University 8 Mai 1945, Guelma Docteur:A.

Ayachi

Rings of polynomials

Definition:

Let 𝑅 be a ring, A polynomial 𝑓 (𝑥 ) write in indeterminate 𝑥 and coefficients 𝑎𝑖 in 𝑅 is a

formal sum
∞

𝑓 (𝑥 ) = ∑ 𝑎𝑘 𝑥 𝑘 = 𝑎0 + 𝑎1 + 𝑎1 𝑥 2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 + ⋯
𝑘=0

Where

 The degree of 𝑓(𝑥) is a largest 𝑛 ∈ ℕ, such that 𝑎𝑛 ≠ 0, the leading term is 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛

 The zero polynomial is a formal sum where all coefficients are zero: by convention,
𝑑𝑒𝑔(0) = −∞ , then 𝑓(𝑥) is called a constant polynomial
 The set of all such polynomial is denoted 𝑅[𝑥], then ring of polynomials with
coefficients in 𝑅.

Note:
1. If 𝑓(𝑥 ) is of degree 𝑛, we may write 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑎0 + 𝑎1 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 instead of as an
infinite sum
2. If 𝑅 has unity 1 ≠ 0, we write 𝑥 𝑘 to represent 1𝑥 𝑘
3. If some 𝑎𝑖 = 0, then we write 𝑥 𝑖 the term 𝑎𝑖 𝑥 𝑖 = 0𝑥 𝑖 , when writing the formal
sums, for example

𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 0 + 1𝑥 + 1𝑥 2 + 0𝑥 3 +0𝑥 4 +1𝑥 5 then we write 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 + 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 5

Definition:
we define + and ∙ , on 𝑅[𝑥] as follows
Let 𝑓 (𝑥 ) , 𝑔(𝑥 ) ∈ 𝑅 [𝑥 ], where
∞

𝑓 (𝑥 ) = ∑ 𝑎𝑘 𝑥 𝑘 = 𝑎0 + 𝑎1 𝑥 1 + 𝑎1𝑥 2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 + ⋯
𝑘=0
∞

𝑔(𝑥 ) = ∑ 𝑏𝑘 𝑥 𝑘 = 𝑏0 + 𝑏1 𝑥 1 + 𝑏1 𝑥 2 + ⋯ + 𝑏𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 + ⋯
𝑘=0
University 8 Mai 1945, Guelma Docteur:A.Ayachi

Define the sum 𝑓(𝑥 ) + 𝑔(𝑥 ) as

∞

𝑓 (𝑥 ) + 𝑔(𝑥 ) = ∑ 𝑐𝑘 𝑥 𝑘 = 𝑐0 + 𝑐1𝑥 1 + 𝑐1𝑥 2 + ⋯ + 𝑐𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 + ⋯

𝑘=0

Where 𝑐𝑘 = 𝑎𝑘 + 𝑏𝑘 , 𝑑𝑒𝑔(𝑓 + 𝑔) ≤ 𝑚𝑎𝑥 (𝑑𝑒𝑔( 𝑓), 𝑑𝑒𝑔(𝑔)) and define the product
∞

𝑓 (𝑥 ). 𝑔(𝑥 ) = ∑ 𝑑𝑘 𝑥 𝑘 = 𝑑0 + 𝑑1𝑥 1 + 𝑑1𝑥 2 + ⋯ + 𝑑𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 + ⋯

𝑘=0

Where 𝑑𝑛 = ∑𝑛𝑘=0 𝑎𝑘 𝑏𝑛−𝑘

If 𝑅 is not commutative, then in general ∑𝑛𝑘=0 𝑎𝑘 𝑏𝑛−𝑘 ≠ ∑𝑛𝑘=0 𝑏𝑘 𝑎𝑛−𝑘 , is also not
commutative
Theorem:
Let 𝑅 be a ring. Then the set 𝑅[𝑥] of all polynomials in an indeterminate 𝑥 with coefficients
in a ring 𝑅 is commutative ring under the usual addition and multiplication.
Example:

In the ring ℤ6 [𝑥 ], we see that

(𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 ) = 𝑥 5 + 2𝑥 2 + 𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2
(𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 ) = 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 + 3
Theorem:

Let 𝑓, 𝑔 ∈ 𝑅 [𝑥 ], where 𝑅 is a ring

𝑑𝑒𝑔(𝑓 ) < 𝑑𝑒𝑔(𝑔) ⇒ 𝑑𝑒𝑔(𝑓 ± 𝑔) = 𝑑𝑒𝑔(𝑔)
𝑑𝑒𝑔(𝑓 ) = 𝑑𝑒𝑔(𝑔) ⇒ 𝑑𝑒𝑔(𝑓 ± 𝑔) ≤ 𝑑𝑒𝑔(𝑔) , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝑒𝑔(𝑓 ⋅ 𝑔) ≤ deg(𝑓 ) + deg(𝑔)
Definitions:

