EXPLORATORY GENERAL SHOP

FOR JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL

A Project
Presented To
the Faculty of the School of Education
The University of Southern California

In Partial Fulfillment
of the Requirements for the Degree
Master- of Science in Education

by
August M. Colombo
August 1950
 UMI Number: EP46246

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 £1. 's/ e-nrf
T h i s p r o j e c t 'r e p o r t , w r i t t e n u n d e r the d ire c tio n
o f the c a n d id a te 1s a d v is e r a n d a p p r o v e d by h im ,
has been presented to a n d a ccepted by the F a c u l t y
o f the S c h o o l o f E d u c a t io n in p a r t i a l f u l f i l l m e n t of
the re q u ire m e n ts f o r the degree o f M a s t e r of
Science in E d u c a tio n .

Date

A d v is e r

Dean
 ii
TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER PAGE
1. INTRODUCTION ....... ......... 1
2. AIMS AND OBJECTIVES ............................. 3
A. Aims of Industrial Arts ....... 3
B. Aims of the General Shop ..... 7
3. UNITS OF CONTENT FOR A GENERAL SHOP .... 10
A. Criteria for Selecting Units .... 10
1. General Source for SubjectMatter 10
B. Number and Types of Units ................ .•••• 12
1. Factors in Selection .... 14
2• Purchasing ....... 15
3. Use, Upkeep, and Replacement .... 16
4. Placing Equipment .... 17
PART II. GENERAL SHOP
CONTENT AND TEACHING TECHNIQUE
4. TEACHING UNIT ..... 20
5. WOODWORKING UNIT ........ 22
A. Tools and Equipment ....... •••• 22
B. Operation Sheets ............ • 23
How to use the crosscut saw and theripsaw ..... 24
How to bore holes with an auger bit..••....•••• 26
How to layout irregular designs 28
How to saw curves ....... 30
How to use the jack plane 32
 ill
CHAPTER PAGE
How to sand an unfinished surface 35
How to glue up stock ........................... 37
How to fasten stock with screws ................ 39
How to finish wood surfaces .......... 42
How to apply inside paint on new wood ••.•••.••« 44
G. Suggested Wood Projects ••••••..... 46
6. GENERAL METAL UNIT ............... 47
A. Tools and Equipment •••• 47
B. Operation Sheets •«•••••• 49
How to light the gas furnace 50
How to use hand snips 52
How to cut sheet metal with a cold chisel ...... 54
How to cut metal with a hacksaw •...•••...•••••• 57
How to cut heavy metal with a flat chisel ..•••• 60
How to drill a hole ona drill press ....... 62
How to tap a hole ................ 64
How to rivet sheet metal....................... 66
How to shape metal byforging .................. 68
How to temper steel ••*.......... 70
C. Suggested General Metal Projects 72
7. ELECTRICAL UNIT .... t ....... 73
A. Tools and Equipment .... 73
B. Operation Sheets ......... 74
How to read the electric meter ......... 75
 iv
CHAPTER PAGE
How to make a western union splice ..... 77
How to replace a fuse .... 79
How to attach a separable plug ................ 81
How to attach a lamp socket •........ .. 83
How to connect dry cells in parallel 85
How to connect dry cells in series ••.•••.,..•• 87
How to connect electrical resistances in paral­
lel 89
How to connect electrical resistances in series 91
How to Install electric bells ........ 93
C. Suggested Electrical Projects ................. 95
8. HOME-MECHANICS PHIT ............................ .. 96
A. Tools and Equipment .... 96
B. OperationSheets .................... 96
How to sharpen kitchen knives .............. 97
How to renew window shades •••*......... 99
.

How to replace screen wire ........... 101

How to cut and glaze glass ....... 104
How to tighten a loose tenon .107
How to clean the gas burner ...... 110
How to repair a compression faucet • 112
How to repair a fuller faucet 114
How to repair holes in plaster ....... 116
How to repair a leaky flush tank. 119
CHAPTER PAGE
C. Suggested Home Mechanics Projects .....•••••• 122
9, DRAFTING UNIT ....... . 123
A* Tools and Equipment ....... 123
5. Operation Sheets ..... 123
How to lay out a drawing sheet ...... 124
How to select and arrange view for a working
drawing ...... 126
How to make a simple free-handworking drawing 128
How to divide a straight line into any number of
equal parts 130
How to make an isometric drawing 132
How to draw sectional views ......... 134
How to make the development ofa cone •••.«•••• 133
G. Suggested Drafting Projects ..... 138
BIBLIOGRAPHY .........................
 1
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

The coming of the junior high school as an exploratory

school provided a nearly ready-made, logical, and significant
field for the industrial arts in general education* In keep­
ing with the junior high school scheme of school organization,
the general shop division of the industrial arts, through its
diversified program of shop work, provides an unusually fine
opportunity for serving all students in an exploratory capac­
ity* It also serves to provide the vocational first step of
self and occupation-finding so far as industrial education
and careers are concerned*
The concept of industrial arts as a phase of the explor­
atory function of the junior high school is invariably ac­
companied by the idea of an enrichment of the "educative” or
informational content of the courses* This tendency is in
the direction of offering an acquaintance with a variety of
industrial occupations as a part of the program of the junior
high school, enabling a boy to find himself and helping him
somewhat in choosing his future occupation. Professor Bux­
ton, then of the Stout Institute, wrote:
"The introduction of many kinds of work is not proposed
for the development of a considerable degree of skill in each
of several mechanical trades. It is urged, however, for an
understanding of the elements of several trades while carry­
ing on regular school studies. In every case it is advised
 2
that sufficient time be provided, for each, subject for a grasp
of its meaning, for a detailed analysis of selected phases of
it, and for practice in certain of its operations. In order
to accomplish this purpose it is desirable to have several
small shops equipped with tools, machines, and benches, se­
lected for this particular use. . It is also practicable to
combine two or more of such shop equipments in one room, and
this arrangement is to be preferred in smaller communities,
where one teacher will handle more than one subject." (6:285)
 3
CHAPTER 2. AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

Changes in social and economic conditions have affected

education, in many ways, especially so in the field of Indus­
trial arts education. Formerly, woodworking was practically
the only subject offered in the field of industrial arts;
however, as the concept of exploration became stressed for
students in junior high school, it became apparent to many
leaders that the prevalent wood and metal shops were inade­
quate. If explorations of interests and of industries were
to be provided, an extensive offering of shop experiences
was necessary.
Both the ideas of exploration and of understanding the
processes, the social and economic meaning, the materials,
and products of modern industry, made emphatic the necessity
of experience with numerous materials and processes that was
the immediate cause of the appearance of the general or di­
versified shop.
The manual training courses of the past with their em­
phasis on tool processes, joints, and clumsy furniture do not
fit our youth to cope with the mechanically complicated and
technical challenging machines and devices of this age.
A. Aims of Industrial Arts.
Present-day interpretations of the meaning of the term
ttIndustrial Art3M vary but little, although definitions may
differ in wording. Probably the most clearly expressed def-
inition is the following:
‘'Industrial arts is a phase of general education that
concerns itself with materials, processes, and products of
manufacture, and with the contribution of those engaged in
industry* The learnings come through the pupils' experiences
with tools and materials and through his study of resultant
conditions of life*" (31:17)
It seems logical to assume that each of the subjects
within the junior high school should have for its aims those
which are held for the school as a whole. The objectives as
listed are grouped together to portray the overall picture
of industrial arts objectives:
1. CITIZENSHIP: Feeling of devotion to the best in­
terests of nation, community, school, home, and
friends•
2* CHARACTER: Straight forwardness and sincerity in
personal relationships and willingness to assume
responsibility for ones' acts.
3. DEMOCRATIC PROCEDURE: Willingness to subordinate
personal advantage to the benefit or advantage of
the common welfare.
4. SOCIAL SENSITIVITY: Understanding the rights and
obligations of other individuals as well as one's
own rights and obligations.
5. COOPERATIVE ATTITUDES: ,Willingness to join group
 activity and to assist others.
6. INTEREST IN INDUSTRY: Active interest in industrial
life and in the methods and problems of Industry.
7. SELF-DISCIPLINE AND INITIATIVE: Resourcefulness in
meeting practical situations and the development of
habits In self-discipline and reliance.
8. SAFETY AND HEALTH: Development of desirable atti­
tudes and practices toward health and safety.
9. ORDERLY PERFORMANCE: Ability to act In logical or­
der toward successful ends.
10. CREATIVENESS: Ability to express ideas and build
the new in improved ways.
11. APPRECIATION: Of design, workmanship, and the abil­
ity to select, care for, and use industrial products
wisely.
12. VERSATILITY: Ability to turn from one task to an­
other and accomplish these tasks with acceptable
standards•
15. PLAN A JOB: Ability to list In logical procedure,
a working plan that will bring a job to a success­
ful completion.
14. DEVELOPMENT OF KNOWLEDGE AND SKILL: Ability of
skill In the use of common tools and machines and
understanding of the problems involved in common
types of construction and repairs.
 6
15. OCCUPATIONAL INFORMATIONS Experience with know­
ledge and skills of various occupations, for the
selection of vocation through a background of try­
out experiences and self-selection*
16* JUDGMENT: Ability to withhold opinions until suf­
ficient evidence is available or to revise opinions
in the light of new experiences.
17. PEE-INDUCTIONS: Ability to accomplish that which
could be used to promote national security in time
of war.
18. VOCABULARY: Ability to write or converse in the
correct terminology of the Industrial field*
*
The above listed objectives were formulated from notes
taken In a teaching methods course (Ed. 112) taught by Mr.
Neuthardt of State Teachers College, Buffalo, New York*
The attainment of these objectives depends on the infor­
mation and methods used to carry out such objectives in addi­
tion to the conscious effort on the part of the teacher. The
unique organization and methods used in the Industrial arts
shop offers numerous opportunities to carry out the object­
ives listed.
Based upon modern philosophy of child interest instead
of adult life problems serves as the basis of Instruction.
The general shop, labratory is the best type of industrial
arts shop equipped to achieve the objectives of education in
 7
general and industrial arts in particular in the light of
progressive educational philosophy.
The fundamental significance of the industrial arts in
modern education is very well stated by Bonsers
"industrial arts is the study that enlists all of the
learning and active impulses and abilities of children man­
ipulative, investigative, esthetic, and social. It repre­
sents fields of real need in both child life and adult life.
It uses the minds of children quite as much as their hands.
It leads on to related fields of cultural content, giving a
basis for interest in and appreciation for much of history,
geography, science, literature, and art for which children
otherwise would have no approach nor any adequate means of
understanding." (4:105)
It is evident then that industrial arts has a large and
basic place in an efficient educational program.
B. Aims of the General Shop.
The general shop with its varied program and emphasis
on the learning side as well as on the doing side offers a
solution to the needs of the boy in the junior high school.
The pupil must know and be able to use several of the materi­
als of industry and the general shop offers opportunity to
learn of these other materials as well as to use them.
The twelfth objective in the "Standards of Attainment
in Industrial Arts", represents the fundamental idea of the
 8
general shop where the shop is not simply a group of shops
based upon vocational divisions but is characterized by the
offering of several types of shop experiences in one shop
under the instruction of one teacher.
Some of the objectives attainable through the general
shop as a coordination of various industrial arts work as
stated by the Michigan Industrial Education Society.
1. To set up ideals of good workmanship, the disposi­
tion to do ones1 best.
2. To promote creative self-expression.
3. To develop attitudes of responsibility, cooperation,
thoroughness, accuracy, perserverance, and neatness.
4. To develop physical, and mental coordination in the
use of common tools and materials.
5. To develop initiative in creative thinking.
6. To awaken avocational and vocational interests.
7. To develop an appreciation of harmonious relations
in form, color, and details of design.
8. To develop an understanding of the practical appli­
cations of mathematics and science to various com­
mon products of the industries.
9* To develop an appreciation of our debt to industrial
workers. (10:5)
Along with these general objectives the general shop
teacher has several specific aims:
 1* To develop some skill with, and information about
the tools, materials, drawings, etc., which are
commonly used in and about the home.
2. To provide the chance for creative experience in
arts and crafts for avocational purposes.
3. To provide early opportunities for boys and girls
to make and do things which they desire to do with
tools and materials.
The Chicago industrial arts labratory plan states the
guiding philosophy of the industrial arts as follows:
1. Interpret the modern industrial and trade world to
boys in high school*
2. Provide handwork experiences with a variety of tools
and construction materials typical of modern trade
and industrial life.
3* Provide opportunities for developing desirable per­
sonality and social traits.
4. They provide craft experiences for leisure time and
promote the development of the home workshop.
From these objectives it can be seen that the plan is
not vocational but motivated by the purpose of general educ­
ation. This plan gives exploratory experience in the field
of modern industry, and makes a contribution along with all
school and social agencies to the cultural, social, and voc­
ational growth needs of junior high school boys.
 10
CHAPTER 3. UNITS OF CONTENT FOR A GENERAL SHOP

Criteria for Selecting Units.

