COMPUTER SYSTEM AND ORGANISATION

● Basic Computer Organisation: Introduction to computer system, hardware, software,

input device, output device, CPU, memory (primary, cache and secondary), units of
memory (Bit, Byte, KB, MB, GB, TB, PB)
● Types of software: system software (operating systems, system utilities, device
drivers), programming tools and language translators (assembler, compiler &
interpreter), application software
● Operating system (OS): functions of operating system, OS user interface

Computer:
Computer is an advanced electronic device that takes raw data as input from the user
and processes these data under the control of set of instructions (called program) and
gives the result (output) and saves output for the future use. It can process both numerical
and non- numerical (arithmetic and logical) calculations.
Computer System:
All of the components of a computer system can be summarized with the simple
equations. COMPUTER SYSTEM = HARDWARE + SOFTWARE+ USER
• Hardware = Internal Devices + Peripheral Devices
All physical parts of the computer (or everything that we can touch) are known as
Hardware.
• Software = Programs
Software gives “intelligence” to the computer.
• USER = Person, who operates computer.
Characteristics of computer: Speed, accuracy, diligence, versatility, huge memory, no
IQ, lack of decision making.
Functional Units of a computer: Input Unit, Central Processing Unit (CPU), Storage
Unit and Output Unit.
Input Unit: The data and instructions for their processing are entered into the computer
through the input unit. They are stored in the memory (storage unit). Eg: keyboard,
mouse,
scanner, mic, digital camera, Joystick, Trackball, Light pen, Barcode Reader, OMR,
OCR, MICR etc.
Central Processing Unit: CPU is the brain of the computer. It consists of three
components-
Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU), Control Unit (CU) and registers. ALU performs
calculations and logical operations such as comparisons and decision making. CU
manages and co-ordinates all other units of the computer. Registers are temporary
storage elements that facilitate the functions of CPU.
Storage Unit: It holds data and instructions required for processing, intermediate results
for ongoing processing and final results of processing.
Output Unit: The information obtained after data processing is supplied to the outside
world through this unit. Monitor, Projector, Sound Speaker, Plotter and printer are the
commonly used output devices.
Memory of Computer
Memory refers to the place where data is stored temporarily or permanently.
Computer Memory is basically of 2 types:
1. Primary Memory
Primary or main memory stores information (data and instruction)
2. Secondary Memory
Stores the data permanently for future retrieval
Primary Memory
❖ Random Access Memory (RAM)
● It is the working memory, right from the booting of computer till the computer is
shutdown, this memory is in use to store all the operation done by the computer
● It is used for primary storage in computers to hold active information of data and
instructions.
● It holds data temporarily i.e. Volatile Memory
● Data is lost if Power Off

❖ Read Only Memory (ROM)

● ROM (Read Only Memory) is used to store the instructions provided by the
manufacturer, which holds the instructions to check basic hardware inter connecter and
to load operating system from appropriate storage device
● It is also known as FIRMWARE
● Its data is stored permanently on it so it is non-volatile device.

Units of Memory
4 BITS = 1 NIBBLE
8 BITS = 1 BYTE
1024 BYTES = 1 KILO BYTE(KB)
1024 KB = 1 MEGA BYTE(MB)
1024 MB = 1 GIGA BYTE(GB)
1024 GB = 1 TERA BYTE(TB)
1024 TB = 1 PETA BYTE(PB)
The elementary unit of memory is a bit (binary digit) i.e. Zero(0) & One(1)

Secondary Storage Devices

● If we want to save data for future reference and retrieval then it needs to be saved in
memory other than primary memory, which is called secondary memory, or auxiliary
memory. Normally hard disk of computer is used as secondary memory but this is not
portable so there are many other secondary storage media in use.
Example:
Hard Disk , CD/DVD , Pen Drive , Floppy, etc.

