by mass of elements (including metals) in the Barth's crust. 38 #X lumina 8.1% rons caleium 36% metas sodum 26% Wy potassium 2.6% magnesium 2.1% ‘ther elements 1.5% (ictudo metas) Fig 13.23. The percentage by mass of elements in the Earth's crust ital oe 21 42 i a mt © © @s0oow aE?From atoms to materials A few metals (€ and silver exist as cements in NEARS. They can be extracted from their ores fairly easily. Other metals exist as compounds. They have to be extracted from their ores using special methods. The use of metals iggy negates in the Earth’s crust and their ease of extraction. TLE Fig 13.24 is a timeline showing the history of the use of some metals. From Gold and silver 5000 BC * commonly used to make omaments Copper * commonly used to make tools 000 BC 000 BC 2000 BC Iron + commonly used to make tools, weapons and buildings 1000 Rc Aluminium * commonly used to make kitchen utensils and aircraft bodies oS Time Fig 13.24 A timeline showing the use of some common metals 43 B® © © @cUoDw aE ? &‘T3 From atoms to materials Refer to Fig 13.24 on p. 43, Gold and silver were the first metals used by humans. This is because these metals exist as elements in Nature. They can be extracted easily, compared to other metals. i silver Fig 13.25 Gold (left) and silver (right) exist as elements in Nature * Aluminium is the most abundant metal on Earth. However, it is difficult to extract from its ores. So humans learnt how to use it at allater time. ‘© The availability and ease of extraction of copper and iron are between the above two extremes. As it is more difficult to extract iron than to extract copper, iron was used by humans at a later stage in history. @* The use of metals is related to their availability and ease of extraction. Goter more Metals in human history Conduct a project about the history of the discovery and use of metals in the human history. Present your findings to the class. 44 @s0oow aE?From atoms to materials 72 ip © Obtaining metals ‘There are various methods of extracting metals from their ores, They are broadly divided into physical methods’ and chemical methods’, 1 Physical methods For metals that exist as elements in Nature, we may extract them from their ores by physical methods. Take gold as an example. We can extract gold from its ore by gold panning*. This method works by separating particles of gold (higher density) from mud and sand lower density). % ml @ Pieces of gold (higher density) @ Mud and sand (ower density) ‘sink to the bottom. spill out. Fig 13.26 Gold panning Watch a video about gold panning at: sa Chemical metned {e952 gold panning IR physical method #95852 re @s0oow aE? a mt © ©T3 From atoms to materials 2 Chemical methods Most metals exist in the form of compounds in Nature. Fig 13.27 shows some examples of stich metals and their ores. We may extract these metals from their compounds by chemical methods. >) Haematite” ©) Bauxite” contains iron oxide” contains aluminium oxide aluminium ©! Chalcocite” contains copper sulphide” Fig 13.27 Some common metal ores and the metals obtained from them aluminum oxide Rc auxte B-a® calc AFH calcium carbonate WEES chaleocke S858 copper sulphide M(ciH haamatte Ai ron oxide Sei 46 @s0oow aE? a mt © ©T3 From atoms to materials 3 Put the crucible on a pipeclay triangle as shown. Cover the crucible with a lid but leave a small gap. Heat the mixture strongly with a Bunsen flame and keep it red-hot for about eight minutes. 4 Tur off the Bunsen burner and allow the crucible to cool down 5 Remove the lid with a pair of tongs. Place the crucible on an insulating mat. 6 Stir the residue and observe it carefully for any reddish brown solids. a Are there any reddish brown soli in the residue? Yes b What can you infer from this observation? oppor _C r heating it with carbon. 48 @s0oow a?From atoms to materials Extension For some metals that exist as oxides in their ores, we can heat the metal oxide strongly with carbon to extract the metals, Let us try to extract copper and iron from their oxides using this method in Practical 13.6 and 13.7. Lid LL PA sete Pee Sl Oe OE Pet a Extracting copper from copper(II) oxide Aim To extract copper from copper(I) oxide by heating it with carbon ‘Apparatus and materials per group spatula 1 Bunsen burner 1 matches or fighter lass 10d 1 insulating mat 1. copper) oxide powder crucible with ia 1 tongs ‘pair carbon poader tripod 1 pipeclay angles 1 eam Carry out this practical in the Furne cupboard. Keep good ventilation inthe laboratory. 