1. GENERAL SOURCE FOR SUBJECT MATTER: .The general
source for the selection of the subject matter for
a program in industrial arts is in industry itself.
Dr. Proffitt points out:
"The subject matter and experiences of indus­
trial arts are derived from the type of society in
which people now find themselves." (30:14)
Surveys of practically all of the trades are
available in published form including materials and
subject matter already tested. Often a community
survey is advantageous to make a study of the in­
dustrial arts needs of the community, as well as to

find out what the boy might do after he gets out of

school. Mays confirms this by saying:
"The local program must be based upon local
needs. Local needs, if they are to be met effec­
tively, must be accurately ascertained. Hence the
first important factor in the development of a local
program of Industrial education is the local survey
of training needs." (26:14)
In a community where trades and industrial pur­
suits are limited it is necessary to give an oppor­
tunity to work with tools and materials representa-
 11
tive of the various trades not necessarily local.
The problem of a suitable core content for the gen­
eral shop is not completely solved for the equipment,
school facilities, and opportunities also effect the
type of program introduced*
A course of shop problems in the general shop
should be based upon first, the life interests and
needs of the pupil groups, second, the essential
characteristics, materials, and operations of the
several occupations represented; and third, the
fullest use of the equipment available.
Since life interests differ with pupils, it is
necessary to make industrial arts instruction flex­
ible and to have it in a continuous evolution. It
is necessary, however, to construct an outline plan
for each term and not leave organization to inspira­
tion and the chance that the teacher will make a
timely discovery of the exact need of every pupil.
Dr. Verne Fryklund stresses that:
"System and organization are necessary in in­
dustrial arts education if there is to be assurance
of creative learning. The teacher should know how
to organize a course of study to make it fit into
the whole purpose and plan of education." (13:113)
The amount and kind of equipment vary in dif-
 12
ferent schools, and while this is usually a matter
that can he controlled, it is well to think of the
problems for a course in terms of the tools and ma­
chines to which pupils have access both at home and
outside of school.
B. Number and Types of Units.
The selection of units for a course in a general shop
program has its difficulties even after a complete survey.
If an Industrial arts shop is to be considered as a labora­
tory in which a boy may become familiar with many materials
and become acquainted with some of the problems that appear
in several industries it seems probable that the scope of
such a shop will gradually enlarge to include some instruc­
tion in many of the basic industries. Regardless of the
tools or trades in the vicinity of the school which may be
emphasized in a course of study there is no reason why other
trades or industries could not be incorporated in the course.
The writers on the subject of curriculum making seem to
agree generally on five or six basic industries from which
to select shop courses. The following subjects have been
selected as the most prevalent taught in school in the United
States: (1) Woodwork, (2) Sheet Metal work, (3) Electricity,
(4) &uto-mechanics, (5) Printing, (6) Mechanical Drawing,
(7) Gement and Concrete work, (8) Home Mechanics, (9) General
shop, (10) General Metalwork, (11) Blacksmithing, (12) Machine
 15
shop.
Some of these subjects can be combined in a general shop.
For instance, sheet metal work can be incorporated in the gen­
eral metal course.
Ericson (11:526) has compiled a fairly uniform group of
subjects accepted for short courses. Under the classifica­
tion there are these five courses: (1) Woodwork, (2) Elec­
trical work, (5) Drawing, (4) Metalwork, and (5) Printing.
The tendency is to organize the shop courses into large
areas of industry designed to interpret the modern industrial
and trade world. The general shop is considered a laboratory
and is to the study of the industries and building trades
what general science is to science. Its intention is to give
an overview of a large section of the worlds* work and an
acquaintance with a variety of tools and materials. The tool
skills and related Information taught in these industrial
arts laboratories are valuable for general education and may
serve as a foundation for future general education.
The number of units to be incorporated in a general shop
program will depend mostly upon these four conditions: (1)
The building space and equipment available, (2) The ability
and number of teaching force, (5) The financial situation, and
(4) The administrative policy.
Most of the course of study reviewed and opinions of the
leaders in the industrial arts field emphasize that four to
 14
six units constitute the ideal number for a shop program.
(4, 5, 10, 13) This number generally includes the following:
(1) Woodwork, (2) Electricity, (3) Metal work, (4) Drawing,
(5) Printing, (6) Ceramics, and Plastics. Some leaders; how­
ever, caution us about the dangers of incorporating too many
units in the establishment of a general shop. (33:423)
The equipment of a general shop should represent in its
appointments a wide range of activities. School shop equip­
ments are limited, in most cases, by the money that is avail­
able. Equipment should be considered then, from this stand­
point as well as from the purpose of the shop program. It
must be recognized that schools, can hardly duplicate indus­
trialplants, therefore the decision rests with schools to
decide just what quality of workmanship and finish are re­
quired for the instructional program. Appropiation there­
fore should be expended more extensively than intensively
and over a period of time rather than all at once.
1. Factors in Selection. In selecting equipment for
a general shop it is necessary to specify just what
the student is ttto learn to do." The course of
study should contain the operations or jobs that
are to be taught. Each course must be analyzed
carefully to determine just what tools, materials,
and machines are necessary. To do this an activity
of job analysis must precede the selection of equip-
 15
and supply list. Then tools, materials, and ma­
chines can be purchased intelligently for the course
under construction.
The general shop being equipped and planned for
a large variety of work to be carried on simultane­
ously, the work stations must be in such positions
to avoid confusion and duplication of equipment.
The method of selection is to make a thorough activ­
ity analysis of each course to be taught in the
shop, and list the tools and machines required.
Then cross check these lists so there is no dupli­
cation.
Power machinery must be selected with a number
of factors to consider, size and weight, length of
service, and absolescence. Manufacturers have de­
veloped safe, small, sturdy, representative machines
which are portable and well within most school bud­
get limitations. Machines and tools must be care­
fully selected, though usually designed for a spe­
cific trade, they must serve a multitude of functions
in a school shop.
Purchasing. Supplies and equipment should be pur­
chased according to a definite plan. Requisitions
are based on aims, shop policies, offerings of the
shop, activities, and the number of pupils to be
 16
provided for*
Proffitt (30:119) states a number of factors
to consider when making purchases* They include:
1, A legitimate reason for requesting supplies and
equipment •
2. A thorough description of the items, including
name, size, grade, quantity, and quality*
3* Definite specifications*
4* Personal knowledge regarding materials desired*
5. Desirability of local dealers whenever possible*
6* Desirability of ordering supplies on a yearly
basis*
7* Analysis of all needs as far as possible, making
an allowance for emergencies.
Use, Upkeep, and Replacement. Equipment in the
school shop is strictly for instructional purposes.
Pupils should understand that it is public property
and a necessary part of the instructional program.
A definite policy of upkeep and repair should
be established* Most of the upkeep can be managed
by the instructor and the class, provided the work
has educational value and does not interfere too
seriously with the program of instruction. However,
the equipment of the general shop is so diversified
that many times only an expert in machine construe-
 17
tion can proficiently make all the needed repairs.
k definite continuing policy regarding replace­
ment of absolete and worn out equipment should be
established. School equipment is often misused by
young and careless learners. Machines do not nec­
essarily become absolete insofar as their purpose
is to teach fundamental processes. However, stand­
ards of safety for the operator are always changing
and standards of economy of power have changedj
consequently, an approximate estimate must be made
as to the length of use either for replacement or
remodeling.
Placing Equipment. When a decision has been made
as to the extent of equipment to be placed in the

shop it is well to have a scale drawing made of the

floor plan. Then, in order that the equipment may
be placed to the best advantage, the following pro­
cedure may be observed.
Determine the size of benches, machines, and
equipment. Draw these to scale in the form of small
rectangles upon a cardboard. Cut them out and place
them around the floor plan* k number of combina­
tions can be tried to eventually arrive at the best
and final arrangement. The arrangement can now be
drawn on the floor plan.
 18
The placement of equipment involves some other
observations such as safety, adequacy of light,
grouping of like equipment and machines, production
flow, and the availability to students and the in­
structor* A circular saw must be placed where there
is room to handle long lengths of lumber, a power
hack saw must be placed where long pieces can be
cut, and machines should be placed with reference
to correct light facilities*
The small school system in most cases has a
rather definite limitation as to room and equipment
therefore while a large variety of shop units may
seem desirable from an educational standpoint, a
selection of about four or five units is usually
made* The activities chosen will naturally be those
which best fit the situation when all factors are
considered.
 19

PART II. GENERAL SHOP

CONTENT AND TEACHING TECHNIQUE

The material in this section is arranged for a class of

approximately 20 to 25 students. The class will he divided
into groups of 4 or 5 students and each group will spend a
designated period of time on phases of woodwork, metalwork,
electricity, home mechanics, and drafting.
The units of instruction are a series of operation
sheets selected on the basis of exploratory value from a
break-down of the subject phase and in keeping with the aims
of general education and the general shop.
 CHAPTER. 4. TEACHING UNIT

The historical aspects of the various industries, some

of the different and specific aspects of each field, and the
various occupations based on each individual field and their
relationship to our civilization will be the basis for the
informational section of the course. However, the manipula­
tive activity of the class will consist of at least 75 per­
cent of the time alloted.
Demonstrations, shop talks, audio-visual aids, and In­
struction sheets will be used as the means of instruction.
The instruction or operation sheets will be used as an aid
to the teacher to allow more time for Individual instruction,
to permit students to progress individually, and to allow
late comers to enter the course without missing important work.
Interest will be developed by relating the students job
with his every day activities and by illustrating a final or
future application. A student personal organization will be
in process and students will participate in demonstrations
whenever possible.
Only projects which contribute to the aims of general
education and the aims of the general shop have been select­
ed. There will be a limited number of required projects
which will be assigned on a scale of increasing difficulty.
Skill will not be a main factor as the course will be of an
exploratory nature, however, the highest standards that a
 21
pupil can attain will be expected of him. The student will
he allowed to progress at his own rate and can make projects
of his own desires after he-has completed the required pro­
jects, provided only that they contribute to his general ed­
ucation and are within his ability and means.
 22
CHAPTER 5. WOODWORKING UNIT

The general shop woodworking division provides the basic

operations, important technical information, a number of prob­
lems or projects, and related information of a cultural na­
ture.
A. Tools and Equipment.
The following list contains the amount of tools and e-
quipment needed for five students.
Four-pupil benches with rapid-acting vises ••..«•••• 2
Smoothing plane and bits, 8 ”
Two-foot rulers 2
Try squares, 6"
Marking gauges ........................
Screwdrivers, 8" ................. 3

Backsaws ............... 5
Brace, 5** swing
Tool grinder (motor driven) .......... 1
Gluepot .........................
Ripsaw, 2 2 % 7 point ................
Crosscut saws, 2 2 % 8 point 2
Cabinetmakers' clamps, 5' 8
Jack planes, 14"
Set of auger bits .................
Countersink 1
Nail sets, cup points 2
 23
Oilstones, l" x 2“ x 8 ” (double faced) ••••••«•••••• 2
Bell-faced hammers .............. .................. 5
Bench brushes .... 5
Mallets 5
Yardstick 1
Braces, Ratchet, 6” swing 2
Coping saws ........................................ 5
Wood files, 10” 5
Wing dividers, 6” .................................. 5
Block planes .... 2
Set of socket chisels .••••............ 1
Adjustable handserews, 14“ jaw ..................... 2
Carpenters* steel square ..... 1
"Tw bevel, 6“ 1
Spokeshave ....... 1
Milter saw ......... 1
Saw set ......... 1
Saw files .... 6
Yankee drill ...... 1
Spirit level .... 1
Universal saw bench or bench saw 1
Jig saw 1
B. Operation Sheets,
The following operation sheets cover the fundamental
processes needed for an exploratory woodworking course.
 24
HOW TO USE THE CROSSCUT SAW AND THE RIPSAW

ATTENTION; You can learn to saw to a straight line the

easy way.
HERE1S HOW; The following steps will show you how to
do a good job.
1. Measure the length desired and square a line across
the stock, using a square and a sharp pencil.
(a) If large stock Is to be cut, place it on a saw­
horse.
2. Start the cut by placing the cutting edge of the
saw near the line on the waste side of the stock.
(a) Use a crosscut saw, Pig. la, for sawing across
the grain of the wood.

(b) Use a ripsaw, Pig. lb, for ripping or sawing

with the grain of the wood.

Pig. la. Teeth Of Fig. lb. Teeth

Cross-cutting Saw Of A Ripsaw
3. Use short strokes until the saw has been started

•straight with the line and then take full-length,

even strokes.
4. Sight along the side of the saw blade and the line
 to be followed, so that a straight kerf may he cut.
5* With a try square test to so© that the side of the
saw blade and the surface of the stock are at right
angles.
(a) The direction of the cut may be changed by
twisting the handle slightly in the direction
to be followed.
6. With the left hand, support the stock on the outside
of the saw to prevent stock from splitting under its
own weight.
7* Finish cutting off the stock with short strokes.
HOW THY IT: Make yourself that project you have always
wanted or a gift for that certain person.
CHECK YOURSELF: Grade yourself from one to four points
on the following items;
1. Did you use the correct saw for cutting across the
grain of the wood?
2* Did you let the stock split while taking the finish­
ing cuts because you neglected to support it?
3. Did.you follow the guide line accurately?
4. What kind of saw is used for cutting with the grain
of the wood?
 26
HOW TO BORE HOLES WITH AN AUGER BIT

ATTENTION: You can easily bore holes in any of your

wood projects without having unsightly split sections where
the bit breaks through to mar your work*
HERE1S HOW: By following these steps as directed you
can bore holes in wood accurately and without splitting the
wood*
1. Locate the center of the
hole to be bored.
2* Select the kind and size
of bit needed.
3. Insert the tang of the bit
into the chuck of the brace
Pig. 1. Boring
Through Wood so that the corners of the
tang fit into the jaws of
the chuck.