1. HARD DISK :
● A hard disk drive (HDD; also hard drive, hard disk, or disk drive) is a device for
storing and retrieving digital information, primarily computer data.
● It consists of one or more rigid (hence "hard") rapidly rotating discs (often referred to
as platters), coated with magnetic material and with magnetic heads arranged to write
data to the surfaces and read it from them.
● Generally hard disks are sealed units fixed in the cabinet. It is also known as fixed disk
2. FLOPPY DISK :
● It is a data storage medium that is made up of a disk of thin, flexible magnetic
material enclosed in a cover. Its capacity is 1.44 MB.
3. COMPACT DISK (CD) :
● Capacity of standard 120mm CD is 700MB. It is a thin optical disk which is
commonly used to store audio and video data. Transfer speed is mentioned as multiple of
150 KB/s. 4x means 600 KB/s.
4. DIGITAL VIDEO DISK (DVD) :
● This is an optical disc storage device. It can be recorded on single side or on double
side. Its capacity may range from 4.7 GB to 8.5 GB.
5. PEN DRIVE :
This is small, portable memory, which can be plugged into a computer with USB Port.
They have capacity lesser than hard disk but much larger than a floppy or CD. They are
more reliable also.
 Operating system (OS): A set of programs that acts as an interface between the user
and computer hardware. It controls and co-ordinates the operations of a computer. It acts
as the resource manager of the computer system.
Function of OS: Process management, memory management, file management, device
management, security management and command interpretation.
Computer languages: Broadly classified into low level languages and high level
languages.
Machine language and assembly language are the different low level languages. The
language, which uses binary digits 0 and 1, is called machine language.
Assembly language use mnemonics. Mnemonic is a symbolic name given to an
operation. High Level Languages are like English languages and are simpler to
understand.
Language processors: These are the system programs that translate programs written in
high level language or assembly language into its equivalent machine language.
Types of language processors: Assembler (translates the program code written in
assembly language to machine language), Interpreter (converts a HLL program into
machine language line by line) and Compiler (translates a program written in high level
language into machine language).
Utility software: A set of programs which help users in system maintenance tasks. Some
of them are compression tools, disk defragmenter, backup software and antivirus
software. Compression utility: Large files can be compressed so that they take less
storage area. These compressed files can be decompressed into its original form when
needed. Compression of files is known as zipping and decompression is called unzipping.
WinZip, WinRAR, etc. are examples.
Disk defragmenter: A program that rearranges files on a computer hard disk. This
enables the computer to work faster and more efficiently.
Backup utility: These programs facilitate the backing up of disk.
Antivirus programs: A utility program that scans the computer system for viruses and
removes them. Norton Antivirus, Kaspersky, etc. are examples.
General purpose software: These are used to perform tasks in a particular application
area.
General purpose software is classified as word processors, spreadsheet software,
presentation software, database software and multimedia software.
Word processing software: It is designed for creating and modifying documents. It
helps to create, edit, format and print textual matters easily. Formatting features include
different font settings, paragraph settings, bullets and numbering, alignments and more.
In addition to this it can check spelling and grammar in the document, insertion of
pictures, charts and tables. We can specify headers and footers for every page in the
document. The most popular examples of this type of software are MS Word, Open
Office Writer, Apple iWork Pages, etc.
Spreadsheet software: This software allows users to perform calculations using
spreadsheets. It also allows us to insert drawing objects in the worksheet and create
different types of charts for graphical representation of numerical data. Microsoft Excel,
Open Office Calc, Lotus 1-2-3 and Apple iWork Numbers are some examples of
spreadsheet software.
Presentation software: The software is used to display information in the form of a
slide show. Presentation software allows preparing slides containing pictures, text,
animation, video and sound effects. Microsoft PowerPoint, Apple iWork Keynote and
Open Office Impress are examples for presentation software.
Database software: Database is an organised collection of data arranged in tabular form.
Database Management System (DBMS) consists of a collection of interrelated data and a
set of programs to access those data. They provide privacy and security to data and
enforce standards for data. Examples of DBMS software are Microsoft Access, Oracle,
Postgres SQL, My SQL, etc.
Multimedia software: Multimedia is the integration of multiple forms of media. This
includes text, graphics, audio, video, etc. Some multimedia software allows users to
create and edit audio and video files. Audio converters, audio players and video editing
software
 are some forms of multimedia software. Examples are VLC Player, Adobe Flash, Real
Player, Media Player, etc.