1 Observe the sample of copper) oxide. What colour is it? Black 2 Add two spatulas of copper(I!) oxide powder and two spatulas of carbon powder toa crucible, Mix them well with a glass rod. zope) com ‘carbon powder ming §-5-5 cop per (1) oxide 4 carbon eae copper + carbon diowke ( black ) C black) (reddish (colour less) es brown ) “ @s0oow aE ? & a © OFrom atoms to materials Maer Es a I PT TT Extracting iron from iron(II) oxide Aim To extract iron from iron(II) oxide by heating it with carbon ‘Apparatus and materials per group watch glass 3 tongs ‘pair sodium carbonate powder spatula 1 bar magnet 1 disilled water ‘Bunsen burner 1 matches insulating mat 1 tron) oxide powdor 1 Put one spatula of iron oxide powder on a wateh glass. Place a bar magnet under the watch glass and move it around. Observe whether the iron(II) oxide is attracted to the bar magnet. ~ iron\i) oxide powder watch glass Gam Carry out this practical in the fume cupboard. ( / Keep good ventilation in the laboratory, \ Is iron(II) oxide attracted to the bar magnet?_\)o 2 Moisten the head of a match with a drop of distilled water. Roll it in sodium carbonate powder and then in iron(ID oxide powder to make it coated with the powders. > i sou eaborte ron one J powder power lstilld water @s0oow mB ? iT3 From atoms to materials 3. Using a pair of tongs, hold the head of the match in a blue Bunsen flame until it burns, Allow it to burn until about half way down the length of the match, (The wooden part of the match provides a source of carbon. Upon heating, the sodium carbonate melts and keeps the iron(II) oxide in close contact with the carbon.) 4 Put out the flame and place the match on a new watch glass. Let the match cool. match head with iron) oxde powder match 7 =—> 5 Crush the head of the match carefully with a spatula. j [oo match head 6 Place the bar magnet under the watch glass and move it around. Gam Do not put the bar magnet directly onto the residue. Otherwise, itil be dificult to remove the attracted particles a. Is the residue attracted to the bar magnet? Mes b What can you infer from this observation? I nde extrac m_Tr (IL) heati Tt with corben 50 @s0oow a?From atoms to materials From the above two practicals, we can see that some metals (e.g. copper and iron) can be extracted from their oxides by heating the oxides with carbon. At high temperatures, carbon removes the oxygen from the metal oxides so that pure metals are obtained. Carbon dioxide is produced in the reaction. This process of extracting metals is called carbon reduction’. It can be represented by the word equation below: heating metal oxide + carbon ———— metal + carbon dioxide a ‘” neta once reatra catbon dioxide Fig 13.28 Some metals can be extracted from their oxides by carbon reduction @> Some metals, such as copper and iron, can be extracted from their oxides by heating the oxides with carbon, This process of extracting metals is called carbon reduction. [Go}formore) ‘Other methods of metal extraction Other methods besides carbon reduction are used to extract metals from ‘their ores. Electrolysis is an example. Find out more about these methods from the Internet or library. carbon reduetion BLS 51 @s0oow aE? a mt © ©From atoms to materials © Properties and uses of metals On p. 5, we learnt that metals have some common physical properties. Most of them are strong, ductile and malleable. They are also good thermal and electrical conductors. However, there are variations in these properties among different metals. Let us study this in Practical 13.8. a ee tL Comparing the physical properties of some metals Aim To compare the malleability, thermal conductivity and electrical conductivity of some metals ‘Apparatus and materials per group ‘copper, on and aluminium rods ofthe copper wire and iron wire of the same ‘same thickness teach thickness pin 3 15Vcal ungen burner theostat tripod ammeter insulating mat ‘connecting wire ‘cardboard hammer matches or ighter ‘woasden block | Malleability 1. Hit a copper wire with a hammer as shown. Observe