4. Place the point of the bit

on the center mark and sight
from two sides of the bit
to get it as nearly perpen­
Pig. 2. Finish
Boring Hole dicular to the surface of
the stock as possible.
5. Revolve the crank in a clock­
wise direction, sighting for
straightness as the bit en-
 27
ters the wood.
6. Continue boring until the spur of the bit can be
felt on the opposite surface of the stock. Pig. 1.
7. Reverse the faces of the stock.
8. Place the spur of the bit in the hole made by it
when boring from the other side. Fig. 2.
9. Finish boring from this side, being careful to keep
the bit perpendicular to the wood. Steps 8 and 9
are called ’’counter boring” and are done to prevent
splitting the wood, which often occurs when boring
entirely through from one side.
SOW TRY IT.? When boring holes in any of your wood pro­
jects be sure to reverse the wood and finish boring the hole
from the opposite side.
CHECK YOURSELF: Cheek your work. Grade yourself from
one to four points on the following itemss
1. Did you locate and mark the exact center of the hole
to be bored?
2. Is the hole perpendicular to the face of the wood?
3. Is the hole In the correct side?
4. Did you bore the hole without splitting the wood?
 28
HOW TO LAYOUT IRREGULAR DESIGNS

ATTENTIONS You can learn how to layout any combination

of curved designs for your desired projects.
HERE*S HOWs The following steps will show you how.
1. Obtain a heavy piece of cardboard large enough to
use for laying out, in full scale, half the pattern
of your curved design.
2 . Lay off the cardboard in | or 1 inch squares.
3. (a) Draw the curved design through the squares on
the cardboard that correspond to those on the
drawing, if you are transferring the design
from a scale pattern.
(b) If the curved design is to be original, sketch
off the curves on the cardboard lightly with a
pencil, using the right-hand edge of the card­
board as the center axis of the pattern. See
Fig. 1.
4. Examine the design care­
fully and Improve it if
possible.
S'
£
5. After you have improved
the design, make the cur­
Fig. 1. Graph For
ved lines heavier. Transferring Design

6. Gut out the pattern.

7. Lay the pattern on the stock with the right-hand
 edge of the pattern on the center line marked on
the stock, and mark off the first half of the design
See Fig. 2.
8. Turn the pattern over
and mark the other half
of the design.

Fig. 2. Laying Out

Design With Pattern
MOW TRY IT: Obtain some patterns of projects you would
like to make and enlarge them to make a template of the de­
sired size. Or better still, design some projects of your
own.
CHECK YOURSELF: Give yourself one to three points on
the following items:
1. Were you careful to lay out the squares accurately?
2. Did you make exactly half of the pattern?
3. Was each side of the finished project exactly the
same?
 50
HOW TO SAW CURVES

ATTENTION: You too can cut intricate curved shapes and

pierced designs for your projects.
HERE1S HOW: The following procedure will show you how.
1. Trace design on the
face surface.
2. Clamp stock in vise
and select proper saw.
(a) Use the turning
saw if stock is
more than f inch
thick. Fig. 1.
(b) Use a coping saw
if the stock is ?
Fig. 1. Cutting
inch or less in With Turning Saw
thickness. See
Fig. 2.
(c) A compass saw is
generally used for
cutting inside
curves. Fig. 5.
3. Start the saw on the
pull stroke and cut
just outside the line
Fig. 2.' '
on the waste side. Cutting With Coping Saw
 31
4. To change the course
of the saw, keep the
frame of the saw in
position but turn the
handle of the blade,
so that the saw will
cut the curve desired.
5. If an inside curve is
to be cut, a hole must
be drilled in the waste
Fig. 3. Cutting With
part of the stock. See A Compass Saw
Pig. 3.
MOW THY IT: Make yourself an attractive wall shelf or
garden ornament.
CHECK YOURSELF: Grade your work. Give yourself one to
three points on the following items:
1. Did you cut close to the guide line on the waste
side of the stock?
2. Did you hold the stock to prevent vibration and
thus prevent breaking-of saw blades?
3. Did you drill the hole in the waste side of the
stock when you cut the inside curves?
 32
HOW TO USE THE JACK PLANE

ATTENTION: You can now learn to make a wood surface

straight and smooth effortlessly and efficiently.
HERE!S HOW: The following steps will help you do a
good job.
1. Hold the plane, bottom-side up, and adjust the
blade in parallel to the sole of the plane and set
to the proper depth.
2. Clamp the stock in the vise.
3 . Determine the direction of the grain before starting,
(a) If you are unable to determine the direction, a
stroke or two with the plane will tell.
4 . Hold the plane with
the left hand on the
knob and the right
hand on the handle.
See Pig. 1.
5. Place toe of plane on
the stock, push the
plane the full length
of the piece, apply
Fig. 1. Holding
pressure on the knob Jack Plane
when starting stroke

and on the handle in

finishing the stroke.
 33
See Fig. 2.
6. Continue planing un­
til the surface has
been smoothed. Pressure
7. Test for levelness
with a try square
and straight edge.
8. Use short strokes if
Fig* 2. Planing An Edge
necessary to remove
high places on the
stock.
(a) Keep the side of the plane parallel with the
face of the stock when planing edge grain.
9. A block plane is generally used for planing end

Fig. 3. Three Methods Of Planing End Grain

grain, but a jack plane may be used. See Fig. 3.

MOW TRY IT: Plane all surfaces of your wood projects
to assure minimum effort when sanding and assembling your
 54
projects*
CHECK YOURSELF: Grade your work* Give yourself from
one to four points on the following items:
1* Did you adjust the plane for a thin shaving and
plane with the grain to assure a true, smooth sur­
face?
2* Did you keep the side of the plane parallel with
the face surface when you planed the edge grain?
3* Did you apply pressure at the correct points to as­
sure a true surface?
4* Did you take the necessary precautions to prevent
the wood from splitting when planing end grain?
 HOW TO SAND AN UNFINISHED SURFACE

ATTENTION; You can save energy and still obtain a bet­

ter prepared surface for finishing*
HERE’S HOW; The following steps will help you do your
best work*
1* Make sure that the surface has been properly planed
and scraped before beginning to sand*
2. Select the proper grade of sandpaper,
(a) Use the coarser grades of sandpaper for the
first sanding.
(b) Limber the sandpaper by drawing it across the
arris of a bench.
(c) Tear a sheet of sandpaper into either four or
six pieces and obtain a sandblock to fit the
sandpaper size.
3. Use a sandblock and rub back and forth until the
surface is uniformly smooth.
(a) Sand only with the grain to prevent scratches
that would show on the finished project.
(b) On curved surfaces use a block whenever it is
possible.
4. Continue the sanding by selecting the finer grades
in order.
(a) Number l/O usually produces a satisfactory sur­
face for the application of a finish.
 NOW TRY IT; Prepare your project or a piece of unfin­
ished furniture for a good finish#
CHECK YOURSELF; Grade yourself from one to four points
on the following items:
1# Did you remember to always sand with the grain of
the wood?
2# Did you use a sanding block to obtain a smooth uni­
form surface?
3# Did you prepare the surface with a plane or scraper
before sanding?
4# Did you obtain a smooth, unblemished surface now
ready for finishing?
 37
HOW TO GLUE UP STOCK

ATTENTION: You can glue your projects together and make

the joints stronger than the wood itself.
HERE1S HOW: The following procedure will enable you to
join wood together for an indefinite period of time.
1. Start the preparation in time so that it will be
ready when needed, ifhot glue is going to be used.
If a cold glue is used, note the special directions
of the manufacturers.
2. For edge-to-edge gluing, select'the best faee of
each piece. This faee should be planed true*
3. Place arrows on the finished face to show the di­
rection of the grain.
4. Arrange the pieces so that grain goes in the same
direction and so that the annual rings are alter­
nated. Then mark joints with pencil lines to assure
proper re-arrangement. Fig. 1.
5. Plane or joint the edges.
(a) On long pieces
leave a slight
amount of spring
(slight opening)•
in the center of
the joint. See
Fig. 1. Arrangement Of
Fig. 2. Pieces For Gluing
 38
6. Make a trial assembly
to see if the joints
come together prop-
Fig. 2. Fitted
erly. Jointed Edge
7. Set the clamps at the proper length and have every­
thing in readiness for gluing.
8. Apply glue to as many edges as possible at one time,
(a) Work as fast as you can when using hot glue.
9. Place pieces in the bar clamps. Apply a moderate
amount of pressure and put away to dry.
(a) Alternate clamps to prevent buckling.
(b) Allow about 12 hours drying before removing
clamps*
HOW TRY IT: Repair that warped table top and put to use
pieces of furniture that have been discarded because of loose
joints.
CHECK YOURSELF: Give yourself one to four points on the
following items:
1* Did you arrange the pieces so that the annual rings
were alternate to each other?
2. Did you mark each joint to assure proper assembling?
3* Did you remember to have everything in readiness to
assure rapid assembly before applying the glue?
4. Did your work result with a neat, strong joint?
 39
HOW TO FASTEN STOGK WITH SCREWS

ATTENTION: Yota can put your project together with wood-

screws without damage to the wood or the screws.
HERE*S HOW: The following steps will illustrate how to
do a good joh.
1. Locate the centers for
Shank
the holes where the
screws are to he used. Core
2. Select a drill hit that
i3 just large enough Pilot Hole

to take the shank of

Anchor Hole
the screw.
3. Place the point of the Fig. 1. Pilot
And Anchor Hole
hit on the center mark
and drill the pilot
hole. See Fig. 1.
Scratch Awl
(a) Be sure to keep
the hit perpen­
dicular to the
surface heing
drilled.
4. Bore all other pilot Fig. 2. Marking
Anchor Hole
holes.
5* Lay the stock in pos­
ition on the piece to
 40
which it is to be fas­
tened and mark the cen­
ter of the anchor hole
with a scratch awl.
See Fig. 2.
6. Select a drill smaller
than the screw core
and drill the anchor
Pig. 3. Countersinking
hole to a depth slight­
ly less than the dis­
tance the screw will
enter into the wood. 1
7. If flat head screws
are to be used, counter­
Pig. 4, Screws
sink the pilot hole un­ Properly Installed
til the head of the screw will sink flush with the
surface of the wood. See Pig. 3.
8. Place the stock into assembly position and fasten
together. See Fig. 4.
(a) Rubbing soap on the core of the screw will make
it easier for the screw to be turned especially
in hard wood.
HOW TRY IT: Take advantage, of the greater holding
power of woodscrews and fasten your projects together with
screws instead of nails.
 CHECK YOURSELF: Grad© your work. Give yourself one to
three points on the following items:
1. Did you drill the pilot hole just large enough to
fit the shank of the screw?
2. Did you drill the anchor hole small enough so that
it allowed the screw to have adequate anchorage?
3. Did you countersink far enough so that the head of
the screw did not stick out above the surface of the
stock?
 42
HOW TO FIHISH WOOD SURFACES

ATTENTION: You can easily put an attractive finish on

your projects*
HERE* S HOW: The following steps will help you to do a
good job.
1. Prepare the surface for finishing by planing and
thoroughly sanding.
2. Apply a coat of the desired color stain.
(a) Spirit stains are generally used because they
penetrate the surface more readily.
3. Apply a thin coat of paste filler if the wood is
open grained.
4. Allow the filler to dry 12 hours.
5* Apply a coat of diluted white shellac.
(a) Use an under coater if lacquer is going to be
used for the finishing coats.
6. Allow the under coater for lacquer to dry for at
least 2 hours*
(a) Shellac should be allowed to dry about 6 hours.
7* Rub the first eoat of finish smooth with steel wool
and wipe the dust off thoroughly.
8. Apply a second coat of finish and allow to dry thor­
oughly.
(a) Several light coats of shellac or varnish will
give better results than a single heavy coat.
 9# Rub final coat with rottenstone or wax.
HOW TRY IT: Obtain pieces of unfinished furniture and
put an attractive finish on them*
CHECK YOURSELF: Grade yourself from one to four points
on the following items:
1* Did you properly prepare the wood surface before
applying and finishing material?
2* Did you sand or steel wool lightly between coats of
finishing material?
3. Were you careful not to allow any runs or dust par­
ticles to remain on the surface?
4* Did you rub the final coat enough to give that at­
tractive professional look?
 44
HOW TO APPLY INSIDE PAINT ON NEW WOOD

ATTENTIONt You can make your wood projects more color­

ful and durable if tbey are finished with paint.
HERE’S HOW? The following steps will enable you to do
a professional job.
1. Sand all work smooth and fill all holes or cracks
with putty or other crack fillers.
2. Cover pitchy places and knots with shellac.
(a) Shellac, when dry, will prevent the pitch from
penetrating the paint and discoloring it.
3. Sand the surface again with 00 sandpaper and dust
it off carefully.
4. Before opening the can of paint, shake it well. Re­
move the lid and pour off into another container
about two-thirds of the contents.
5. Stir the paint to a smooth consistency. Pour the
contents back into the first can gradually while
stirring.
(a) If the paint is too thick, it can be cut by
adding turpent ine.
6. Apply the first coat, or primer coat, by brushing
it thoroughly into the wood.
(a) Use a prepared flat paint of the desired color
for the priming coat.
7. Allow the priming coat at least twenty-four hours
 45
to dry and then sand It with number 00 sandpaper un­
til the brush marks and rough places are removed.
8. Apply a second coat that will be of the same kind
of paint to be used for the final coat. For this
coat, the consistency should be reduced by adding
one-half pint of turpentine to each gallon of paint.
Allow 48 hours for this coat to dry.
10. Apply a third coat as it comes from the can without
thinning. Stir the contents of the can well before
using. Brush this coat out to a uniform smooth coat
being careful that brush laps do not show.
11. Glean up with turpentine when any paint may spill
on the floor. Place all oily rags in a metal con­
tainer.
12. Clean the brush with turpentine when you are through
painting. Never leave the brush in the paint.
NOW TRY IT: Select any desired color and paint and dec­
orate your wood projects.
CHECK YOURSELF: Check your work. Give yourself one to
three points on the following items:
1. Did you prepare the surface by sanding and filling
any defects In the wood surface?
2. Did you shellac all knots and sap streaks?
3. Did you finish your project without leaving any runs
or brush marks?
Suggested Wood Projects.
Kitchen cutting board
Towel rack
Tie rack
Letter holder
Knife holder
Lawn cutouts
Door stop
Desk-stand
Kitchen shelves
Book ends
Novelty wall shelf
Toy jeep
Bird house
Telephone stand
Hall tree
 47
CHAPTER 6. GENERAL METAL UNIT