DATA REPRESENTATION
Number systems are the technique to represent numbers in the computer system architecture,
every value that you are saving or getting into/from computer memory has a defined number
system.
Computer architecture supports following number systems.

1. Binary number system

2. Octal number system
3. Decimal number system
4. Hexadecimal (hex) number system

BINARY NUMBER SYSTEM

A Binary number system has only two digits that are 0 and 1. Every number (value)
represents with 0 and 1 in this number system. The base of binary number system is 2,
because it has only two digits.

OCTAL NUMBER SYSTEM

Octal number system has only eight (8) digits from 0 to 7. Every number (value)
represents with 0,1,2,3,4,5,6 and 7 in this number system. The base of octal number
system is 8, because it has only 8 digits.

DECIMAL NUMBER SYSTEM

Decimal number system has only ten (10) digits from 0 to 9. Every number (value)
represents with 0,1,2,3,4,5,6, 7,8 and 9 in this number system. The base of decimal
number system is 10, because it has only 10 digits.

HEXADECIMAL NUMBER SYSTEM

A Hexadecimal number system has sixteen (16) alphanumeric values from 0 to 9 and A to
F. Every number (value) represents with 0,1,2,3,4,5,6, 7,8,9,A,B,C,D,E and F in this
number system. The base of hexadecimal number system is 16, because it has 16
alphanumeric values. Here A is 10, B is 11, C is 12, D is 14, E is 15 and F is 16.

Number system Base(Radix) Used digits Example

Binary 2 0,1 (11110000)2
Octal 8 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7 (360)8
Decimal 10 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9 (240)10

Hexadecimal 16 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9, (F0)16

A,B,C,D,E,F
CONVERSIONS

DECIMAL TO OTHER
1. DECIMAL TO BINARY
Decimal Number System to Other Base
To convert Number system from Decimal Number System to Any Other Base is quite
easy; you have to follow just two steps:
A) Divide the Number (Decimal Number) by the base of target base system (in which you
want to convert the number: Binary (2), octal (8) and Hexadecimal (16)).
B) Write the remainder from step 1 as a Least Signification Bit (LSB) to Step last as a
Most Significant Bit (MSB).

Decimal to Binary Result

Conversion

Decimal Number is :
(12345)10

Binary Number is

(11000000111001)2
2. DECIMAL TO OCTAL
Decimal to Octal Conversion Result

Decimal Number is : (12345)10

Octal Number is

(30071)8

3. DECIMAL TO HEXADECIMAL
Decimal to Hexadecimal Result
Conversion

Example 1

Decimal Number is : (12345)10

Hexadecimal Number is (3039)16

Example 2
Hexadecimal Number is
Decimal Number is : (725)10 (2D5)16

Convert

10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15

to its equivalent... A, B, C, D, E,
F
BINARY TO OTHER
A) Multiply the digit with 2(with place value exponent). Eventually add all the multiplication
becomes the Decimal number.
1. BINARY TO DECIMAL

2. BINARY TO OCTAL

An easy way to convert from binary to octal is to group binary digits into sets of three,
starting with the least significant (rightmost) digits.
Binary: 11100101 11 100 101
=

011 100 101 Pad the most significant digits with

zeros if necessary to complete a group
of three.