if the wire changes shape. Neriemrcerenernie i [== Cramer) Gam copper wie wooden Avoid getting hurt by the hammer. => paratin wax Ba 52 @s0oow aE? = Ga ft © ©From atoms to materials 2 Repeat step 1 with an iron wire. a Which metal wire changes shape more easily when being hit? Db What can you tell from the results? ‘The malleability of copper and iron is (the same / different), Il Thermal conductivity 1 Set up the apparatus as shown. Attach a pin to the end of each metal rod using the same amount of wax. 2 Heat the other end of the rods with a Bunsen flame. Observe if the three pins drop at the same time. copper aluminium iron foo 10d fod. cardboard pin Do nat touch the metal rods. They are VERY HOT! ‘What can you tell from the results? (Hint: The faster the pin drops from the metal rod, the higher the thermal conductivity of the metal.) ‘The thermal conductivity of aluminium, copper and iron is (the same / different). @s0oow a?T3. From atoms to materials Ill Electrical conductivity 1 Connect the circuit according to the circuit diagram below. The sliding contact of the theostat should be at a position such that its resistance reaches the maximum value, Ammeter A; measures the current that flows through the copper wire; ammeter Ay measures the current that flows through the iron wire. 2. Close the switch, 3. Move the sliding contact slowly to increase the current flowing through the metal wires. a What happens to the readings of A, and Ay? Are the readings the same? b What can you tell from the results? (Hint: The larger the current flowing through the metal wire, the higher the electrical conductivity of the metal.) The electrical conductivity of copper and iron is (the same / different). 54 @s0oow a?From atoms to materials From Practical 13.8, we know that the physical properties of different metals may be different. Variations in the physical properties of metals make different metals suitable for specific uses. Some examples are given below. Iron is very strong. It is used to make bridges. Iron bridges are strong enough to support heavy vehicles. Aluminium is highly malleable. It is used to make thin foil for wrapping food. Aluminium has a low density. It is used to make lightweight bicycle frames. 55 a mt © © @s0oow aE?T3 From atoms to materials Silver conducts electricity better than ‘copper. Why is copper usually used to make electrical vires ratherthan sive? = Gold has a shiny appearance. It is highly os malleable, ductile and resistant to (ras Copper is highly ductile and is a very good conductor of electricity. It is used to make electrical wires, corrosion. It is used to make jewellery. @~ Metals have some common physical properties but there are variations among different metals. Such variations make different metals suitable for specific uses. Write ‘T’ for a true statement and ‘F’ for a false statement in the boxes provided. 1. The use of metals is related to their availability and ease of extraction. All metals can be extracted from their oxides by heating the oxides with carbon. 2 3. Carbon reduction is a chemical method to extract metals from their ores. 4 Metals are good conductors of electricity. Different metals have the same electrical conductivity. 56 @s0oow aE? a mt © ©From atoms to materials 13.5 Materials of the modern world Besides metals, many other kinds of materials are also widely used in. the modern world to improve our quality of life. Alloys’ and materials from crude oil” will be discussed in this section, © Alloys 1 Whatis an alloy? Fig 13.29 shows two cooking pots. Do you know what they are made of? Fig 13.29 What are these cooking pots made of? ‘These cooking pots are not made of pure metal. They are made of stainless steel”. Stainless steel is an alloy. Alloys are made by adding other elements (which can be one or more than one metals or non-metals) into metals. These added elements often improve the properties of the metals, ¢.g. making them harder, stronger and more resistant to corrosion. ite) io Alloys are made by mixing metals only. @ Alloys are made by adding other elements (which can be metals ‘or non-metals) into metas. alloy #2 crude oll RUB stainless stool FAB 57 @s0oow aE ? & a © OT3 From atoms to materials 2 Examples of common alloys Alloys are widely