Tli© general shop, general metal working division pro­

vides the basie operations, important technical information,
a number of problems or projects, and related information of
a cultural nature.
Tools and Equipment.
The following list contains the amount of tools and e~
quipment needed for five students.
Engine lathes, 12” 2
Grinding stand with 3/4 x 8” wheel ..... • 1
Machinists' bench vises .... 5
Plat files, 10” ...12
Outside calipers, 6" 5
Inside calipers, 6" 5
Center gauge ................... 2
Center punches ........ ••••••••• 2
Centering squares, 6” 5
Drills, 1/16” to 3/8” by 64ths (straight shank) each 3
Drills, 3/8” to 3/4” by 64ths (taper shank) each ... 3
Steel scales, 6” 5
Drills, 3/4” to l” by 64ths (taper shank) each ..... 3
Set of hand reemers, 1/4” to l” x 1/8” •••......•••• 1
Straight tool holder ................. 1
Right-hand tool holder ...... 2
Left-hand tool holder ..... 2
 48
Set of hand taps, 1/8** to 1" by 16ths, TJ.S. S. ...... 1
Dies, l/8tt to 1H by 16ths, U.S.S...... 1
Breast drill ......... 1
Combined drill and countersink, 3/32M 5
Straight snips, Ho. 8........................ . 5
Curved snips ........... 2
Set of grooving tools *...... 1
Cutting nippers ...... 1
Riveting hammer ..... 5
Setting-down hammer ....... 5
Scratch awl .... 5
Set of hollow punches ........ 1
Set of solid punches .... 1
Mallets ...... ••••• 5
Dividers, 8 tt ...... 4
Circumference rule .... 1
Screwdrivers, 6® 6
Steel square, 12a x 18 M .......... 1
Pliers, 8 W ........................................ 5
Monkey wrench, 8'* 1
Stillson wrench, 10M 1
Gas furnaces .... 2
Soldering coppers, 2 lb. .......... 5

Files (assorted) ...... 6

Set of rivet set ..••• 1
 49
Beakhorn stake (No. 2)............................. 1
Blowhorn stake 1
Needle-case stake ........... 1
Common square stake «............... • 1
Hatchet stake (No. 5) 1
Hollow mandrel (No. 0) ....... ...... . 1
Bench plate, 8" x 37” 1
Turning machine .... 1
Wiring machine .......... 1
Burring machine ..... 1
Beading machine ................. 1
Bar folder .... 1
Forming roll .......... 1
Forge ..... 1
Anvils (100 lb.) .... 2
Blacksmiths* vise, 4i|w .... 2
Blacksmiths1 hammers (3 lb.) ..... 5
Bolt tongs .... •••••• 5
Straight-lip tongs, 20 n ..... 5
Cold chisels (assorted) ........ 6
Sharpening hammers (3 lb.) ........ 2
Ball-peen hammers (2 lb.) ..... 5
B. Operation Sheets.
The following operation sheets cover the fundamental
processes needed for an exploratory metalworking course.
 50
HOW TO LIGHT THE GAS FURNACE

ATTENTION: Learn to light the gas furnace with com­

plete safety to yourself and your classmates.
HERE*S HOW: The following steps will show you how.
1. Check to see that the main valve, branch line valve,
and the furnace shut-off valves are off.
2. Remove all dirt from the inside of the gas furnace.

Branch Line Main Line

Valve Valve
Furnace
Shut Off
Valve Fig. 1.
3. Turn on the main line valve.
4. Light a small piece of twisted paper and place it
in the mouth of the furnace.
5. Turn on the branch line valve, which will let the
gas to the pilot light of the furnace.
6. Open one of the shut-off valves located at the
front of the furnace by turning the valve so the
handle is pointing to the roof.
7. Turn on the other shut-off valve. See Fig. 1.
8. Adjust the flame to maintain the heat you need for
the job by movement of the shut-off valves.
 51
9, When not in use, the shut-off valves must he turned
off leaving only the pilot light burning#
10. At the end of the class period, turn off the fur­
nace shut-off valves, the branch line valves, and
the main line valve#
(a) Make sure that the valves are all turned off as
a gas supply will build up in the shop which is
very dangerous and might cause a serious explo­
sion.
MOW TRY IT: Use the gas furnace for heating soldering
coppers or to heat small metal pieces for forging.
CHECK YOUBSELF: Check your work. G-ive yourself from
one to four points on the following items:
1# Did you shut off all valves and clean the inside
before lighting the furnace?
2. Did you use a twisted piece of paper instead of a
match to light the furnace?
3# Did you adjust the flame to the proper level before
commencing to work?
4. Did you make sure all the valves were turned off be­
fore you left the furnace?
 52
HOW TO USE HAND SNIPS

ATTENTION: You can learn to cut sheet metal accurately

and effortlessly.
HERE1S HOW: The following steps will help you do a bet­
ter job.
1. Get the right snips for the job you are going to do.
(a) For mild steel, 22 gage and lighter, use either
straight or combination snips. For 16 to 20
gage mild steel, use bulldog snips.
2. Grasp the snips in the
right hand and the nar­
rowest part of the sheet
being cut in the left *
hand. Fig. 1.
3. Open the blades of the
snips as far as the \\
structure of your hand
will let you and start
the cut at the edge of
the sheet.
(a) The snips must al­
ways be held at Fig. 1. Making
A Straight Gut
right angles to
the metal being cut,
4. Cut the sheet by closing the blades of the snips
 53
just short or the full length of the blades to keep
from leaving a jagged edge,
5. Move the snips forward in the cut you have just made
and start the snips at the end of the cut already
made,
6, Finish the cut, keeping the snips on the line by
changing the direction of the snips if necessary,
(a) File off any jagged edges or splinters if they
are along the edges of the cut you have just
made,
MOW TRY IT: Make yourself a metal pancake turner or an
attractive metal ash tray,
CHECK YOURSELF: Grade your work. Give yourself from
one to four points on the following items:
1. Have you used the right snips for the job?
2. Is the cut you have made on the line?
3. Did you file off the sharp edges made by the cut of
the snips?
4. Did you put your metal scraps into the scrap metal
container?
 54
HOW TO OUT SHEET METAL WITH A GOLD CHISEL

ATTENTION; You can cut sheet metal quickly and accu­

rately with a cold chisel*
HERE1S HOW: The following steps will explain how.
1* Place the line on which
the cut is to he made
so that it is just vis­
ible above the angle
irons and place the
work in a vise.
(a) Angle irons are
used to prevent
the chisel from
cutting into the
vise. Pig. 1. Cutting Sheet
Metal In A Vise
2. Select the right chi­
sel and hammer for or­
dinary work use 3/4 rt
flat chisel and bench
hammer.
3. Hold the stock of the
chisel firm enough to
guide it along the Pig. 2. Holding
A Chisel
line. Pig. 2.
(a) Make sure that the
 55
iiead of the chisel
is not ’’mushroomed”
as particles of the
chisel may break
off and cause ser­
ious injury* Fig* 3. Gutting
Position
4. Starting at the center
of the line to be cut,
place the cutting edge
of the chisel as shown
in Pig. 3.
(a) Hold the chisel at
an angle to the
material as shown Fig. 4. Gutting
Angle
in Fig* 4*
5* Hold the hammer near the end of the handle so that
it can be swung with an easy forearm movement.
6. Strike the head of the ehisel a sharp blow.
(a) Watch the cutting edge of the chisel and not the
head in order to keep the cut on the line.
7. Reset the cutting edge of the chisel on the line al­
ready cut and repeat step 6.
(a) Begin chiseling at the center of the line to be
cut and follow the line each way to prevent tear­
ing the metal at the ends and corners*
 56
MOW TRY IT: Us© a cold chisel to cut your sheet metal
projects when the metal is too heavy to cut with snips such
as the metal hook ends, shovel, etc.
CHECK YOURSELF: Grade your work. Give yourself one to
three points on the following items:
1. Did you cut on the waste side of the scribed line?
2. Did you leave enough surplus metal to allow for
grinding or filing to the scribed line?
3. Did you return the chisel to the tool rack with the
head properly ground and shaped?
 HOW TO CUT METAL WITH A HACK' SAW

.ATTENTION; Learn to saw metal accurately, effortless

efficiently, and without breaking blades.
HERE*S HOW: The following steps will show you how,
1. Select the hack saw.
(a) Be sure the blade
is tight and.the
teeth of the blade
are pointing away
from the handle.
Fig, !• Proper
2. Clamp the work in the Position For Work
vise so that as many
teeth of the saw blade
as possible come in
contact with the sur­
face of the metal to
be cut.
(a) Place the metal in
the vise so that
the line to be cut
is about from Fig. 2. Gutting
With A Hacksaw
the jaws of the
vise. This keeps
the metal from
vibrating.
 58
3. Kick the starting point
for the saw with a file
to break and sharp cor­
ner which might break
the saw teeth. Right Wrong
4. Grasp the handle of the
frame fairly tight with
the right hand. The 0=

front of the frame is Right Wrong

held by the left hand
Fig. 3. Starting
to guide the saw when The Gut
cutting. See Pig. 2.
5. To start the cut, place the front end of the blade
on the mark. Apply a little pressure and make the
stroke by pushing the saw straight across the sur­
face of the work. Release the pressure and return
the saw to the starting position.
6. Repeat this by adding a little pressure to the next
strokes.
7. When the metal is nearly cut through, use less pres­
sure to prevent the saw teeth from catching.
8. Remove any burrs left by the saw with a smooth cut
file.
HOW TRY ITs Use this method when sawing band iron, an­
gle iron, and other soft iron pieces when making an ornament-
 59
al iron project.
CHECK YOURSELF: Grade your work. Give yourself one to
four points on the following items:
1. Is the line you marked to guide you in making the
cut, still on the metal?
2. Is the cut you have just made square across the
metal?
3. Did you file off the rough edges?
4. Have you returned the waste piece of metal to the
proper place?
 HOW TO GUT HEAVY METAL WITH A FLAT CHISEL

ATTENTION: You can cut band metal for your projects

quickly add efficiently with a cold chisel.
HERE*S HOW: The following steps will explain how.
1. Mark the place where the cut is to be made with a
scratch awl.
S. Place the work on a metal plate or the anvil.
S. Select the proper ham­
mer and chisel.
(a) Make sure the head
of the chisel is
not “mushroomed.11
4. Hold the stock of the
chisel firm enough to
guide it. Fig. 1. U
5. Grasp the ball-peen
hammer near the end
of the handle and
strike the head of the /
chisel a sharp blow.
(a) Watch the cutting
edge of the chisel
and not the head.
6. Reset the cutting edge
Fig. 1. Start Of Gut
of the chisel on the
 61
work and repeat step 5
as often as you have
to until the metal is
cut about l/3 the way
through.
7. Turn the work over and
repeat the steps above.
(a) Be careful that
the piece being
cut does not snap Fig. 2. Breaking
The Metal
off.
8. Place the work over the edge of a metal plate or an­
vil and bend the metal as far as it will go. Fig. 2
9. Turn the work over and bend it back again.
10. Turn the work over and repeat the bending until the
piece of metal breaks off.
HOW TRY IT: Gut the band metal in this manner when you
do not have a metal saw available or when you want a rough
job cut quickly.
CHECK YOURSELF: Check.your work. Give yourself a grade
from one to three points on the following items:
1. Did the metal break on the line cut with the chisel?
2. Did you make sure that the chisel head was not mush­
roomed before you returned it to its proper place?
3. Did you cut exactly on the scribed line?
 62
HOW TO DRILL A HOLE OH A DRILL PRESS

ATTENTIONS Learn to drill holes in metal on a drill

s the safe and efficient way.
HERE1S HOW; The following steps will show you how.
1. Mount the job on the drill press table.
2. Adjust the table and speed of the press for your job.
(a) Use slow speeds for hard metal and fast speed
for soft.
3. Select a drill of the right size for your job and
mount the drill in a drill chuck if it is a straight
shank, or in the drill press spindle, if it is a
tapered shank drill.
(a) Make sure that the drill does not wobble. If it
does, check the drill for burrs and turn the

drill to a different position In the chuck.

4. Start the machine, lower the drill to the work, and
feed the drill slowly into the work until the point
is started in the center punch hole. Raise the
drill and make sure the drill has started in the
right place.
(a) In drilling large
holes It is well ^ Pig. 1.
to drill a pilot
-r~r
hole first. Pig. 1. I!

