MODULUS

Society of Structural Engineers - Sri Lanka

Established in July 1993
incorporated by parliament act. No. 40 in 2009
Vol.33, No.2 Society News & Technical Papers JUNE 2023
 MODULUS | June 2023
Vol. 33 No. 02 EDITOR’S MESSAGE

EDITOR’S MESSAGE
Eng. (Prof.) H.M.Y.C. Mallikarachchi
BSc Eng. (Hons), PhD (Cambridge),
“The Pillars of Progress: The Indispensable Importance CEng, MIE(SL), MSSE(SL)
of Design Standards in Civil Engineering Structures”
Editor,
From soaring skyscrapers that pierce the heavens to
Society of Structural Engineers,
intricate bridges that span mighty rivers, civil engineers have
Sri Lanka.
crafted structures that define the very essence of our modern
e-mail: ssesl.editor@gmail.com
world. Yet, beneath the awe-inspiring edifices and
breathtaking infrastructure lies a silent but essential hero:
design standards. Design standards may not have the ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
glamour of a gleaming skyscraper or the majesty of a
towering dam, but they are the bedrock upon which these
marvels are built. They are the unsung guardians of safety,
efficiency, and sustainability in the world of civil The Editor wishes to thank authors of the research
engineering. articles, Eng. Shiromal Fernando and the design team
from Civil and Structural Engineering Consultants (Pvt)
Design standards are the safeguard that enables Ltd for providing the write-up for the cover story, Eng.
structures to withstand the forces of nature and the test of Balrajh Kiriparan for designing the cover page.
time, assuring the safety of occupants. They also serve as a
compass guiding optimal design, enhancing functionality
while minimizing resource waste through the promotion of
The statements made or opinions expressed in the
eco-friendly materials and sustainable practices. Moreover, Modulus do not necessarily reflect the views of the
these standards establish a global engineering lexicon, Society of Structural Engineers, Sri Lanka the Modulus.
ensuring uniform construction quality across the world. In
pursuit of best practices in Sri Lanka, the Society of
Structural Engineers has partnered with ARUP to take the
crucial first steps towards formulating comprehensive
national building code for the country.
CONTENT
Modulus always has been a great medium of
knowledge sharing on the latest technological advancements Cover Story 02
and best practices among the members of SSESL. This
edition of Modulus consists of two technical papers. The first
presents a comparative study on different structural forms of Society News
telecommunication towers and the second paper analyses
root causes and provides preventive guidelines for a. Event Calendar 04
mitigation of honeycombs in structural concrete elements b. Question Time April, May, June 2023 04
based on a filed study. The society organized three Question c. Preparatory Course for IStructE 05
Time sessions for the months of April, May and June Examination
covering industry applications of paint coatings and d. Development of a National Building Code 05
specification of Aluminium alloys to analysis of shear for Sri Lanka
critical reinforced concrete elements. Further the society e. Annual Sessions 2023 06
organized a preparatory course for chartered membership f. Seminar on Advances in Structural 06
examination of the Institution of Structural Engineers, UK. Materials and Construction Systems
We believe that the efforts made by the SSESL in g. E-Library for SSESL Members 07
different forms will benefit our members and anticipate that
our audience will similarly contribute towards the
knowledge sharing process to overcome the challenges to be Research Forum
faced. Any new techniques, modified practices, enhanced
technologies utilized in projects and found to be fruitful and Root Cause Analysis and Preventive 08-15
worth sharing with your community are welcome to be Guidelines for Mitigating Honeycombs in
forwarded to the editor of SSESL to be published in future Structural Concrete Elements: A Field
editions of Modulus. Survey-based Study
K. A. B. P. Kuuppu and K. Baskaran

Comparative Study on Different Structural 16-23

Forms of Telecommunication Towers
B. Kiriparan, J. Janusan,
J. A. S. Jayasinghe and U. I Dissanayake

SOCIETY OF STRUCTURAL ENGINEERS, SRI LANKA _____________________________________________________________________________1

 MODULUS | June 2023
Vol. 33 No. 02 COVER STOREY

COVER STOREY From the structural perspective, a Vierendeel truss

configuration as depicted in Figure 2 and 3, composed of
reinforced concrete and composite steel structural elements
Eco-Luxury at Hilton Yala Resort is utilized to form this iconic cantilever. The structural
analysis was performed using the finite element model as
shown in Figure 4. In addition to the gravity and lateral load
analysis, the modal analysis is performed to verify the
structural performance of the cantilever under dynamic
excitations.