Given two polynomials 𝑓(𝑥 ) and 𝑔(𝑥 ) there exist two unique polynomials called quotiens
𝑞(𝑥) and remainder 𝑟(𝑥).
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑞(𝑥) 𝑔(𝑥) + 𝑟(𝑥)
Where the degree of 𝑟(𝑥) is less than the degree of 𝑔(𝑥) then for example
𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 1 = (𝑥 + 1) (𝑥 + 1)
Corollary:
University 8 Mai 1945, Guelma Docteur:A.Ayachi

Let 𝑅 be a commutative ring with unity, 𝑓(𝑥) ∈ 𝑅[𝑥], and 𝑎 ∈ 𝑅. Then 𝑓 (𝑎) = 0 if and only
if (𝑥 − 𝑎) devides 𝑓(𝑥) in 𝑅[𝑥].

Definition:
Let 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑔(𝑥) two polynomials. We say that 𝑔 divides 𝑓(𝑥), if 𝑟 is the zero polynomial.
Corollary:
Let 𝑓(𝑥) a polynomial. An element 𝛼 is a zero of 𝑓 if and only if (𝑥 − 𝛼 )|𝑓(𝑥). That is there
exists some polynomial 𝑞(𝑥) such that
𝑓(𝑥) = (𝑥 − 𝛼 ) 𝑞(𝑥)
Definition:
Given two polynomials 𝑓, 𝑔 the greatest common divisor (𝑔𝑐𝑑) is the highest degree
polynomial which divided both 𝑓, 𝑔. The important observation for Euclidean 𝑔𝑐𝑑 is,
if 𝑓 = 𝑔𝑞1 + 𝑟1 then gcd(𝑓, 𝑔) = gcd( 𝑔, 𝑟1 ).
Without loss of generality, we can assume that 𝑓 has higher degree than 𝑔 and hense 𝑟 has
lower degree than 𝑓 and 𝑔. We can continue this process, say 𝑔 = 𝑞2𝑟1 + 𝑟2 . Then the task
reduces finding the 𝑔𝑐𝑑 of 𝑟1 and 𝑟2. Ultimately, we get two polynomials 𝑟𝑛 |𝑟𝑛−1 .Then 𝑟𝑛 is
the 𝑔𝑐𝑑 of 𝑓 and 𝑔.
Example:
Find the 𝑔𝑐𝑑 of
𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑥 5 + 3𝑥 4 + 2𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 − 2 and
𝑔(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 4 + 2𝑥 3 + 2 𝑥 2 + 7𝑥 + 6
1 st division
𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑥 5 + 3𝑥 4 + 2𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 − 2 𝑔(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 4 + 2𝑥 3 + 2 𝑥 2 + 7𝑥 + 6
𝑥 5 + 2𝑥 4 + 2 𝑥 3 + 7𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 𝑞1(𝒙) = 𝑥 + 1
𝑥4 − 8 𝑥3 − 9 𝑥2 − 2
𝑥 4 + 2𝑥 3 + 2 𝑥 2 + 7𝑥 + 6
𝑟1(𝑥) = −2 𝑥 3 − 10𝑥 2 − 16𝑥 − 8

𝑓 = 𝑔𝑞1 + 𝑟1
University 8 Mai 1945, Guelma Docteur:A.Ayachi

2 nd division
𝑔(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 4 + 2𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 + 7𝑥 + 6 𝑟1(𝑥) = −2𝑥 3 − 10𝑥 2 − 16𝑥 − 8
𝑥 4 + 5 𝑥 3 + 8𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 −1 3
𝑞2 (𝒙) = 𝑥+
2 2
−3 𝑥 3 − 6 𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 6
−3𝑥 3 − 15𝑥 2 − 24𝑥 − 12
𝑟2(𝑥) = 9𝑥 2 + 2𝟕𝑥 + 18

𝑔 = 𝑟1𝑞2 + 𝑟2
3 rd division
𝑟1(𝑥) = −2𝑥 3 − 10𝑥 2 − 16𝑥 − 8 𝑟2(𝑥) = 𝑥 4 + 2𝑥 3 + 2 𝑥 2 + 7𝑥 + 6
−2 𝑥 3 − 6𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 −2 4
𝑥−
9 9
−4 𝑥 2 − 12𝑥 − 8
−4 𝑥 2 − 12𝑥 − 8
𝑟3(𝑥) = 0
gcd(𝑓, 𝑔) = 𝒓𝟐 (𝒙) = 𝟗𝒙𝟐 + 𝟐𝟕𝒙 + 𝟏𝟖