(b) The size of the

 63
pilot liole mast be
a little smaller
than the hole you
want for the fin­
ished job.
5. Lower the drill to the
work and if the spot
is correctly located Fig. 2. Drill
Breakage
feed the drill to the
right depth.
(a) When you are drilling a hole through a piece of
metal, release some of the pressure on the drill
as the point breaks through. This will keep
the drill from breaking and also keep the drill

from pulling the work up from the vise. Fig. 2.

HOW TRY XT: Mount your work on the drill press table
and drill the required holes as directed.
CHECK YOURSELF; Grade your work. Give yourself from
one to three points on the following items:
1. Did you have the point where the hole was to be
drilled marked with a center punch before starting
the drill?

2. Is the hole in the metal where it is supposed to be?

3. Is the hole the right size?
 64
HOW TO TAP A HOLE

ATTBHTIOH: You can learn how to thread a hole inexpen­

sively and efficiently.
HERE*S HOW: The following steps will help you do a
good job.
1* Select the right tap. Look at the chart tap and
drill sizes.
2. Place the tap you have selected in a tap wrench.
3. Start the tapered end of the tap in the hole so that
the tap is at right angles with the job. Fig. 1.
(a) Apply a little cut­
ting oil to the tap
and in the hole be­
fore starting to -
tap the hole.
4. Turn the tap handle in
Fig. 1. Tapping
a clockwise direction A Hole
and apply a steady downward pressure until the tap
begins to draw into the hole.
(a) The tap must be held at right angles with the
metal at all times or the tap will not thread
the hole straight.
(b) To keep from breaking the tap, you must be care­
ful and not place too much pressure on the tap
from the top or from the sides.
 65
5* Keep turning the tap handle until the tap ha a cut
threads in the hole to the correct depth. Add cut­
ting oil to the tap every 5 or 6 turns.
6. Remove the tapered tap from the hole by turning the
tap handle in a counter-clockwise direction.
(a) Be careful in removing the tap or you will strip
the threads at the top of the hole.
HOW THY IT: Assemble your metal project with bolts to
facilitate disassembly and reassembly when the need arises.
CHECK YOURSELF: Grade your work. Give yourself from
one to three points on the following items:
1. Have all the chips been removed from the hole?
2. Does the machine screw fit the hole you have tapped?
3. Does the machine screw or bolt turn hard at any
point when it is screwed into the tapped hole?
 66
HOW TO RIVET SHEET METAL

ATTENTION: You can easily fasten metal pieces together

permanently by using rivets. You can repair metal.toys or
household utinsels and permanently and easily by fastening
with rivets.
HERE1S HOW: By following these simple steps you can do
a satisfactory and professional looking job.
1. Lay off the positions of
the holes by measurement
1 1/3 Dia.
or by template.
2. Center punch each position
Pig. 1.
of the desired holes.
3. Punch or drill the holes.
Rivet Set
4. Insert the rivets, let a
portion about 1 1/3 times
the diameter of the rivet
Pig. 2.
project for heading. Hold
the work over a stake and
Fig. 3. draw the parts tightly to­
gether with the rivet set.
Rivet Set Pig. 2.

gg 5. Upset the rivet by striking

a few blows straight down
Pig. 4.
on the rivet. Pig. 3.

6. Finish heading the rivet

 6!7
with the cup like hollow in the rivet set. Fig. 4.
MOW TRY IT: Locate and repair any sheet metal articles
that need repair.
CHECK YOURSELF: Check your work. Grade yourself from
one to four points on the following items:
1. Lining up of the holes in the metal to be riveted.
2. Size of the head (determined by the length of the
rivet projected over the metal pieces).
3. Tightness of the riveted joint.
4. The buckling and general appearance of the completed
joint.
 68
HOW TO SHAPE METAL BY FORGING

ATTENTIONS You can learn to shape ornamental designs

quite readily#
HERE 1S HOW: The following method will show you how#
1. Light the furnace and regulate the flame.
2# Place the work in the furnace and heat to right
forming temperature#
(a) Heat the work so that the greatest amount of
heat is placed on the part to be forged#
3. Grip the work with the tongs and place in a vise or
on the anvil, as the job may require. Fig. 1.
(a) Rounded bends are formed over the horn of the
anvil, angles over the face of the anvil, and
shape corner bends in the vise#
4. Strike sharp hammer
blows on the outside
of the work near the
bends#
(a) Do not strike the
face of the anvil,
the end of the horn, Fig. 1. Bending
Over Face Of Anvil
or the vise jaws.
5# Reheat the metal and continue to forge to the shape
you want.
(a) Reheat as soon as the red color begins to leave
 69
the metal in order to keep from breaking the
metal. This is caused by striking the metal
after it has cooled below the forging tempera­
ture,
(b) Do not leave the tongs on the work while it is
in the furnace, as serious burns will be caused
when you take hold of them again. Gool hot tongs
with water.

6* Anneal the work after forging has been completed to

soften the metal and reduce strain.
(a) To anneal, reheat the metal to a cherry red and
allow to cool in the furnace or be covering it
in line, asbestos, flake mica, or dry ashes.
7. Be sure to turn off the furnace.
HOW TRY IT; Make yourself an ornamental metal grill or
novelty lawn ornament.
CHECK YOURSELF: Grade your work. Give yourself one to
four points on the following items:
1. Did you heat the metal to a hot enough temperature
before hammering?
2. Did you quit hammering when the metal became too
cool?
3. Were you careful in handling the tongs to prevent
accidents?
4. Did you anneal the finished job to avoid strain?
 70
HOW TO TEMPER STEEL

ATTENTION: You can now learn how to make your own metal
tools at the correct hardness needed to withstand hard use,
HEBE!S HOW: The following steps will show you how to
do an efficient job.
1. Polish the surface of
■iZAAtiL
the hardened piece of 8 RO NZfc
PVRPLi
F- BLUB
steel with emery eloth. _L. B L U E

Keep the polished sur Temper Colors

face clean and away

from oil.
(a) Prepare all the
tools for temper- \
ing before harden­
ing as a hardened
piece of steel may
crack if left cold
too long after hard-
Fig. 1. Tempering
enlng. Tool Steel
2* Hold the work'over the flame in the soldering fur­
nace and watch closely for the colors that appear
on the surface. The first color to appear will be
a faint straw, which blends into straw, deep straw,
bronze, purple, full blue, and light blue.
(a) Be careful and apply the tempering heat uniform-
 71
ly to the part of the steel piece heing temper­
ed*
3* When the proper color has been reached, the work
must he quickly quenched in oil in order to check
the cutting edges from heing drawn above the draw­
ing temperature you want*
(a) Always cool tongs before replacing them in the
rack.
4. Turn off the furnace and return your tools to their
proper place*
NOW TRY IT: Make a wrench or hammer cold chisel project
and temper it for the correct degree of hardness*
CHECK YOURSELF: Grade your work. Give yourself from
one to three points on the following items:
1. Did you have everything ready for tempering immedi­
ately after the project was hardened?
2. Did you polish a clear spot for color gauging the
correct tempering range?
3. Did you obtain the correct degree of hardness on
your finished project?
Suggested General Metal Projects.
Letter opener
Cookie cutter
Garden trowel
Pancake turner
Bracelets
Tooled plaque
Recipe Box
Gandy tray
Cake server
Sconce
Seriber
Center punch
Ash tray
Drawer pulls
Off-set screwdriver
Cold chisel
Hammer
Christmas tree stand
Bicycle wrench
Midget pry bar
Lamp
Book ends
Model makers’ vise
Canteen
 73
CHAPTER 7. ELECTRICAL UNIT

The basie instructional units in electricity have proved

adaptable to the general shop program. They provide the try­
out, general survey, and interest provoking objectives of the
general shop.
A. Tools and Equipment.
The following list contains the amount of tools and e~
quipment needed for five students.
Machinist s1 vises ....... 5
Pipe vise •.....•.... ..................... ...... 1
Assorted files ...... 12
Machinists1 hammers (3 lb.).. ........ ........... .. 2
Transformers (bell-ringing) ...... 5
Receptacles (porcelain) ........ 12
Sockets, pushbutton... ... 6
Ammeters' ....... 2
Sockets, snap ..... 6
Sockets, pull chain••.•••••••••••............... 6
Doorbells .......... 12
Buzzers .... 6
Pushbuttons 12
Entrance switch .... 1
Snap switches ............ 6
Rotary switches ....... 6
Lamps, 110-V*, A.C., 45watts ................ 12
 Radio (five tube) ..................
Telephones .........................
Hammers (claw, 14 oz.) .............
Screwdrivers, 4 “ .. .................
Pliers, side cutting, 6” ...........
Ratchet brace ...... .
Extension for bit ..... .
Set of auger bits, 5/8” to 1" ......
Blowtorch ••••...... *...... .
Voltmeters ....... ....... .
Hack saw frames, adjustable ........
Hack saw blades, 10 ”............... .
Compass saw .... ..... ..... .
Compass saw blades, 14” ............
Stock and die, 1/8” to l” .... .
Pipe wrench, 14” ................ .
Claw bar ........ ...... .
Screwdrivers, 3”, 6”, 8 ”, each .....
Electric motor, £ H.P., A.G. 110-V. • • • • • • • • • •

Electric meter ..................

Angle brace ....... .............. .

Hydrometer *..... .
B. Operation Sheets.
The following operation sheets cover the fundamental
processes needed for an exploratory electrical course.
 75
HOW TO READ THE ELECTRIC METER

ATTENTION?: You can now learn to figure out and check

your electricity bills. You can find out how much electric­
ity it takes to operate a certain device for a definite a-
mount of time.
HERE'S HOW: By observing the following steps when you
read the electric meter, you can do a professional job*
1. Read the right hand dial,
(a) If the pointer is be­
tween two figures, use
• V *
the smaller figure.
Read the next dial to the
left in the same manner.
Pig. 1. 3. Read the other dials, write
the numbers, as 3,141, one
being the reading on the
right hand dial, four the
IT
next dial to the left, etc.
2 (a) A pointer just leaving
zero at the top of the
Fig• 2• meter is read zero un­
Electric Meter
til it reaches or goes
past.the #1 mark. Ho
reading will be re­
cored in the left hand
 76
column if the hand has not reached the first division. See
Pig. 2.
HOW TRY IT: Obtain some of your old electric bills and
after obtaining the rates, figure out the bill. Record the
reading of your meter when the meter man comes to read your
meter, then figure out your next electric bill and see if it
is the same as the one that you receive,
CHECK YOURSELF: Grade yourself on your finished work.
Give yourself from one to three points on the following items
1. Your ability to read the electric meter.
2. Your ability to figure out your bill.
3. Your accuracy in reading and figuring out your bill.
 77
HOW TO MAKE A WESTERN UNION SPLICE

ATTENTION: You can repair attachment cords, extention

cords, etc. the professional way.
HERE’S HOW: The following steps will enable you to do
a professional job.
1. Remove the insulation from
\ H P 3
ends of wire for about 3
- j inches.
Fig* 1.
(a) Always whittle the in­
sulation off similar
to sharpening a pencil.
Scrape wire with back of
knife until it is bright
and free from small pieces
of insulation that might
stick to the wire.
Cross the wires. Fig. 2.
Fig. 3.
4* Make the first turn rather
long. Each following turn
should lie close to each
preceding one. See Fig. 3.
Fig. 4.
5. The remaining free end
must be twisted around the
bare wire, each turn after
Fig. 5. the first one being made
 78
close to the preceding one#
6. To solder the joint, heat the soldering copper and
apply the soldering iron and solder. See Pig. 5.
7. To replace the insulation, the joint is first wrap­
ped with rubber tape. This is now covered with
friction tape to make the joint perfectly safe.
HOW TRY IT: Examine all the attachment or extension
cords in your home and repair them as directed.
CHECK YOURSELF: Grade yourself on your finished work.
Give yourself one to five points on the following items:
1. Nicking of wire when removing insulation.
2. Neatness of turns.
S. Neatness of soldering.
4. Electrically and mechanically secure.
5. Appearance after applying rubber tape andfriction
tape.
 79
HOW TO REPLACE A FUSE

ATTENTION: You have probably experienced the inconven­

ience of having the lighting system go out of eommision at
the time it is most needed. You can now know what to look
for and what to do when a fuse burns out*
HERE*S HOW: The following steps will enable you to do
a professional job.
1. Determine what caused the
trouble.
(a) It may be that one too
many lights had just
been turned on or that
a defective appliance
Jt-
<5 had been plugged in.
2. Remove this cause by detach­
ing the appliance from the
circuit or by turning off
Fig. 1. the extra lights.
Plug Fuse
(a) Do not connect a defec­
tive appliance again
until it has been re­
paired.
3. Open the main supply switch.
4. Remove the burned fuse from
the fuse block by unscrew-
 80
ing counter clockwise,
5. Take note of the rating of this burned fuse, which
will be given in amps*
6* Select a new fuse of the same rating*
(a) Bever use a fuse of a larger rating or put a
penny behind the fuse*
7. Screw new fuse into socket clockwise.
8. Close main supply switch.
(a) If there is a flash and this fuse burns out im­
mediately, you have not removed the cause and
the circuit must be checked again.
BOW TRY IT: Have the instructor make different set ups
and try to "shoot the trouble'*" Turn on all the lights in
your house and determine what section or rooms a particular
fuse protects. Check all fuses in the fuse block to see if
the correct amp fuses are used.
CHECK YOURSELF: Grade yourself on your finished work.
Give yourself one to four points on the following items:
1. Determining the cause or trouble.
2. Opening the main supply switch before removing fuse.
3* Locating the burned out fuse.
4. Replacing with a new fuse of the correct amperage.
 81
HOW. TO-ATTACH A SEPARABLE PLUG

ATTENTION: You can now expertly repair all lamp cord

or extension cord plugs that have been stepped on accidently
or damaged by other means.
HERE* S HOW: The following steps will enable you to do
a professional job.
1. Remove the outer covering
of braid about two inches
from the end.
2. Untwist or separate the two
cords and remove the insul­
ation.
(a) Gut the insulation with
a slanting cut as you
• would sharpen a pencil.
3. Glean strands with back of
knife until they are thor­
Fig. 1.
oughly clean. Then twist
the loose ends to make a
smooth cable.
4. Thread the cord through the
cap and then tie a single
knot. See Fig. 1.
(a) There is not room in
Fig. 2. Wires
Attached To Plug this cap for the re-
 82

ular underwriters knot.