used in everyday life. Below are some examples of common alloys and their uses. Alloy Con aa Bronze" Copper (90%) Stronger and more Making statues Tin (10%) resistant to corrosion 7 a Brass” Copper (70%) Golden appearance, Making musical instruments, Zine (30%) hard, more resistant padlocks and keys to corrosion than Coinage metals” ‘Copper’ coins: Shiny appearance, Making coins Copper (97%) harder and more Zine (2.5%) resistant to corrosion Tin (0.5%) than copper ‘Silver’ coins: . Copper (75%) Nickel (25%) = Stainless steel | Iron (70%) Harder and more Making sinks, cooking Chromium’ (20%) resistant to corrosion utensils and surgical tools Nickel” (9.9%) than iron Carbon (0.1%) F brass i bronze HH chvomium #8 coinage metals H% ME rick kt oe oe @s0oow aE? a mt © ©From atoms to materials Peery ey ene Carbon steel” Iron (99.8%) Harder and stronger As construction materials, Carbon (0.2%) than iron, malleable, making car bodies resistant to corrosion Duralumin’ | Aluminium (95%) | Stronger and more Making aircraft bodies Copper (3%) resistant to corrosion Magnesium (1%) | than aluminium, low Manganese’ (1%) density = Carat gold? | Gold, silver and Shinier and harder Making ornaments and coins copper in different than gold proportions. carat gold K:% carbon soo! LE cyalumin EEE manganese s oe 59 a mt © © @s0oowT3 From atoms to materials Carat gold Carat gold is an alloy made of different proportions of gold and other metals. Pure gold is 24-carat (24K). 18K gold refers to a material consisting of 75% (ie, 18/24) gold. The ring in Fig 13.30 is made of SK gold. It contains 37.5% (ie. 9/24) gold Fig 13.30 A ring made of 9K gold Gogor mare New alloys Scientists keep developing new alloys to improve our quality of life, e.g, shape-memory alloy”. It can ‘remember’ its original shape. No matter how its shape is changed, it returns to its original shape when heated to a certain temperature. Original shape of The objects pulled ‘The object returns to an object made of into anew shape its onginal shape shape-memory alloy This shape-memory alloy is commonly used to make spectacle frames and dental braces’. Watch a video about a pair of glasses made of a shape-memory alloy at: ttps:diwwew youtube.com/watch?v=XPrgBEZIO1E ® Search for other new alloys that have been developed in recent years dontal brace #2 shaposnemory alloy a2 te a ipesmemary alloy @s0oow m8 ? iFrom atoms to materials © Useful materials from crude oil Crade oil (also called petroleum’) is an important natural resource It is a black, thick and smelly liquid (Fig 13.31). It is often found deep underground, It is formed from the remains of dead sea plants and Watch a video about the formation of crude oil at tps IvaanyOu gy tube.comiuatch? ves yHseEV8 1 Eee animals buried under thick layers of rock millions of years ago. Fig 13.31 Crude oil Many materials commonly used today are made from crude oil, e.g. plastics. Plastic products can be found in everyday life. cutlery” food trays raincoat Fig 13.32 Many everyday products are made of plastics How are plastics made from crude oil? To answer this question, we have to know the composition of crude oil frst. cutlery $A petiiaum Zi él @s0oow aE? a mt © ©T3 From atoms to materials 1 Composition of crude oil Crude oil is a mixture of many different compounds. Nearly all these compounds are hydrocarbons’. Hydrocarbon molecules contain hydrogen and carbon atoms only. There are many different types of hydrocarbons in crude oil. They are made up of different numbers of carbon and hydrogen atoms. They have different sizes. Fig 13.33 shows the models of some simple hydrocarbon molecules found in crude oil. They contain a few carbon atoms and hydrogen atoms only. Meanwhile, some hydrocarbons in crude oil contain more than a hundred of atoms joined together. They are very large in size. rystogen atom » carbon atom 2» » > Methane” (CH) Ethane (CHa) « . . 