A Harmonious Retreat Amidst Nature

The Hilton Yala Resort, nestled just minutes away from Sri Figure 1: Completed form of 7 m cantilevered structure
Lanka's enchanting Yala National Park, stands as an
exquisite example of eco-luxury and sustainable design.
Surrounded by lush greenery and natural beauty, the resort's
architectural brilliance harmoniously blends with its
environment, offering guests an unparalleled experience.

From the central hub, guests can enjoy a range of amenities,

including outdoor dining spaces, an all-day dining area, a
bar, private dining spaces, fully equipped kitchens, offices,
and a breathtaking terrace. The Hilton Yala Resort features
42 thoughtfully designed family-friendly rooms and suites,
providing guests with a comfortable and eco-conscious
stay. Additionally, 28 villas, including 14 single-storey and
14 double-storey villas, feature private plunge pools, Figure 2: Steel structure under construction
offering guests a serene escape in the heart of nature.

Iconic Structural Features

Long cantilevered structures

At the heart of the resort lies the lobby building, a true
marvel of structural excellence. The 7 m cantilevered box
girder (Figure 1) not only reinforces the building's stability
but also serves as an iconic architectural feature, Figure 4: Finite element model of the cantilevered structure
showcasing both form and function in perfect harmony.

Figure 2 – Vierendeel Truss forming cantilever

SOCIETY OF STRUCTURAL ENGINEERS, SRI LANKA _____________________________________________________________________________2
 MODULUS | June 2023
Vol. 33 No. 02
The Fire Pit
Arrival from the rutted, sandy safari road is framed by
8-metre-high stone walls creating a compression
space/moment for guests. The walled canyon placed
strategically within the rock strata and 150-year-old native
trees leads guests to the 8 m cantilevered fire pit (shown in
Figure 5) providing guests the first expansive view of the
sea, surrounding terrain and the resort.
Figure 5– Hilton Yala Fire Pit
Figure 6 – Structural Layout of the Fire Pit
The 8 m cantilever deck is composed of circular hollow
steel sections and the fire pit is installed with the multi-
planar truss configuration. The structural layout and the
developed 3D structural model are shown in Figures 6, and
7 respectively.
Figure 7– 3D Finite Element Model
Figure 8– Fire Pit Connection Configuration
SOCIETY OF STRUCTURAL ENGINEERS, SRI LANKA _____________________________________________________________________________3
COVER STOREY
Figure 9 – Von Mises Stresses of Fire Pit
The multi-planar truss elements were connected with a truss
kingpin connection as depicted in Figure 8. The structural
adequacy of the truss elements and pin connection was
verified based on the resultant stresses obtained from a
finite element analysis as presented in Figure 9.
Sustainability
In the structural design of long cantilevers steel concrete
composite structures were utilized for columns (Figure 10)
and floors in order to ustilize the maximum benefits from
each materials in a sustainable manner.
Figure 10 – Composite Steel Columns Used in Cantilever
Further, with a focus on sustainable practices and a
commitment to preserving the environment, the resort
showcases a bio pond constructed with mud concrete,
reducing its ecological impact while enhancing its natural
charm. Spread across 7,550 m2 on a vast site of 28,330 m2,
the Hilton Yala Resort exemplifies the perfect synergy
between modern luxury and eco-consciousness, setting a
new standard for green hospitality.
Project Summary
 Client & Developer: Melwa Hotels and Resorts (Pvt) Ltd
 Architect: SODA (Thailand) Ltd
 Structural Engineering Consultant: Civil & Structural
Engineering Consultants (Pvt) Ltd
 M&E Consultants: EnergySolve International (Pvt) Ltd
 Main Contractor: Melwa Rolling (Pvt) Ltd
 Project Value: 15 Million USD
 MODULUS | June 2023
Vol. 33 No. 02 SOCIETY NEWS