5. Loosen the screws in the plug cap.
6. Pull the knot snugly into the top of the cap.
7. Bring the wire around the plug post, wrapping it
clock-wise around the screw.
8. Bepeat operation with the other wire. See Fig. g.

9. With screwdriver, tighten the screws firmly upon

the wire.
10. Place the thin fiber cover over the posts and press
into place.
MOW TRY ITi Locate and put back into use any lamp or
extension cords that have been discarded because of the need
of a different plug.
CHECK YOURSELF; Grade yourself on your finished work.
Give yourself one to four points on the following items;
1. Not cutting any copper strands when removing the
insulation,
2. The tying of a single knot to relieve strain on
wires under the screws.
3* The direction the wire is wrapped around the screws.
4. Mot leaving any loose strands which might cause a
short.
 83
HOW TO ATTACH A LAMP SOCKET

ATTENTION: You can now make that always handy exten­

sion cord for your private radio, bed lamp, and etc.
HERE1S HOW: The following steps will enable you to do
a professional job.
1. Grasp the socket in your
hand with your thumb near

Press Here the cut place, squeeze the

shell together and pull
off the lower cap. Fig. 1.
2. Take apart as in Fig. 2.
3. Remove about 3/4** of insul­
ation and clean the copper

Fig. 1. strands with back of knife.

Inner Shell 4. Thread cord through bush­

ing and socket cap.
5. Screw bushing into place
ULttvU
and fasten with set screw.

\^Binding 6. Tie underwriters knot.

Screw
iJnderwrit er7. Loosen screws on porcelain
Knot base and wrap wires once a-
round in a clock-wise dir­
ection.
Fig. 2. 8. Tighten screws firmly.
9. Slide fiber inner-shell and
 84
brass outer-shell up over the base and Into the
socket cap.
10. Press together until the small indented notches
click into place.
NOW TRY IT; Locate and put back into use any lamp or
extension cords that have been discarded because of the need
of a good lamp socket.
CHECK YOURSELF: Grade yourself on.your finished work.
Give yourself one to four points on the following items;
1. Not cutting off any copper strands when removing
the insulation.
2. Tying of the underwriters knot.
3. The direction the wire is wrapped around the screw*
4. Not leaving any loose strands which might cause a
short.
 85
HOW TO CONNECT DRY CELLS IN PARALLEL

ATTENTION: You can easily learn how to connect dry

cells in parallel.
HERE*S HOW: The following steps will explain how.
1. Connect a wire from
the positive post of
one of the dry cells
to the positive post
* of a second dry cell.
See Fig. 1.
2. Connect a wire from
+Q ~Q
the negative post of
one dry cell to the
negative post of the
second dry cell.
See Fig. 1. Fig. 1. Dry Cells
In Parallel
3. Connect as many dry
cells as needed to give the desired amperage in the
same manner.
4. The two wires can now he connected to the electric­
al apparatus for which they are to supply current.
NOW TRY IT: Connect two or more dry cells in parallel
and connect them to operate a bell.
CHECK YOURSELF: Grade your work. Give yourself from
one to four points on the following items:
Did you fasten the wire to the dry cell posts in
the correct direction?
Did you make all the connections from positive to
positive and negative to negative?
Did the bell ring when connected in this manner? -
Was the voltage higher, lower, or the same as that
of a single dry cell when connected in this manner?
 87
HOW TO CONNECT DRY CELLS IN SERIES

ATTENTION: You can learn how to connect d ry cells in

series.
HBREtS HOW: The following steps will show you how.
1. To connect dry cells
in series, fasten one
wire to the negative
post of the first dry
cell. See Pig. 1.
2. Fasten a second wire
from the positive post
-KD
of the first dry cell
to the negative post
of a second dry cell.
Pig. 1. Dry Cells
See Pig. 1. In Series
3. Fasten a third wire to the positive post of the sec­
ond dry cell.
4. Connect as many dry cells as needed in this same
manner.
5. The wires can now be connected to the electrical
apparatus for which they are to supply current.
NOW TRY IT: Connect two dry cells in series and con­
nect them to a bell.
(a) Note how loud the bell rings.
(b) Test the voltage of the two cells.
 GHEGK YOUR WORK: Grade your work. Give youraelf one
to four points on the following items:
1. Did you fasten the wire to the dry cell posts in
the correct direction?
2. Did you make all the connections from positive to
negative or negative to positive only?
3. Did the bell ring when connected in this manner?
4. Was the voltage higher, lower, or the same as that
of a single dry cell when connected in series?
 89
HOW TO CONNECT
ELECTRICAL RESISTANCES IN PARALLEL

ATTENTION; You can easily learn how to connect elec­

trical resistances in parallel and note the outcome when
they are connected in this manner.
HERE1S HOW: The following steps will illustrate how.
1. Connect a wire from one side of the current supply
to one side of all the electrical resistances in
the circuit. See Pig. 1.
2. Connect a wire from the other side of the current
supply to the other side of all the electrical re­
sistances in the circuit. See Pig. 1.
3. Turn on the power and check the results.

Pig. 1. Resistances Connected In Parallel

NOW TRY IT; Connect several electrical resistances
(lamps) in parallel and check the amperage and voltage at
various sections of the circuit. Remove any one of the lamps
and note what effect it has upon the rest of the circuit.
CHECK YOURSELF; Grade your work. Give yourself one to
four points on the following items:
1. Did you make certain that each side of the current
supply was connected to the opposite side of all
the electrical resistances and that no short cir-
 90
cult existed?
Did you get any difference in the voltmeter reading
in any of the branches of the main eireuit?
Did all of the lamps burn as brightly as you would
ordinarily expect them to?
Did the other lights go out when you removed any of
the lamps from the circuit?
 91
HOW TO CONNECT
ELECTRICAL RESISTANCES IN SERIES

ATTENTION: You can easily learn how to connect electri­

cal resistances in series and what the outcomes are when they
are connected in this manner*
HEREtS HOW: The following procedure will explain how*
1. Run one wire from one side of the current source to
one side of the resistances. See Pig. 1.
2. Connect a wire from the second side of the first re­
sistance to one side of the second resistance, etc.
See Fig. 1.
3. Connect a wire from the second side of the last re­
sistance to the second side of the current source.
See Fig. 1.

C----------t^vvv'---------------- ►ww-i

S ----------------- ---- ---------------------

Fig. 1. Resistances Connected In Series

4. Turn on the power and check the results.

NOW TRY IT: Connect several electrical resistances
(lamps) in series and check the amperage at various sections
of the circuit. Remove one lamp and note what happens.
CHECK YOURSELF: Check your work. Give yourself one to
four points on the following items:
1. Did you make sure that the circuit was connected so
 that the current had to go through the first electri
cal resistance to get to the second resistance, etc.
2. Did you get any difference in the ammeter reading
throughout the parts of the circuit?
5. Did the lamps b u m as brightly as you ordinarily
would expect them to?
4* Did the other lights go out when you unscrewed any
one lamp from the circuit?
 93
HOW TO INSTALL ELECTRIC BELLS

ATTENTIONS You can now repair or install a signal or

'bell system in your home.
HERE1S HOWs The following steps will enable you to do
a profe ssional job.
1. Connect a wire, use #18
Bell Buzzer bell wire, from one side
of the battery to one side
of both switches.
2. Connect a wire from the
Front Back
Door Door other side of the battery
r C
Push Push to one side of the bell and
Button Button one side of the buzzer.

-U 3. Connect the remaining side

Dry Cell of the front door switch
to the remaining side of
Notes A Bell Transformer May
Be Used In Place Of A Dry Cell the bell.
4. Connect the remaining side
of the back door switch to
the remaining side of the
buzzer.
NOW TRY ITs Obtain a bell and buzzer, two push button
switches, some bell wire, and a dry cell from the instructor
and install as directed. Trace circuit at home; look for
corroded connection or a broken wire. Test bell or buzzer
by connecting .directly to a dry cell*
CHECK YOURSELF: Grade yourself on your finished work*
Give yourself one to four points on the following items:
1. Does the front door push button control the bell
and only the bell?
2. Does the back door push button control the buzzer
and only the buzzer?
3. Have you left pigtails (coils of wire) at each
switch and at the bell and buzzer?
4. Did you wrap the wire around the screws in a clock­
wise direction?
Suggested Electrical Projects*
Eleet romagnet
Buzzer
Telegraph-key
Compass
A.C.-D.G. motor
Rheostat
Transformer
Pill box telephone
Soldering iron
Electric pencil
Star motor
Crystal set
Electric thriller
One-tube radio
Hot-plate
 96
CHAPTER 8. HOME -MECHANICS UNIT

The home mechanics division fits in well as a part of

the general shop because it provides a variety of practical
experiences which are not limited to any one of the common
shop fields. The pupils are afforded the opportunity to
learn activities and jobs that are immediately useful and in­
teresting to them as well as having a real value In their
adult lives.
A. Tools and Equipment.
The following list contains the amount of tools and e-
qulpment needed for five students.
Compression faucet .... 2
Screen and glass panels••••............. 4
Flush tank unit ..... 1
Fuller faucet ...... 2
Gas-burner unit • i•..... .......................... 1
Putty knife ........... 5
Glass cutters (ruby or red devil) 2
Because the majority of tools needed for the home mech­
anics shop are found in the general shop only the articles
needed specifically in the home mechanics shop have been in­
cluded in the above list.
B. Operation Sheets.
The following operation sheets include the basic proc­
esses needed in a exploratory home-mechanics course.
 97
HOW TO SHARPEN KITCHEN KNIVES

ATTENTION: One.of the most annoying experiences in

work about the kitchen is to be in need of a sharp knife and
find all those available so dull that they render practically
no service at all* You can remedy this in just a few minutes,
HERE1S HOW: The following steps will enable you to do
a professional job*
1. Determine if the knife is
to be ground.
»*! 2* If so, place the knife on
‘• > 7 •'

the wheel in such a posi­

tion as to grind a long
thin cutting edge.
3. Grind against the edge,
-s';
first on one side and then
Pig* 1. Grinding on the other until the edge
Toward Cutting Edge
rolls up as a burr or wire
on the opposite side from
which you are grinding.
See Pig. 1.
4. Remove this wire or burr by
laying knife lightly on the
revolving wheel.
5. Whet knife on a whetstone,

Pig. 2. Whetting Edge pushing against the edge

 98
until all of the wire edge has been removed. Turn
the blade against the edge as you come back, using
the entire surface of the whetstone, as in Fig. 2.
6. Test edge for keenness.
MOW TRY IT: Gather up all of the dull knives and sharp­
en them as directed.
CHECK YOURSELF: Check your work. Give yourself from
one to five points on the following items:
1. Have you removed all the nicks from the blade?
2. Do you have a long thin cutting edge?
3. Did you grind toward the cutting edge?
4. Did you remove all burrs or wire edges by whetting
the blade?
5. Does the knife cut properly now?
 99
HOW TO RENEW WINDOW SHADES

ATTENTION: You can improve the appearance of your rooms

by repairing discolored shades and shades that are t o m at
the bottom*
HERE1S HOW: You can make old shades look like new by
following these simple directions.
When a shade becomes dis­
colored and torn at the

Shade Folded For bottom, it can be taken off

Tacking To Roller
the roller and its position
reversed so that the damag­
ed portion is on the roller

Fig* 1* and the unused section is

at the bottom. Take the
shade down and unroll it.
2* The shade Is attached to
the roller by means of
Hem small staples or tacks.
Pull these out with pincers
or pry them out with a
Fig. 2. Hem On
Bottom Of A Shade screwdriver.
3. Take the bottom edge of the
Stick shade and cut off the hem
which contains a strip of
wood.
 100
4. Fold this edge over to get a double thickness of

material and tack this to the roller* Use the same

size tacks or staples as were originally used*
5* Howtake the strip of wood that was inside the old
hem and place it on the new bottom edge of the shade.
Fold the material over and sew a new hem.
6. Replace the roller and rewind the shade tightly*
HOW TRY IT: Locate and repair any torn or discolored
shades you have in your home*
GHEGK YOURSELF: Check your work. Give yourself one to
four points on the following items:
1. Did you fold the material over to get a double
thickness before tacking it to the roller?
2. Did you tack the material on the roller so that it
will be at right angles to the edge of the roller?
3. Did you make a hem at the bottom of the shade?
4. Does the shade roll up and down correctly and with
the correct tension?
 101
HOW TO REPLAGE SCREEN WIRE

