Lec 13 (37)

Higher order derivatives and

Taylor's theorem
L'Hopital's rule:

1. Let 𝑓: (𝑎, 𝑏) → ℝ and 𝑔: (𝑎, 𝑏) → ℝ be differentiable at 𝑥 ∈ (𝑎, 𝑏).

Also let 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑔(𝑥 ) = 0 and 𝑔 (𝑥 ) ≠ 0.
( ) ( )
Then lim → ( )
= ( )
.

2. Let 𝑓: (𝑎, 𝑏) → ℝ and 𝑔: (𝑎, 𝑏) → ℝ be differentiable such that

lim → 𝑓(𝑥) = lim → 𝑔(𝑥) = 0 and 𝑔 (𝑥) ≠ 0 for all 𝑥 ∈ (𝑎, 𝑏).
( ) ( )
If lim → ( )
= 𝑙, then lim → ( )
= 𝑙.

Examples:
Higher order derivatives

𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑥 𝑒 − 3𝑥 sin 𝑥.

1
, 𝑥≠0
𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑥 sin 𝑥
0, 𝑥=0

We have seen 𝑓 is differentiable but 𝑓′ is not continuous at 𝑥 = 0.

Taylor's Theorem:

Let 𝑓: [𝑎, 𝑏] → ℝ be such that 𝑓 , 𝑓 , … , 𝑓 are continuous on [𝑎, 𝑏]and 𝑓 exists on (𝑎, 𝑏).
Then there exists 𝑐 ∈ (𝑎, 𝑏) such that
𝑓 (𝑎 ) 𝑓 (𝑎 )
𝑓 (𝑏) = 𝑓 (𝑎) + 𝑓 (𝑎)(𝑏 − 𝑎) + (𝑏 − 𝑎 ) + ⋯ + (𝑏 − 𝑎 ) +
2! 𝑛!
𝑓 (𝑐 )
(𝑏 − 𝑎 ) .
(𝑛 + 1 )!

Example:

Show that 1 + − ≤ √1 + 𝑥 ≤ 1 + for all 𝑥 > 0.

Ex: Write the Taylor's polynomial for the function sin 𝑥 around origin.
Second Derivative test for local Extremum:

Result: Let 𝐷 ⊆ ℝ, and let 𝑐 be an interior point of 𝐷.

Suppose 𝑓: 𝐷 → ℝ is twice differentiable at 𝑐, and 𝑓 (𝑐 ) = 0.

(a) If 𝑓 (𝑐 ) < 0, then 𝑓 has a local maximum at 𝑐.

(b) If 𝑓 (𝑐 ) > 0, then 𝑓 has a local minimum at 𝑐.

General Result on Local Maxima and Local Minima:

Let 𝑥 ∈ (𝑎, 𝑏) and let 𝑛 ≥ 2. Also, let 𝑓, 𝑓 , … , 𝑓 ( ) be continuous on (𝑎, 𝑏)

and
𝑓 ( 𝑥 ) = 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = ⋯ = 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 0 but 𝑓 (𝑥 ) ≠ 0.

(a) If 𝑛 is even and 𝑓 (𝑥 ) < 0, then 𝑓 has a local maximum at 𝑥 .

(b) If 𝑛 is even and 𝑓 (𝑥 ) > 0, then 𝑓 has a local minimum at 𝑥 .
(c ) If 𝑛 is odd, then 𝑓 has neither a local maximum nor a local minimum at
𝑥 .

Example:
Find the local extrema of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 − 5𝑥 + 5𝑥 + 12 for all 𝑥 ∈ ℝ.

Point of inflection (PoI):

𝑐 is a point of inflection iff f′′ changes sign at 𝑐.
i. e,
𝑓 ≥ 0 on (𝑐 − 𝛿, 𝑐) and 𝑓 ≤ 0 on (𝑐, 𝑐 + 𝛿)
or
𝑓 ≤ 0 on (𝑐 − 𝛿, 𝑐) and 𝑓 ≥ 0 on (𝑐, 𝑐 + 𝛿)

Necessary condition for point of inflection: 𝒇 (𝒄) = 𝟎.

That is,
Let 𝑐 be an interior point of 𝐼 , and let 𝑓: 𝐼 → ℝ. Suppose f
is twice differentiable at 𝑐. If 𝑐 is point of inflection for 𝑓 ,
then 𝑓 (𝑐 ) = 0.

Note:
Converse False. 𝑓 (𝑐 ) = 0 does not imply 𝑐 is a PoI.
Example: 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑥 .
𝑓 is twice differentiable and 𝑓 (0) = 0, but 0 is not a point of inflection.
 Applications
• Taylor series can be used to compute integrals which cannot be
computed directly with the existing theorems and methods in an
easy manner.
• They are used for computing trigonometric expressions in
calculators etc.
• Taylor series are also used in classical and modern physics to
replace the much complex functions with polynomials for smaller
intervals at least. (For easy calculations).
• The famous “Eulers Formula” is also found using the Taylor Series.
• They are used in solving differential equations.
• Taylor Series is also used to understand the asymptotic behavior
of the functions.
• These also have a very important role in special relativity wherein
they are used to approximate the Lorentz factor, 𝛾.