SOCIETY NEWS paintings in detail (i.e., the decorative coatings for both
internal and external surfaces, surface preparation,
selection of the right primers, application, and approaches
Event Calendar – SSESL for the Year 2023 to furnish the desired finish with the consideration of
environmental and durable requirements and more on the
Month Date Event modern trends and technologies in decorative paints). Also,
a clear demonstration was given to the audience by the
19th Field Visit to Port Access resource person on the important facts of the protective
January Elevated Highway Project coatings for steel structures, wood and floor coatings and
31st Question Time: waterproofing paint coating systems.
Challenges in planning and
Design of Aviation and Airport The QT for the month of May 2023 was scheduled on the
Related Infrastructures title, “Response of Shear Critical Reinforced Concrete
Elements” and Prof. Kushan Kalmith Wijesundara,
February 28th Question Time:
Department of Civil Engineering, University of Peradeniya
Is Structural Timber Used
served as the resource person. The event held on 30th May
Efficiently?
2023 at 5.15 pm at the Wimalasurendra Auditorium, IESL
4th Design Course 1:
and it was sponsored by Tokyo Cement Group. The
March Transition to the Eurocode
objective of the discussion was to share knowledge in the
28th Question Time:
development of analytical models and numerical tools to
Eng. S.A. Karunaratne Memorial
predict the response of reinforced concrete structures
Lecture - Some Thoughts on
accounting for the axial-flexure-shear (N-M-V) interaction.
Education of Structural Engineers
Prof. Wijesundara made the audience aware of predicting
April 25th Question Time: the behaviour of reinforced concrete structures
Paint Coatings incorporating the N-M-V interactions and its importance
May 21st Design Course 2: owing to the catastrophic consequences posed by brittle
Preparatory Course for the shear failures. Further, he presented a few case studies
Chartered Membership emphasizing the importance of this complex phenomenon
Examination of the Institute of that required to be considered in the design stage with more
Structural Engineers, UK attention.
30th Question Time:
Response of Shear Critical The June Question Time was organized on the
Elements “Specification and Industrial Usage of Aluminium Alloys”
June 27th Question Time: presented by Prof Nanda Munasinghe, former Head of
Specification and Industrial Usage Department of Materials Science and Engineering,
of Aluminium Alloys University of Moratuwa. The event was sponsored by
July 15th Design Course 3: Alumex. The QT program was successfully held on 27th
Design of Steel Portal Framed June 2023 at 5.15 pm at Wimalasurendra Auditorium,
Buildings IESL. During the presentation, Prof. Nanda highlighted the
25th Question Time: reasons behind the popularity of aluminium alloys in the
Advanced Concrete Technology modern industry. Also, his presentation portrayed
in Large Volume Concrete information on the aluminium alloy types and their
Pouring physical, mechanical, and chemical properties. In addition,
August 8th Seminar 1: presenter shared valuable knowledge and experience in
Advances in Structural Materials various industrial applications such as aerospace,
and Construction Systems automotive, construction and packaging.
22th Annual Session
September 26th Question Time
October 31st Seminar 2
November 7th Design Course 4
28th Question time
December 5th Annual General Meeting

Question Time April, May, and June 2023

The Question Time (QT) for the month of April was

conducted on the title, “Paint Coatings” by the resource
person, Mr Prabath Jayawardena, Head of Technical
Support, Nippon Paint, and the event was sponsored by
Nippon Paint. This QT was held on 25th April 2023 at
5.15 pm at GAP Auditorium, School of Sciences Colombo. Photograph 01 – Question Time of May 2023
The key presentation enlightened the various aspects of the

SOCIETY OF STRUCTURAL ENGINEERS, SRI LANKA _____________________________________________________________________________4