4 + - «< : Propane’ (CHa) Butane” (Cath) Fig 13.33 Models of some simple hydrocarbon molecules present in crude oil gz DUNE TH wane 23% hyerocabon MEME HY methane ie propane Fit @s0oow aE ? & a © OFrom atoms to materials 2. Separating crude oil into different fractions In Secondary 1, we have learnt that crude oil is one of our major energy sources. However, it is not suitable to be used directly as a fuel. This is because a lot of black smoke and harmful gases are given off when it is burnt directly (Fig 13.34) 13.34 A lot of black smoke is given off when crude oil is burnt directly To use crude oil effectively, we need to separate the different hydrocarbons in it. Processing crude oil in this way is known as refining’. Better fuels and raw materials for various products (e.g. plastics) are obtained after refining. As discussed before, the molecules of different hydrocarbons have different si larger hydrocarbons have higher boiling points. Based on the differences in their boiling points, we can separate hydrocarbons in crude oil into fractions” by a method called fractional distillation’. In general fraction 1 tactonal dstlaion 3 refine HAL @o 1.0 wu 63 aE ? & a © O‘T3 From atoms to materials la ed tL Fractional distillation of crude oil (Demonstration) i Aim ud To demonstrate how crude oil is separated into fractions by fractional distillation and observe the properties of crude oil fractions ‘Apparatus and materials por class beakor (260 om) 1 Insulating mat 1 stopper 4 boing tube 1 delivery tube with stopper matches or lighter test tube 4 (ited witha thommometor lass wool soaked wih crude ol test ube rack 1 ‘of 0-360 °C) 1 ice and water Bunsen burner 4 atand and clamp 1 1 Set up the apparatus as shown below. lass noo! soaked with crude oi + Crude oil and it fractions are volatile and flammable. ‘The distilate” should be placed far away from any flame. + Carry out this practical inthe fume cupboard + Wear protective gloves. * Wash your hands thoroughly after the practical eq se mts @s0oow‘T3 From atoms to materials Fraction Property Boiling Room ps 80% 80-150 °C | 150-200°C | 200-250 °c point range | temperature Colour Viscosity (1 = lowest; 4 = highest) In Practical 13.9, crude oil is separated into several fractions based on the differences in boiling points of hydrocarbons. Smaller hydrocarbons have lower boiling points. They boil and vaporize at lower temperatures. The vapour then condenses and becomes the earlier fractions. Larger hydrocarbons have higher boiling points. They boil and vaporize at higher temperatures. The vapour then condenses and is collected in later fractions. @> Hydrocarbons in crude oil are separated into different fractions based on the differences in their boiling points by 66 @s0oow aE? a mt © ©From atoms to materials 2 Heat the boiling tube gently with a small Bunsen flame. Move the flame to and fro to provide a uniform heating. 3. Collect any distillate in the test tube before the temperature reaches 80 °C, Remove the test tube and stopper it. ‘The distillate collected in this test tube is the first fraction, Label it ‘1’ and put it in the test tube rack. 4 Further heat the crude oil toa higher temperature. Use another test tube to collect the second fraction distilled between 80 °C and 150 °C. Stopper the tube and label it'2" S Repeat step 4 and collect the third and fourth fractions respectively with boiling point ranges of 150-200 °C and 200-250 °C. Label these tubes ‘3’ and ‘4’ respectively. 6 Observe the colours of fractions 1 to 4 and record them in the table on p. 66. 7 Tilt each of the test tubes containing fractions 1 to 4 to see how easily the liquid flows. The more easily the fraction flows, the less viscous’ it is. Record the results by ranking the viscosity of the fractions in the table, ~ traction Viscous #8388) @s0oow a?Extension From atoms to materials Physical properties of hydrocarbons of different sizes ‘The physical properties of hydrocarbons are closely related to their sizes. The table below briefly compares the physical properties of a fraction with smaller hydrocarbon molecules with those of a fraction with larger hydrocarbon molecules. eee au ange Colour Sens reo’ evaporation Sree arene Erneta rte Sen Poets to Prete r Pee NC ete) action with Peet te Lower Less viscous === Evaporates more easily == Easier to burn; less black smoke produced when burning eter Pee Cee Prorat More viscous —=—— Evaporates less easily = 2 More difficult to burn; more black smoke produced when burning 7 @ Oo.08 aE? a mt © ©T3 From atoms to materials In the oil industry, fractional distillation of crude oil is carried out on. a much