ATTENTION: You can get rid of those pesty insects toy

repairing your door and window screens.
HERE1S HOW: The following steps will enable you to do
a professional job.
1. Remove the small molding
from around the edge of
the screen, being careful
not to break it. Try to
pull the nails out with
the molding.
(a) If the nail heads pull
Fig. 1. Removing Tacks
From Window Screen through the molding,
the nails should be
removed immediately.
2. Remove the tacks or staples
that hold the screen wire,
(a) If you do not have a
regular tack puller,
■ § H '( H u n k

*/?*<•«
use a medium or large
a. :**fsJ

size screwdriver, as
in Fig. 1.
5. Cle
rust or any roughness that
Fig. 2. Nailing Tacks remains on the frame.
 102
4. The new screen should he of the correct width so
that no trimming is neeessary on either side. If
it is possible to get screen of the right width,
then trim only one edge, allowing from one-half to
three-fourths inch lap on either side.
5. Trim one edge square.
6. Lay the screen wire straight and flat on the frame,
and without stretching the wire, staple across this
squared end, preferably at the top, placing all the
staples about three inches apart.
7. Place a staple in the center of the screen wire on
the opposite end, after stretching the screen wire
tightly and being careful that edges are evenly
divided , as in Pig. 2.
8. While tightly stretching the screen wire, staple
from the center toward each edge. By slanting the
staples, the wire may be stretched tighter as the
staples are driven in.
(a) The screen should now be fastened to each end
with staples spread about three inches apart.
9. Drive staples in the middle of each side, stretch­
ing the wire smoothly in doing so.
10. -With the same procedure as in step 8, work from the
middle to the end of each side alternately, keeping
the screen stretched as the staples are applied.
 103
11. frim off the surplus at the bottom of the screen,
using a pair of tinsnips or a sharp knife.
(a) Be careful not to mar the frame where the mold­
ing does not cover.
12. Replace the molding in the same position as origin­
ally applied. Use #16 braids, one inch long.
NOW TRY IT: Locate all .the window screens and door
screens that need replacing and repair as directed.
CHECK YOURSELF; Check your work. Give yourself from
one to four points on the following items:
1. If the screen was too wide, has only one side been
cut or trimmed?
2. Is the screen pulled up tight with no sags noticable
3. Are the staples about three inches apart?
4. Is the mold in the same position as originally ap­
plied?
 104
HOW TO GUT AND GLAZE GLASS

ATTENTION: You can replace broken window panes quickly

and inexpensively,
HERE1S HOW: By following these simple directions you
can do an expert job.
1. Remove all the old putty
and broken glass with a
knife or screwdriver.
Fig • 1. Glazier
Point s Force out the glazier
points with a pair of
pliers or screwdriver as
you encounter them.

Gutting 2. Scrape all these traces of

Wb.ee!
putty away and give the

wood surface a thin coat

of paint or linseed oil.
S. Glass can be purchased at
Fig. 2. Glass
Gutter hardware stores where the
clerk will cut it to your
specifications. The new
glass should be l/8 inch
less in both length and
width than the glass is to
fill.
Fig. 3. Breaking Glass 4. If the dealer is not pre-
 105
pared to cut the glass Putty Knife
to your measurements, Putty
it is an easy matter
to do it yourself.
Lay the glass on a
perfectly flat sur­
face. Place a
straight edge on the
glass where the cut Pig • 4 * Smo othing
The Putty
is to he made and hold
it securely with one hand. Draw the cutter along
this edge so that the small wheel of the cutter
makes a slight scratch in the glass.
(a) You can obtain a glass cutter at your hardware
or five and ten cent store.
How lay the part to be broken off over the edge of
a table and apply pressure for breaking.
After cutting to size, bed the new glass in a thin
layer of putty which is pressed into the groove of
the sash. Place the glass on the putty until all
the edges of the glass are. enclosed.
The glass is held in place with glazier points which
can be forced into the wood with a screwdriver. The
outside of the joint between the glass and the wood
is now ready to be sealed with putty.
 1G6
8. Roll some putty into a long roll with your hands and
place it along the edge of the glass. Smooth it to
an even slope with the blade of the putty knife.
MOW TRY IT: Locate and repair any broken panes you can
find around the house.
CHECK YOURSELF; Check your work. Give yourself one to
four points on the following items;
1. Did you cover the newly exposed wood surface with
paint or linseed oil?
2. Did you press the glass into a bed ofputty on each
side to provide a water tight joint?
3. Did you put at least four glazier points on each
side to hold the glass in place?
4. Did you smooth off the putty with a putty knife to
give it that professional look?
 107
HOW TO TIGHTEN A LOOSE TENON

ATTENTION: Yon can easily repair and put Lack into use
chairs, cribs, etc., that have been discarded because of
loose tenons or broken rungs.
HERE1S HOW: .The following steps will enable you to do
a professional job.
1. Carefully separate the
loose joint. Care should
be taken not to mar the
finish by hammering or pry­
ing.
2. Clean old glue and other
material from mortise or
tenon. Do not sandpaper
as the pores of the wood
should be left open to re­
ceive the glue.
3. Cut a saw kerf in the ten­
on to within one-eighth to
one-quarter of an inch of
Pig. 1. Wedging its full length. Fig. 1.
End Of Tenon
The kerf should be cut at

right angles to the grain

in the opposite member.
4. Cut a wedge from a strip of
 108
hardwood the width of the tenon. The wedge should
have enough taper so as to spread the tenon until
it fits the mortise, when the wedge is forced into
the saw kerf.
(a) In order to sufficiently spread the tenon, the
end of the wedge, when placed into the saw kerf,
should project some distance beyond the end of
the tenon.
5. Apply the glue sparingly to the saw kerf, wedge, and
tenon; generously to the mortise.
6. Replace tenon in mortise and work it down, as near­
ly as possible, to its proper position.
7. Protect the finish of the furniture by putting a
small block or some protecting material underneath
the jaws of the clamps.
8. Place clamps in such a manner that when tightened
they will pull the joint definitely into its proper
place without putting the piece of furniture into a
strain.
9. With a soft cloth and warm water, remove surplus
glue.
10. Wipe with a dry cloth.
HOW TRY IT: Locate chairs and other pieces of furniture
that need this type of work done and repair as directed.
CHECK YOURSELF; Check your work. Give yourself from
 109
one to four points off on the following items:
1* Did you separate the joint without marringthe wood,
or breaking the tenon?
2. Did you serape off all the old glue?
3. Did you make a wedge big enough to spread the tenon,
thus making a tight joint?
4. Does the new joint hold tightly, thus correcting the
original trouble?
 110
HOW TO GLEAN THE GAS BURNER

ATTENTION: You can increase the efficiency of your gas

burner, save money, and'also decrease the normal gas hazards
by keeping the burners clean.
HERE* S HOW: The following steps will enable you to do
a professional job.
1. Be sure the burner is cool.
2. Remove the grates over the
burner.

3. Raise the burner until it

is clear of its support.
Move the burner toward the
back of the range until it
can be taken out.
Glean the holes in the bur­
ner, using a small wire,
as in Fig. 1.
6 Place the burner in a dish-

Pig. 1. Gleaning pan containing a strong so­

Gas Burner
lution of washing soda or
soap. It may be boiled for
a few minutes in a kettle
containing this solution.
7. Scrub briskly with a brush,
cleaning the entire outside
 Ill
and brushing the holes thoroughly,
8* Rinse in hot water, then shake off all the surplus*
9, Hold the burner upside down with the holes over the
flame to dry the inside, then wipe the outside clean
and dry,
10, Replace the burner carefully,
11, Test* for leaks by applying soap suds over the places
where there might be a gas leak.
(a) The soap will form tiny bubbles at the point of
leakage.
(b) Never use a match or other open flame to test
for a gas leak,
NOW TRY IT; Locate the dirty burners of your gas range
or other gas burners and clean them as directed.
CHECK YOURSELF: Check your work. Give yourself from
one to four points on the following items;
1. Did you clean out all the holes of the burner with
a wire?
2. Is the burner centered and resting evenly on its
support?
3. Did you check the flame to find out if it is proper­
ly adjusted?
4. Did you test for leaks after you replaced the burner?
 112
HOW TO REPAIR A COMPRESSION FAUCET

ATTENTION: You can now get rid of a most irritating

and common grievance; the constant dripping from a faucet*
HERE1S HOW: The following steps will enable you to do
a professional job*
1. Turn off the water at the
main supply valve.
2. Unscrew packing nut G.
Stem (A) 3* Remove stem A*
Packing
Nut (G)
4. Remove screw B from the
center of old washer E.
5. Put new washer in place.
(a) Be sure it is the right
size.
6. Insert screw B and tighten
Washer (E)
firmly against new washer.
Fig. 1. Compression
Faucet 7. Replace stem A and tighten

packing nut G.
8. Turn on water and test for
results*
NOW TRY IT: Locate any compression type faucet that is
leaking and replace the washer.
CHECK YOURSELF: Grade yourself on your finished work.
Give yourself one to four points on the following items:
1* Removal of the packing collar without putting wrench
 113
marks on It*
2. Seating packing collar so that it does not leak.
3. fieplaeing rubber washer so that the faucet does not
leak*
4. Replacing the rubber washer tight enough so that the
faucet inlet pipe does not hammer or pound*
 114
HOW JO REPAIR A PULLER FAUCET

ATTENTION: You can gain the confidence and gratitude

of your mother and other members of your household by re­
pairing the dripping faucet.
HERE!S HOW: The following steps will enable you to do
a professional job.
1. Turn off the water at the
main supply valve.
2. Unscrew the entire faucet
from its pipe.
3. Remove tail piece B if it
did not stay on the pipe.
This will expose the rub­
Nut (I)
ber washer Gr.
4. Remove the nut I and the

Eccentric / Fuller Ball old rubber ball Gr.

Ball Stem (Gr)
(F) 5. Place the new ball on the

Fig. ,1. Fuller Faucet stem F and tighten the nut.

6. Adjust the ball on the ball
stem so that the handle on
the faucet, when turned
half way around, will seat
the ball tightly in its
correct position.
7. Replace the tail piece and
 screw the faucet back onto the pipe*
8 . Turn on the water and test the results.

MOW TRY IT: Locate any fuller type faucets that are
leaking and replace the fuller washer or ball to stop the
leaks.
CHECK YOURSELF; Grade yourself on your finished work.
Give yourself one to three points on the following items:
1. Removal of the faucet without leaving wrench marks.
2. Removal and replacement of the tailpiece without
defacing it with wrench marks.
5. Replacing the fuller ball or washer in the correct
position so as to prevent leaks.
 116
HOW TO REPAIR HOLES IN PLASTER

ATTENTION: You can easily repair ugly and unsightly

holes in your plaster walls and ceilings.
HERE»S HOW: The following steps will enable you to do
a professional job.
1. Cover the floor directly
Lath
Plaster underneath the hole to be
patched, with paper or can­
vas, so that the plaster
/ / a e rw e tN lath / /
space
will not be ground into
the floor or rug.
Clean all loose pieces of
plaster out of the hole,
Fig. 1. Hole Ready
For Patching break off any loose pieces
around the edge that might
easily become loosened in

patching process. Be sure

that the hole exposes at
least one space between
the lath so that the new
plaster will be given the
chance to make its own key.
Fig. 2. Trowel Used
In Applying Plaster Cut back underneath the
outside surface so that
when the hole has been
 117
patched the outside opening will be much smaller
than at the base next to the lath, as in Fig, 1,
4. Mix the patching plaster with only enough water so
that it is workable and pliable.
5. With a brush or whisk broom sprinkle or brush a lit­
tle water in and around the hole being sure to damp­
en the entire edge of* the old plaster,
(a) This prevents the old plaster from absorbing the
moisture from the new plaster so rapidly as to
cause cracks to develop,
6. With a small pointed trowel, press the patching

plaster firmly into the hole, pressing it hard e-

nough to cause it to go through the opening between
the lath,
7, When the lath has been covered and the key pressed
through, build it up until the surface of the new
plaster is even with the old,
8, Smooth this surface down gently, being careful that
the edges do not appear rough or uneven*
9, Let set until dry,
(a) Commercial plaster will not shrinkj therefore,
when dry, it may be repapered or painted to
match the rest of the room.
10. When dry, if it is a little too high, it may be sand­
ed with fine sandpaper.
 118
MOW TRY IT: Locate and repair any damaged portions of
your plastered walls and ceilings*
CHECK YOURSELF » Check your work. Give yourself from
one to four points on the following items:
1. Didyou undercut all fedges of the hole?
2. Didyou remove all loose particles from aroundthe
edge of the hole?
3. Didyou dampen the old plaster and lath?
4* Didyou press in patching plaster firmlyandto the
level of the old plaster?
 119
HOW TO REPAIR A LEAKY FLUSH TANK

ATTENTION: You can save money and at the same time get
rid of the annoying sound of running water by repairing your
leaky flush tank.
HERE'S HOW: The following steps will enable you to do
a professional job.
1. Leaks usually occur at the
supply cock or the outlet
valve. If the trouble is
at the intake cock, first
Copper Float
shut off the water to the
tank.
Then drain or bail out the
water from the tank.

screws that release the

plunger. This will allow
you to remove the defective
washer which is usually
held in place by a nut and
Over Flow Rubber
Pipe Stopper brass ring cap.
Supply Pipe Examine and clean the plun­
Flush Valve
ger seat with emery cloth
Fig. 1. Flush Tank
if it is corroded. Then
install a new washer.
 12 0
5. A leak at the flush valve can be caused by three
conditions. A defective flush ball, a dirty valve
seat, or the rods that connect the flush ball with
the tank handle are bent and do not allow the ball
to drop back over the ball seat.
6. Shut off the water to the tank and drain the water
from the tank.
7. Screw off the ball and examine it for wear. If it

is worn out of shape, it should be replaced.