 MODULUS | June 2023
Vol. 33 No. 02
Photograph 02 – Participants of Question Time - May
2023
Photograph 03 – Question Time of June 2023
Preparatory Course for the Chartered
Membership Examination of the Institute of
Structural Engineers, UK
Two-day preparatory course for the Chartered Membership
Examination of the Institute of Structural Engineers, UK
was conducted by Eng. Rajavel Inbarajan on the 21st and
28th of May 2023 via the virtual platform. Eng. Rajavel
Inbarajan is a chartered structural engineer of IstructE (UK)
and a chief examiner of the Chartered Membership
Examination (CME). Prof. W.P.S. Dias, IStructE Country
Representative for Sri Lanka, assisted the Society of
Structural Engineers, Sri Lanka as the course consultant.
The preparatory course aimed to refresh and enhance the
skills in the structural analytical and conceptual design of
structures, for those who wish to sit for the world-renowned
Chartered Membership Examination (CME) of the Institute
of Structural Engineers, United Kingdom. Accordingly,
enhancing structural design skills, conceptual designing,
producing annotated sketches/drawings for given tasks, etc.
were illustrated in the course. The outcome of this course
was outlined as at the end of the course the participants
would be able to understand the general design philosophy
and the conceptual design process, the principles, and
SOCIETY OF STRUCTURAL ENGINEERS, SRI LANKA _____________________________________________________________________________5
SOCIETY NEWS
techniques to accomplish the questions, demonstrating the
principles by discussing real questions on different types of
structures and judge the requirements of the examination
and recognize the expectations of the examiners.
Course content included a Chief Examiner’s perspective of
the Chartered Membership Examination of IStructE and
his/her expectations, design process, structural systems for
concrete and steel structures, foundation & retaining wall
systems, analytical and design tools, water retaining /
basement / underground structures, guide to robustness and
disproportionate collapse and possible solution for CME
past questions.
Photograph 04 – Participants Attended the Design Course
Development of a National Building Code for
Sri Lanka
The Sri Lankan consruction professionals identified the
necessity of the inception of a unified national building
code for the nation and prioritize the establishment process
to ensure a disaster-resilient built environment in Sri Lanka.
With the aid of technical assistance from the World Bank,
the local authorities, the Construction Industry
Development Authority (CIDA), the National Building
Research Organisation (NBRO) and the Urban
Development Authority (UDA) are leading into the
establishment of the building code. ARUP is assigned as an
international consultant for the conceptualisation of Sri
Lankan building code and the ARUP sought the local
consultation from SSESL.
The Consultation Programme with representatives from the
key professional institutions was held on 18 th May 2023 at
the NBRO auditorium. The president Eng. (Mrs) T.J.
Jayasundara, Vice President Eng. R.M.A. Senerath, the
Past President Eng. K.L.S. Sahabandu, and Hon. Secretary
Eng. D.T. Rajasekaran participated as the representative of
the SSESL. Further a stakeholder workshop was
organizedon 21st and 22nd of June 2023 in order to obtain
inputs from all relavent professionals involved in building
construction.
 MODULUS | June 2023
Vol. 33 No. 02
Photograph 05 – Consultation Programme for the
establishment of the National Building Code on 18 th May
2023
Photograph 06 – Eng. (Mrs) T.J. Jayasundara presenting
her views at the Consultation Programmes
Photograph 07 – Stakeholders workshop
Photograph 08 – Stakeholders workshop
SOCIETY OF STRUCTURAL ENGINEERS, SRI LANKA _____________________________________________________________________________6
SOCIETY NEWS
Photograph 09 – Stakeholders workshop
Annual Session – 2023
It is planned to hold the Annual Sessions for the year 2023
on 22nd August. Technical publications in the field of civil
and structural engineering will be published and presented
on the occasion. The focus areas intended for the Annual
Sessions are advances in structural materials,
computational mechanics, disaster resistance and
mitigation, fire and blast resistance, forensic engineering,
innovative structures, renovation and retrofitting, structural
analysis and design, structural dynamics, structural
foundations, structural optimisation, structural safety and
health monitoring and sustainable design and materials.
Professor Raghu Chandrakeerthy – Gold Medal will be
awarded for the best paper presented at the conference.
Seminar on Advances in Structural Materials
and Construction Systems
The first seminar organized by the SSESL for the year 2023
will be held on 8th August at Cinnamon Grand Colombo as
a physical event. It will be themed “Advances in Structural
Materials and Construction Systems”. The resource persons
for the morning session are Prof. Anura Nanayakkara;
Senior Professor, Department of Civil Engineering,
University of Moratuwa, Dr. Daniel Subramaniam; Senior
lecturer, Department of Civil Engineering, University of
Jaffna, and Eng. Kithmal Perera; Managing Director, Lotus
Construction Management Consultants Pvt. Ltd. The
morning session will be chaired by Prof. Ruwan
Weerasekara; Senior Professor, Department of Civil
Engineering University of Moratuwa.
The afternoon session will be chaired by Eng. Saro
Weerasuriya. Eng. Pavithra Mallasekara; Assistant General
Manager, Fibrwrap Construction Pvt Ltd and Eng. Thilak
Jayathunga; Executive Director – Designs, Compliance,
R&D, International Construction Consortium Pvt Ltd are
the resource persons for the afternoon session.
The objective of the seminar is to make awareness of the
advances in structural materials and construction systems
in the field of civil and structural engineering. Q & A
session that to be held at the end of each session will enable
the participants to upgrade their knowledge by discussing
the doubts and questions with the panel members.
 MODULUS | June 2023
Vol. 33 No. 02 SOCIETY NEWS

E-Library for SSESL Members

The SSESL took the initiative in developing a digital

platform to facilitate the members with an online database
platform consisting of various digital objects such as
textbooks, images, articles, videos, audio, etc. Accordingly,
to expedite the process of establishing the E-Library,
valuable feedback from the practising professionals are
expected on recommended resources to be included in the
E-Library. Your feedback on this regard can be submitted
using the Google form from link below;
https://forms.gle/mxy2ReNETmPcCp2A8

Please scan me to suggest

suitable materials for
proposed SSESL E-Library
Thank you for your
recommendation !!