larger scale in oil refineries’ mw bh Fig 13.35 Ancol finery Process of fractional distillation of crude oil in an oil refinery: ® Crude oil is first heated to about 400 °C in a furnace’. ‘Smaller hydrocarbons with boiling points lower than 400 °C vaporize. Larger hydrocarbons with boiling points higher than 400 °C remain as liquids. ® The heated substance (now partly liquid and partly vapour) is pumped into a fractionating tower’. The vapour portion of the crude oil rises up the tower. The liquid portion flows to the bottom of the tower. It is then drawn away. @ Each level of the fractionating tower is kept at a particular temperature, The higher levels are cooler than the lower levels As the vapour rises up the tower, different hydrocarbons in the vapour cool and condense at different levels: Vapourized hydrocarbons ‘Smaller hydrocarbons (with lower boiling points) condense vith the lowest boing ; ee eee at higher, cooler levels. Of the tower and are + Larger hydrocarbons (with higher boiling points) condense ee at lower, hotter levels, @ The condensed hydrocarbons then flow out of the tower and are collected, ‘raclonating tower 218% — tumnace si ol vetinery set 68 @s0oow aE? a mt © ©‘T3 From atoms to materials 3. Major uses of crude oil fractions Each fraction of crude oil from the fractionating tower is still a mixture of hydrocarbons. These hydrocarbons have similar boiling points. Their molecules are similar in size and properties. They have similar uses (Fig 13.37). Bolling point range Fractions and their usos below 40°C Iiquetied petroleum gas (LPG) * fuel fortes and public light buses + household fuel petrol * fuel for mator cars 70-170°C ‘naphthat — + raw matoral for producing own gas, pastes, solvents and ‘ther chemicals 170-2506 kerosene’ + fuel for aeroplanes dies + fuel for heavy vehicles heated crude oll — tue oi above 350°C * fuel for ships and power stations lubricating olf and wax + ollfor lubricating machines + wax for making candies bitumer + for covering oads Fig 13.37. Mejor uses of different fractions of crude oil Dbiumen 2% diesel 22% fue ol a Iquefied petroleum gas (LPG) Bw kerosene Yok —naphina BN 70 patti @s0oow aE ? & a © OFrom atoms to materials 6 Vapour portion rises up the tower. Hydrocarbons of '3D Model 13.1 aiforant sizes have eifaent boing points. They ‘condense and are colacied at diferent leva, v ‘Animation 13.2 ‘smaller ‘hydrocarbons (intone boting points) Wa ‘condense at higher. cooler levels. ow temperature Lager Inydrocarbons (ith higher boling points) ‘condense at Tower, hater loves. a mitra of hydrocarbons in crude oil ul 4 E 7 a6, igi ron ovo CGnide oil is hested to about 400 °C. bottom ofthe tower. is high temperature SAARARARA, Hydrocarbons wih lower boling than drawn away, points vaporize while hydrocarbons ‘th higher Boling points remain as SPARRARAARARAA, Nquies 13.36 Fractional distillation of crude ail in a fractionating tower > In an oil refinery, the fractional distillation of crude oil is carried out ina fractionating tower. @s0oow aE?From atoms to materials ‘The major uses of crude oil fractions includ 1_ As fuels for transportation, heating and generating electricity. Plastics willbe discussed » 2 As raw materials to make different chemicals. These chemicals can dfs be made into many useful produ uuch as plastics and detergents. 3. As solvents. Let us study some solvents made from crude oil fractions in Practical 13.10. lolael mea Finding the best solvent to remove an oil stain 8 13:10 Aim To perform a fair test to find out which one of four solvents (water, alcohol, nail varnish remover and thinner) is the best for removing an oil stain on a piece of cloth ‘Apparatus and materials per group white cotton cloth (10cm x 10 em) 1 water ‘white te 1 alcohol Alcohol, nail varish remover ropper 4 ail varnish remover* ‘and thinner are made from el 4pieces thier crude oil fractions. cen + Keep away from flames. + Make sure thatthe room is well-ventilated, + Wear disposable gloves. Do not touch the solvents directly with your hands + Carry out this practical in the fume cupboard. 1 Puta piece of cloth on a white tile, Divide the cloth into four quarters and label each quarter as shown. thinner nal varnish remover Chili BRE ral varnish remover 2258 n @s0oow aE?