Then, look up each group in a table:

Binary: 000 001 010 011 100 101 110 111

Octal: 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Binary = 011 100 101

Octal = 3 4 5 = 345 oct

3. BINARY TO HEXADECIMAL
An equally easy way to convert from binary to hexadecimal is to group binary digits into
sets of four, starting with the least significant (rightmost) digits.
 Binary: 11100101 = 1110 0101

Then, look up each group in a table:

Binary: 0000 0001 0010 0011 010 0101 0110 011

0 1

Hexadecimal: 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Binary: 100 100 101 101 110 110 1110 111

0 1 0 1 0 1 1

Hexadecim 8 9 A B C D E F
al:

Binary = 1110 0101

Hexadecimal = E 5 = E5 hex

OCTAL TO OTHER

1. OCTAL TO BINARY
Converting from octal to binary is as easy as converting from binary to octal. Simply look
up each octal digit to obtain the equivalent group of three binary digits.
Octal: 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Binary: 000 001 010 011 100 101 110 111

 Octal = 3 4 5

Binary = 011 100 101 = 011100101 binary

2. OCTAL TO HEXADECIMAL
When converting from octal to hexadecimal, it is often easier to first convert the octal
number into binary and then from binary into hexadecimal. For example, to convert 345
octal into hex:

(from the previous example)

Octal = 3 4 5

Binary = 011 100 101 = 011100101 binary

Drop any leading zeros or pad with leading zeros to get groups of four binary digits (bits):
Binary 011100101 = 1110 0101
Then, look up the groups in a table to convert to hexadecimal digits.
Binary: 0000 0001 0010 0011 0100 0101 011 0111
0

Hexadecimal: 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Binary: 1000 1001 1010 1011 1100 1101 1110 1111

Hexadecimal 8 9 A B C D E F
:

Binary = 1110 0101

 Hexadecimal = E 5 = E5 hex

Therefore, through a two-step conversion process, octal 345 equals binary 011100101
equals hexadecimal E5.

3. OCTAL TO DECIMAL
The conversion can also be performed in the conventional mathematical way, by showing
each digit place as an increasing power of 8.

345 octal = (3 * 82) + (4 * 81) + (5 * 80) = (3 * 64) + (4 * 8) + (5 * 1) = 229 decimal

HEXADECIMAL TO OTHER
1. HEXADECIMAL TO BINARY
Converting from hexadecimal to binary is as easy as converting from binary to
hexadecimal. Simply look up each hexadecimal digit to obtain the equivalent group of
four binary digits.
Hexadecimal: 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Binary: 0000 0001 0010 0011 0100 0101 0110 0111

Hexadecimal: 8 9 A B C D E F

Binary: 1000 1001 1010 1011 1100 1101 1110 1111

Hexadecimal A 2 D E

Binary = 1010 0010 1101 1110 10100010110

binary

2. HEXADECIMAL TO DECIMAL
Convert 42A.1216 into a decimal
number. Solution-
The hexadecimal number given is 4 2 A. 1 2
Positional weights 2 1 0 -1-2
The positional weights for each of the digits are written in italics below each digit.
Hence the decimal equivalent number is given as:
4 × 162+ 2 ×161 + 10 × 161 + 1 × 16−1 + 1 × 16−2
= 1024 + 32 + 10 + 0.0625 + 0.00390625
= (1066.06640625)10

3. HEXADECIMAL TO OCTAL

Given hexadecimal number is A 7 2 E

Binary equivalent is 1010 0111 0010 1110 = 1010011100101110
Forming groups of 3 bits from the LSB 001 010 011 100 101 110
Octal equivalent 1 2 3 4 5 6
Hence the octal equivalent of (𝐴72𝐸)16 is (123456)8 .

ENCODING SCHEMES

American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII)

In the early 1960s, computers had no way of communicating with each other due to
different ways of representing keys of the keyboard. Hence, the need for a common
standard was realised to overcome this shortcoming. Thus, encoding scheme ASCII was
developed for standardising the character representation. ASCII is still the most commonly
used coding scheme.

Initially ASCII used 7 bits to represent characters. Recall that there are only binary digits (0
or 1). Therefore, total number of different characters on the English keyboard that can be
encoded by 7-bit ASCII code is 27 = 128. Following Table shows some printable characters
for ASCII code. But ASCII is able to encode character set of English language only.

Indian Script Code for Information Interchange (ISCII)

In order to facilitate the use of Indian languages on computers, a common standard for
coding Indian scripts called ISCII was developed in India during mid 1980s.