SOCIETY OF STRUCTURAL ENGINEERS, SRI LANKA _____________________________________________________________________________7

 MODULUS | June 2023
Vol. 33 No. 02 RESEARCH FORUM

Root Cause Analysis and Preventive Guidelines for Mitigating

Honeycombs in Structural Concrete Elements: A Field Survey-based Study
K. A. B. P. Kuruppu1, K. Baskaran2

Abstract
Concrete structures are subjected to various types of surface defects such as honeycombs, surface voids, form
streaking, etc. Proper understanding of the root causes of each type of defect is significant in preventing recurrence
as well as applying remedies. An extensive field survey was conducted in connection with the construction sector
of Sri Lanka to gather information on the current practices. It was found that the construction industry needs more
awareness on correct practices. This study attempts to fill the gap between current field practices and standard
practices. Poor workmanship in consolidation of fresh concrete leads to most of the defects, but this study shows
how the understanding of technical background of each activity and the proper planning at initial stages contribute
to effortless improvements in workmanship. Furthermore, contradictions between codes of practices for design of
reinforced concrete and codes of practices for consolidation of concrete were taken into consideration under this
study.

1. Introduction Based on the field surveys, it was figured out that

One of the most common defects in concrete
structures is honeycombs. Honeycombs; as it says
look like honeybee’s nest, are cavities left in either
surface or inside of hardened concrete mass.
Hardened concrete consists of aggregates, cement
paste and bug holes [1]. Homogeneous mixing of
these components and expelling of entrapped air in
concrete mix are crucial for a honeycomb free
structure [2]. Proper compaction of concrete plays a
major role in this regard. There are many studies on
explaining what really happens to fresh concrete
when compacting/vibrating; yet understanding of
the interaction between vibration and fresh concrete
is open for study.
There are standards and codes of practices [6] for
vibration of fresh concrete, but in practice, less
attention has been given for such standards and there
are some contradictions between codes of practices
for design of reinforced concrete and codes of
practices for consolidation of concrete as well. This
study focuses on the missing link that connects
standard practices and current field practices. As per
the field survey carried out in the local construction
sector, defects and the remedies related to
honeycombs are often related to the processes
followed locally or individually. Hence the proper
understanding of the root causes of each type of
defect is significant.
K. A. B. P. Kuruppu1, K. Baskaran2
1, 2 Department of Civil Engineering, University of
poor workmanship in consolidation of fresh
concrete seems to be the most common cause for
honeycombing. However, the actions that can be
taken at the design stage of the structure and proper
planning at construction stage leads to effortless
improvements in workmanship of consolidation of
concrete.
Understanding the root causes for formation of
honeycombs, remedies, methods used for
consolidation of concrete and identification of
honeycombs are the key areas of this study. Surface
defects can be identified by visual inspections while
core-defects (honeycombs in the core of the
element) remain hidden. Identification of core-
defects is a challenging task. In the construction
industry, there are numerous examples of instances
where these honeycombs are not properly identified
during the construction period, which were costly to
repair later. Failure to identify these defects can lead
to failure of the structure causing loss of life and
property.
Objectives of this study are to do an extensive
field survey on occurrence of honeycombs in
concrete structures and observe remedial actions
taken and provide guidelines for contractors to
achieve honeycomb free structures based on the
findings of the field survey. Further, this study
highlights the importance of pre-planning at initial
stages to avoid construction defects such as
honeycombing.

Moratuwa, Sri Lanka.

1bandhuka.kuruppu@gmail.com; 2baskaran@uom.lk

SOCIETY OF STRUCTURAL ENGINEERS, SRI LANKA _____________________________________________________________________________8