8. Now cheek the condition of the valve seat. If it
appears to be rough, smooth it by rubbing the rim
with emery cloth.
9. Test the operation of the linkage rods between the
handle and the flush ball by turning the flushing
handle to the open position and then to the close.
The ball should drop on the valve seat when the han­
dle is in the closed position. If it fails to do
this, adjust the guide arm until it allowsthe ball
to drop into the valve seat.
NOW THY IT: Repair your defective flush tank as you
have been directed.
CHECK YOURSELF; Grade your work. Give yourself from
one to four points on the following items:
1. Did you shut off the water supplyto thetank before
beginning to work?
Did you replace all of the defective washers?
Did you clean the valve seats properly to prevent
further trouble?
Did you stop the leakage by correcting the proper
defective item?
Suggested Home Mechanics Projects.
Sharpen a knife or garden tool
Re-glue broken pieees of small furniture
Re-enforce weak joints in chairs, etc.
Finish boughten articles that are sold unfinished
Re-cover a small piece of furniture
Repair a hole in a plastered wall
Patch or replace worn out window screens
Repair and repaint window and screen frames
Repair or replace extension cords
Replace burned out fuses
Replace defective wall switches
Repair broken lamps and lamp cords
Remove and replace washers in leaky faucets
Remove and replace washer in a leaky flush tank
Glean out and adjust gas burner
 123
CHAPTER 9. DRAFTING UNIT

The basic instructional units in drafting have proved

adaptable to the general shop program. As drafting is a cre­
ative field of activity, it is especially designed to foster
the habit of making sketches and drawings for conveying ideas.
It also provides the try out, general survey, and interests
provoking objectives of the general shop.
A. Tools and Equipment.
The following list contains the amount of tools and e-
quipment needed for five students.
Drafting boards, 18" x 24" .......... 5
"T" squares, 24" blade ....... 5
Celluloid triangles, 60-30 degrees 5
Compasses with pen attachment 5
Ruling pens ..... 5
Drafting tables ................. 5
Blueprint machine ....... 1
Drafting boards, 20" x 30" 2
"T" square, 36" blade .... 1
Set of demonstration drawing instruments 1
Scales (architects') ........ 5
Pencil sharpener .... 1
B. Operation Sheets.
The following operation sheets cover the fundamental
processes needed for an exploratory drafting course.
 184
HOW TO LAY OUT A DRAWING SHEET

ATTENTIONi You can now gain insight to important pro­

cedures used by industry in their drafting fields.
You can appreciate and realize the importance of stand­
ardization in the saving of time and money.
HERE!S HOW: By following these instructions you can
begin the climb to success by better workmanship.
1. With a straight edge, locate the center of the sheet
by drawing diagonal lines from the corners of the
sheet.
2. Fasten the paper to the board as directed.
5. Draw lightly a horizontal line and a vertical line
through the center. (These lines will serve as
guides in measuring accurately) .
4. Lay off 5^ inches horizontally in each direction
from the center of the drawing sheet.
5. Lay off vertically from the center of the sheet 4
inches in each direction.
6. Draw four lines through the marks located in steps
4 and 5 until they meet in the corners. These will
be the border lines of the finished drawing. See
Fig. 1.
7. Lay off vertically a half inch from the lower bor­
der and draw a horizontal line, A, connecting the
two border lines at the ends of the drawing sheet.
 125

f
*
i
r*

--- *_ Hf. Lina A,

1

Pig. 1. Laying Out A Drawing Sheet

8, Lay off the vertical divisions for the record strip

as shown in Fig. 1.
(a) Do not lay off the guide lines for lettering
until th© drawing has been completed*
HOW TRY IT; Follow th© above procedure on all of your
classwork drawing plates.
CHECK YOURSELF: Grade yourself from one to four points
on the following items:
1. Did you check all measurements to see that you have
made no mistakes in laying out the sheet?
2. Did you wait until your drawing was completed be­
fore drawing the guide lines for lettering?
3. Did you save time by drawing as many lines as pos­
sible with one set of the T square or triangle?
4. Did you locate the center of the sheet as the first
step in laying out the drawing to be made?
 126
HOW TO SELECT AND ARRANGE
VIEWS POE 4 WORKING DRAWING

ATTENTION: You can extend your knowledge and better

your position by learning to understand a working drawing.
HERE*S HOW; You can learn to understand the principle
of reading blueprints by following these directions.
1. The views.of a working drawing are arranged in pro­
per relation to each other. In a drawing it is
necessary to leave enough space between the views
to give sizes or dimensions.
2. Study the object you are to draw in its position

FROur

Pig. 1. Block As Viewed

For Drawing
when in use and decide which is the front. Fig. 1.
3. Study the object with respect to the view at the
right of the frbnt view, Pig. 2. Notice that the
view at the side is exactly at the right of the
front view. The top line of the side view is in
line with the top line of the front view. The same
is true of the bottom lines of the front view and
the side view. Observe that the width or depth of
the side view is the same as the depth, front to
 127
TOP W £ W

5u
*
FRONT v i e w >
L
au
*7»

Pig, 2# Three View

Drawing Of Block
hack of the top view. Fig. 2.
4. The side or end view is placed exactly at the end
or side of the front view,
(a) A left side view or a right side view or both
may be needed, but in nearly all drawings the
right side is shown when both views are alike.
5. Leave a space between views so that the sizes can
be indicated.
6. After you have sketched the views, draw them with
the inst rument s.
NOW TRY IT? Select several objects from the teacher's
desk and sketch the views that are needed for each object,
CHECK YOURSELF: Give yourself one to four points on
the following items:
1. Did you place the views in their proper position?
2. Did you draw any views that were unnecessary?
3. Did you use projecting lines from view to view?
4. Did you allow adequate space between views for
dimensioning?
 128
HOW TO MAKE A SIMPLE FREE-HAND WORKING DRAWING

ATTENTION: Assure yourself of a neat and useful free­

hand drawing.
HERE1S HOW: You can improve your sketches by following
these simple directions.
1. Estimate the location of the sketch on the sheet
and block in the top and front views, extending the
horizontal lines well toward the right of the sheet.
See Fig. 1.

O V

■9--
Fig. 1. Rough Layout Of Sketch Fig. 2. 2nd View Roughed In
2. Estimate the location of the side view, allowing an
inch between the views. Sketch the vertical line,
CD, Fig. 2., at the left of the sid© view, making it
- cross or intersect AB at point C. See Fig. 2.
S. Through the intersection G draw the 45 degree line
CE. See Fig. 2.
4. Through E, draw the vertical line FF, Fig. 2., the
right side of the side view. The distance DF
should equal BH.
5. The details of the drawing may now be sketched, pro-
 129

----_-------------■
--- ----
/
2*“ I-'"-*!
rT
2'-r

L ih
Fig. 3. Pig. 4.
jacting points and lines from the top to the side
view or from the front to the side view. Pig. 3.
6. Darken the outlines. Sketch the extension and di­
mension lines, make the arrowheads and letter the
dimensions. Pig. 4.
MOW !PRY IT: Make a sketch of your projects before work­
ing on any materials to save time, money, and effort*
CHECK YOURSELF; Grade yourself from one to four points
on the following items:
1. Did you leave out any necessary lines?
2. Did line D P equal line B H?
3. Did you position the views neatly?
4. Did you give all of the necessary dimensions?
 130
HOW TO DIVIDE A STRAIGHT LIME
INTO ANY NUMBER OF EQUAL PARTS

ATTENTION: You can easily divide difficult distances

to measure into an equal number of parts quite readily.
HERE1S HOW: By following these simple procedures you
can save time and energy.
1. To divide line A B Into five equal parts draw line
A X at any single with line A B. Fig. 1.
2. With the scale or dividers beginning at A, lay off

Fig. 1. Dividing A Line Fig. 2. Dividing A Line

Step 1. Step 2.
on A X, five convenient equal divisions, as in Fig.l.
3, Connect points G and B with a straight line. See
Fig. 2.
4. Through points 1, 2, 3, and 4 draw lines parallel
to the line C B cutting line A B into five equal
parts.
NOW TRY IT: Use this method to save time and to assure
accuracy when dividing lines or distances of difficult meas­
ure in equal parts.
CHECK YOURSELF: Give yourself one to four points on
the following items:
Did you use a convenient measurement for dividing
line A X into the desired number of divisions?
Did you connect points G B with a straight line?
Did you connect the other divisions with a line
parallel to line C B?
Are the desired spaces on line A B equal?
 132
HOW TO MAKE AH ISOMETRIC DRAWIHG

ATTENTION; You can learn a practical and efficient

method of making a pictorial drawing.
HERE1S HOW: The following steps will enable you to do
a professional job.
1. Draw the vertical axis A B
Pig. 1., the full height of
the object, or it can be
drawn to scale.
2 . Draw the axis from point A.
One line 30 degrees on the
B

Pig. 1. Making An right and one line 30 de­

Isometric Drawing. Step 1
Pig. 2. Making An
Isometric Drawing. Step 2
grees on the left. Fig. 1.
On these axis measure off
the length and width of the
object full size or to scale
locating the points G and
D as in Pig. 1.

c a Draw the 30 degree axis B

E and B F, Pig. 2., from
the bottom of the vertical
£ axis.
Draw the vertical lines
Pig. 3. Making An
Isometric Drawing. Step 3 through C and D. Fig. 3.
6. Complete the upper face by
 153
drawing line D G and G G
p at 30 degrees
C

Fig* 4. Making An
Isometric Drawing. Step 4
HOW TRY IT? Use this method to give yourself a pictori­
al view or picture of the projects illustrated In the various
shop blueprints.
CHECK YOURSELF: Check your work. Give yourself one to
four points on the following items:
1. Is your drawing positioned neatly on your paper?
2. Are the receding horizontal lines drawn at a 30
degree angle?
3. Are all the vertical lines parallel to each other?
4. Are all the horizontal lines parallel to each other?
 134
HOW TO DRAW SECTIONAL VIEWS

ATTENTION; You can make your drawings so that they are

easily understood toy others as well as yourself.
HERE*S HOW; By following these directions you can il­
lustrate complicated objects in a professional manner.
1. Draw the complete working drawing using very light
lines.
2. Choose the kind of sectional view that will 3how
all that needs to toe shown and no more.
3. Make the sectional view after all the other views
have toeen completed.
4. Draw a cutting-plane line across the surface to in­
dicate the place where a sectional view is taken,
(a) On simple drawings where the location of the
sectional view is clear, a cutting-plane line
is not necessary.
5. Draw in the cross-hatching at 45 degrees with fine
lines spaced 1/16 inches apart. Space these lines
uniformly and by eye.

Fig. 1. Sectional View

6. When adjacent spaces are to toe sectional, draw the
eross-hatehing of the parts in opposite directions,
 135
Make the cross-hatching of the same part in the same
direction, as in Pig. 1.
7. Invisible edges behind the sectional view neednot
be shown unless clearness demands it.
NOW TRY IT: Select for your next project one which can
be better illustrated by a sectional drawing.
CHECK YOURSELF; Orade yourself from one to four points
on the following items:
1. Did you use the right type of sectional view for
your particular drawing?
2. Did you use a 45 degrees triangle to draw in the
cross-hatching lines?
3. Did you remember to draw cross-hatching of adjacent
spaces in opposite directions?
4. Did you make the cross-hatching of the same part
in the same direction?
 136
HOW TO MAKE THE DEVELOPMENT OP A CONE

ATTENTION: You can make conical forms the professional

way instead of difficult trial and error method.
HERE!S HOW: The following steps will help you do a
noteworthy job.
, 1. Draw two views of the cone
giving the necessary dimen­
sions, as in Pig. la.
2 . Divide the top view into
twelve parts and number the
points on the circumference.
3. Observe in Pig. la. that R,
the slant height of the
cone, is equal to R, the
radius of the pattern in
Fig. lb. Set the compass
Fig, la. Layout to draw the radius R and
Of Con©
draw arc A B for the pat­
tern.
With the dividers set to
the distance 1-2 in the top
views, Pig. la, lay off
distance 1-2 twelve times
on arc A B.
Pig. lb. Cone Template 5
 137
nect th© starting point at A and the finishing point
at B to th© center of the arc at 0 and you will have
th© pattern for the sloping surface of the cone*
HOW TRY IT: Make a paper template or pattern for a fun­
nel, oil can, or some similar project you will have use for*
CHECK YOURSELF: Give yourself on© to three points on
th© following items:
1. Is your pattern the exact size as the given dimen­
sion?
2* Did you divide the top view into at least twelve
equal parts?
5. Did you make an allowance for overlap for joining
the edges?
 158
G. Suggested Drafting Project3 .
Template
Wedge block
Shearing blank
Lap-joint piece
Bracket
Game board
Picture frame
Flange-coupling
Book rack
Funnel
Pupils will be allowed to submit drawings of their pro­
jects in lieu of the required projects if the desired learn­
ing operations are represented.
 139
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 140
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 141
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University of Southern Catitorrte MteWft