It is an 8-bit code representation for Indian languages which means it can represent 28=256
characters. It retains all 128 ASCII codes and uses rest of the codes (128) for additional
Indian language character set. Additional codes have been assigned in the upper region
(160– 255) for the ‘aksharas’ of the language.

UNICODE

There were many encoding schemes, for character sets of different languages. But they
were not able to communicate with each other, as each of them represented characters in
their own ways. Hence, text created using one encoding scheme was not recognised by
another machine using different encoding scheme.

Therefore, a standard called UNICODE has been developed to incorporate all the characters
of every written language of the world. UNICODE provides a unique number for every
character, irrespective of device (server, desktop, mobile), operating system (Linux,
Windows, iOS) or software application (different browsers, text editors, etc.). Commonly
used UNICODE encodings are UTF-8, UTF-16 and UTF-32. It is a superset of ASCII, and
the values 0–128 have the same character as in ASCII. Unicode characters for Devanagari
script
BOOLEAN LOGIC

Boolean logic: NOT, AND, OR, NAND, NOR, XOR, truth table, De Morgan’s laws and l
circuits
● Number system: Binary, Octal, Decimal and Hexadecimal number system; conversion
bet number systems.
● Encoding schemes: ASCII, ISCII and UNICODE (UTF8, UTF32)
BOOLEAN LOGIC
● Boolean logic refers to Boolean Algebra which values of variables are the truth
values True or False. These values have two states either on or off denoted by 0 or 1.
● George Boole invented the first way of manipulating symbolic logic, which later
became known as Boolean Algebra. Because of its vast applications in switching
theory, developing basic electronic circuits, and designing digital computers,
Boolean algebra has become a vital tool in computer science.
1. NOT OPERATION:

It handles only a single variable. The operation performed by NOT is known as

complementation.

A A’

0 1

1 0
2. OR OPERATION:
It is also a binary operator that operates on two variables. The result of the OR
operator is also known as logical addition. The symbol is used for OR is plus (+).
The output is true if either one or two inputs are “true”. IF both false it produce false
result.

X Y X+Y

0 0 0

0 1 1

1 0 1

1 1 1

3. AND OPERATION:
It is a binary operator that operates on two variables and the result of the AND
operator is known as logical multiplication. To denote AND operator dot(.) symbol
is used.
AND means that A & B. When both inputs are true then it produce true result,
otherwise false.

X Y X.Y

0 0 0

0 1 0

1 0 0

1 1 1
4. NAND OPERATION:
It stands for NOT AND that produce reverse result of AND gate.

X Y (X.Y)’

0 0 1

0 1 1

1 0 1

1 1 0

5. NOR OPERATION:
It stands for NOT OR. It produces reverse output than the OR gate.

X Y (X+Y)’

0 0 1

0 1 0

1 0 0

1 1 0

6. XOR OPERATION:
It produces high output if the input of 1s is odd, otherwise false.
 X Y X⊕Y

0 0 0

0 1 1

1 0 1

1 1 0

7. EX-NOR OPERATION:

X Y (X⊕Y)’

0 0 1

0 1 0

1 0 0

1 1 1

ic Laws

De Morgan's Law:
First De Morgan's Law states that when two or more input variables (A, B) are OR’ed and
then negated, the result is equal to the AND of the complements of the individual input
variables.
(A+B)’ = A’ . B’
To prove this theorem we can use the truth table as given below:
A B A+B (A+B)’ A’ B’ A’.B’

0 0 0 1 1 1 1

0 1 1 0 1 0 0

1 0 1 0 0 1 0

1 1 1 0 0 0 0

Second De Morgan's Law states that when two or more input variables are AND'ed and
negated, then the obtained result will be equal to the OR of the complements of the
individual variables.
(A.B)’ = A’+B’
Using the truth table, we can prove this as follows:
A B A.B (A.B)’ A’ B’ A’+B’
0 0 0 1 1 1 1
0 1 0 1 1 0 1
1 0 0 1 0 1 1
1 1 1 0 0 0 0