 MODULUS | June 2023
Vol. 33 No. 02
2. Literature Review
2.1 Consolidation of fresh concrete
Understanding the consolidation of fresh
concrete is important for studying honeycombs.
Kolek [2] has shown that the process of
consolidation occurs in two stages; they are the
slumping of concrete and the removal of entrapped
air. The force applied to the concrete, amplitude of
vibration, and the number of vibrations transmitted
to the concrete are the most important factors
affecting the degree of consolidation [3]. Alexander
[4] commented on the mechanics of motion of fresh
concrete. He has shown that during vibration,
stiffness and damping practically disappear and only
mass was involved.
L’Hermite et al. [5] have done a study on the
mechanism of consolidation under vibration and
shown that vibration sets particles in the mix to
motion and eliminates internal friction of them.
They have shown the differences between concrete
at rest and during vibration. During vibration
concrete undergoes two stages such as rapid
subsidence of the uncompacted mixture and the
removal of entrapped air. After this transformation,
the vibratory motion was controlled by the mass
forces with little or no effect from stiffness or
damping, which tells that the concrete during
vibration behaves like a fluid. Therefore, over
vibration leads to more and more subsidence of
materials and ends up in segregation.
2.2 Standard practices and main causes for
construction defects.
Galappaththi et al. [6] have listed main causes
for structural defects and the remedies practiced in
local construction sector. They have shown that the
lack of adhering to quality assurance and quality
control guidelines and relevant standard practices as
a critical drawback in the Sri Lankan construction
industry. Code of practice for use of immersion
vibrators for consolidating concrete; an Indian
Standard [7] gives a vast knowledge on standard
ways of using immersion vibrator. Further, ACI
committee 309 reports [8],[9], and [10] give more
knowledge and guidance on consolidation of
concrete, behavior of fresh concrete during vibration
and identification and control of visual surface
defects.
2.3 Identification of construction defects
Rebound hammer and ultrasonic pulse velocity
(UPV) tests are the most commonly used test
methods for identification of honeycomb defects in
structural concrete elements [11]. However, it’s
difficult to test the entire element by these methods,
only selected areas can be examined [12]. These
non-destructive evaluation (NDE) methods are
SOCIETY OF STRUCTURAL ENGINEERS, SRI LANKA _____________________________________________________________________________9
RESEARCH FORUM
considered as conventional approaches. They are
well developed and accepted by the industry.
Modern NDE methods such as vibration-based
inspection methodologies are still under
development and the industry is not much familiar
with those [13].
Alexandre et al. [14] have used UPV and
rebound hammer tests along with contour mapping
technique to identify the presence of heterogeneous
regions inside the tested structure. The images
generated using indirect UPV measurements had
been clearer than those generated by direct
measurements and explained it as indirect
measurements encompass a border portion of
concrete.
For civil structures, vibration-based, global non-
destructive evaluation techniques are effective in
assessing the condition of the overall structure [15].
But this does not mean that vibration based NDE
techniques cannot be utilized for single elements.
Localized NDE techniques can be utilized upon
identification of a damage location, and the severity
of the damage in an element of a structure [16].
Therefore, minimizing the occurrences of
honeycombs as well as proper identification of
honeycombs are the key areas to be improved to
control the negative impacts.
3. Formations of Honeycombs
3.1 Experimental approach
For better understanding of the formation of
honeycombs, an experiment was carried out to have
a visual inspection on the process of consolidation
of fresh concrete.
Figure 1: Formation of smooth thin cement paste
layer at the surface of the mold.
As observed in Figure 1, the visibility of a
honeycomb depends on the formation of this
smooth, thin cement paste layer at the surface. If it
was not formed, the honeycombing can be visually
inspected. Furthermore, there are incidents where
the smooth, thin cement paste layer is formed, but
fresh concrete is not properly consolidated in the
core of the concrete element. In such cases, hidden
honeycombs are encountered.
 MODULUS | June 2023
Vol. 33 No. 02
3.2 Hypothesis development
The fresh concrete mix undergoes two stages
during vibration such as the slumping of concrete
and the removal of entrapped air [2]. Thereafter, the
cement paste in the core of the concrete mix follows
the air-entrapping path and comes to the surface. As
observed in experimental approach, cement paste
and slurry coming through the mix to the surface
makes cohesive forces (see Figure 3) and creates the
smooth layer around the surface of the mold
Cement paste
Air voids
Aggregates
Figure 2: Cross section of fresh concrete,
before vibration
Figure 3: Cohesive forces creating a smooth thin
layer of cement paste at the surface of the mold.
Figure 4 below, elaborates the formation of
honeycombs due to poor workmanship in
consolidation of concrete.
LHS RHS
Figure 4: Cohesive forces creating a
smooth thin layer of cement paste at the
surface of the mold.
SOCIETY OF STRUCTURAL ENGINEERS, SRI LANKA _____________________________________________________________________________10
RESEARCH FORUM
Here, the LHS (Referring to Figure 4) is properly
consolidated, and the thin smooth cement paste layer
has been created on the surface, but RHS has not
been properly consolidated, and the surface is not
smooth as air is trapped in the core, which has
blocked cement paste reaching the surface to create
a smooth layer. Surface appearance indicates that
the area is not properly consolidated.
4. Field Survey
Field survey on honeycombs was done
considering several aspects such as root causes,
possible locations of defects and ways of
minimizing occurrences. Survey was carried out in
several local construction sites. Key findings of the
survey have been listed here.
4.1 Defects in a concrete retaining wall due to
poor workmanship in compaction of concrete.
Figure 5: Surface Honeycombing
Figure 5 shows a surface defect observed in the
bottom of 2nd lift of 225mm thick concrete retaining
wall (RW). A 25mm diameter immersion vibrator
had been used for compaction of concrete. The rebar
detailing of the RW had enough space for flow of
concrete and insertion of needle vibrator. But the
needle vibrator compaction had not been carried out
in a certain volume of fresh concrete; hence the
proper surface finish was not achieved, and the
volume left unconsolidated. The un-consolidation of
the concrete is visible to the outside as smooth
surface finish was not achieved in subjected area.
However, this does not mean that the defect is only
on the surface. Some contractors just close these
defective surfaces either by mortar or a grouting
material, not knowing how far inside the
unconsolidated concrete exist.
4.2 Defects in concrete shear wall due to
reinforcement bar congestion.
Figure 6: Non-concreted pocket in a shear wall
 MODULUS | June 2023
Vol. 33 No. 02
It’s very clear that the defect shown in Figure 6
is due to rebar congestion. 25mm and 40mm
diameter needle vibrators had been used for
compaction of concrete. Defective location was
congested with rebar detailing. It was observed that
25mm and 20mm diameter rebars were lapped in the
same location blocking the flow of concrete. Here,
the reinforcement engineer must work on lapping
locations considering the flow of concrete as well.
4.3 Dfects in inclined concrete column due to
difficulty in compaction.
Figure 7: Honeycombing found near outer
surface of an inclined concrete column.
Honeycombs were observed in several inclined
columns of a structure (Figure 7). A 25mm
immersion vibrator had been used for the
compaction of concrete and as per reinforcement
detailing, there was enough space for inserting
needle vibrator. Special feature of these rectangular
columns was its inclination. Vibrator compaction of
the bottom of the inclined outer face was difficult
due to this. That created defective areas.
Column lift height was 1m to avoid segregation
in placing concrete. Flexible hoses had been used to
place the concrete to corners under inclination. The
ideal option could have been having self-
compacting concrete (SCC). Thereafter, to avoid
repetition of this in remaining set of inclined
columns, the needle vibrator had been attached to a
steel rod and continued the compaction in
unreachable corners of the column, but that is not a
standard practice.
4.4 Re-bar congestion at a beam junction
Figure 8: Rebar congestion due to
impractical reinforcement detailing
SOCIETY OF STRUCTURAL ENGINEERS, SRI LANKA _____________________________________________________________________________11
RESEARCH FORUM
Next observation was a location where four
upstand beams were connecting to a column, where
the column size was also reducing. Hence some
outer column rebars had been terminated (see Figure
8). As per the column terminating detailing by the
structural designer; terminating bars need to be bent
in ‘L’ shape. That created the worst situation as there
was no inserting space for beam rebars once the
column head rebar works were done. The root cause
of this issue is the impractical detailed design of
reinforcement and element sizing. Secondly, the
execution team should have taken this issue to the
design consultants prior to the execution at site. But
that needs more involvement in proper planning.
The challenge here was that design consultants need
to give a solution to this without affecting the
progress of the project. As a solution, upstand beam
width was increased and converted to a tapered
beam, some ‘L’ shaped terminated bars were cut as
approved by the designers and several more changes
were made to beam sizing and rebar detailing. This
had a considerable impact on the project progress.
4.5 Surface defects due to concrete slurry leakage.
Figure 9: Defects due to concrete slurry leakage
from mold joints
This was a rectangular concrete column.
Compaction had been done with a 25mm needle
vibrator with no issue with re-bar congestion. But a
concrete slurry leakage had taken place during the
vibration due to improper mold joint preparation and
resulted in creating a defective surface as shown in
Figure 9.
4.6 Defects due to embedded parts
Figure 10: Defective surfaces around embedded
parts in the structure
 MODULUS | June 2023
Vol. 33 No. 02 RESEARCH FORUM
Observation shown in Figure 10 was found in a 4.9 Segregation in ready-mix concrete
shear wall where embedded parts took place. 25mm
and 40mm needle vibrators had been used for
compaction. Rebar arrangement was not obstructing
the compaction process, but embedded parts did, and
these are the locations where moldings need to be
customized. There’s a possibility of improper mold
joints around the embedded parts and that leads to
concrete slurry leakages as well, resulting in
defective surfaces.
4.7 Defects due to misalignment of
formwork/mould
The observation in Figure 11 is a location where
the formwork was mis-aligned to the kicker of the
wall. Hence there had been a slurry leakage from the
gap, and it has created a defective surface.
Figure 13: Segregation of aggregates were
observed.
As shown in Figure 13; (Prior to pouring of
concrete), the reason for segregation can be
improper grading of aggregates and the differences
in the specific gravity of mix constitutes. The
problem with this kind of segregation is that it
cannot be physically observed during post-pour
inspections as it gives similar surface finish but
weak inside. This can be idealized with the
hypothesis in Section 03 of this paper.
Fig. 11. Surface defects at the bottom of shear wall

Figure 12: Surface defects due to inadequate

application of form oil
4.8 Defects due to inadequate application of form
oil
Form oil had not been applied properly for the
plywood boards, hence there had been a difficulty in
removing boards. In several locations, the surface
cement paste had been sticked to the formwork and
created defective surfaces as shown in Figure 12.
This could be observed in several locations of the
same element.
Understanding the aforementioned root causes
for defects is important in preventing recurrence of
the same in up-coming activities of a project.
Figure 14: Diameter 1.5m, circular concrete
column
4.10 Honeycombing was detected at the bottom of
the column.
A prefabricated formwork system was used for
the columns shown in Figure 14, and the column
height was 3.5m, therefore there had been difficulty
in vibrating the bottom layer of concrete from a
height of 3.5m. And there’s a chance of segregation
of concrete due to high free fall height. Well
monitored workmanship is required to attend these
challenges, and lack of that attention has been the
root cause for this kind of honeycombing in the
bottom of the column.

SOCIETY OF STRUCTURAL ENGINEERS, SRI LANKA _____________________________________________________________________________12

 MODULUS | June 2023
Vol. 33 No. 02
5. Analysis of Data Gathered from
Field Survey
Table 1: Number of occurrences for each root cause
for honeycombing out of 30 construction sites.
No. of
Root cause for honeycomb
cases
1 Due to poor compaction practices 25
Due to poor workmanship of
2 20
shuttering
3 Due to rebar congestion 16
Due to not applying form oil
4 12
sufficiently
Due to vibrator-unreachable
5 9
locations
6 Due to embedded parts in concrete 6 where rectification done. But this method is not
7 Due to non-standard concrete mixes 3 suitable for major defect investigations as it gives
Consider the data in Table 1,
• Honeycombing due to re-bar congestion.
• Honeycombing due to unreachable locations in
the complex structural elements.
• Honeycombing due to embedded parts.
Above three defective possibilities can be
managed at the design stage of the structure.
Improving workmanship of the workers must be
addressed separately by showing and educating
them about the standard ways of practicing. Further,
proper planning at initial stages of the project has a
huge impact on improving workmanship of the
workers, which means workers will not face major
difficulties in handling vibrators through complex
structural elements. This will be discussed later in
this paper.
Table 2: Data on use of each type of vibration
method out of 30 construction sites
Method of vibration No. of sites
used
1 Immersion vibrators 30
2 Manual Compaction 15
3 External vibrators 4 clause 3.12.11.1, guidelines for minimum distance
4 Surface vibrators 0
5 Rebar shaker 0 aggregate in concrete + 5mm (BS 8110-1: cl.
As per Table 2, immersion vibrators (needle
vibrators) are the most common practice in local
construction industry. Almost all the construction
sites had used immersion vibrators and most of the
time both manual compaction and immersion
vibrator compaction were used in practice.
SOCIETY OF STRUCTURAL ENGINEERS, SRI LANKA _____________________________________________________________________________13
RESEARCH FORUM
Table 3: Data on use of each type of honeycomb
identification/test methods out of 30 construction
sites
Number
Tests carried out for defective of sites
areas out of 30
1 UPV test 6
2 Re-bound hammer test 16
3 Expert consultation 3
4 Demolition of defective element 4
As per the data in Table 3, defective area
investigation methods in practice raise a crucial
question. A common investigation test carried out is
the re-bound hammer test, and most of the time, re-
bound hammer test was carried out for the surfaces
only indications on surface hardness and penetration
resistance. Core defects cannot be identified through
this method. Kumavat [17] has done a study on
various factors affecting the results of rebound
hammer test. He has elaborated that deviation in
rebound index vs. compressive strength as an
indication of various factors influencing the rebound
index. Therefore, Kumavat [17] concludes that
effectiveness of rebound hammer test must be
checked considering the factors affecting the results.
6. Improving Workmanship by
Proper Planning at Initial Stages
As discussed under field survey, proper planning
at initial stages and reinforcement detailing done
considering the practicality in compaction
contributes to effortless improvements in
workmanship.
6.1 Correct use of code of practice
There are some discrepancies between codes of
practice for design of reinforcement and codes of
practice for compaction of concrete using
immersion vibrators.
First, consider BS 8110-1: 1997, Part 1: Code of
practice for design and construction. There, under
between bars is given. As per that, minimum
distance required is the maximum size of coarse
3.12.11.1, 1997). Which means, if the maximum
coarse aggregate size is 20mm, minimum distance
between bars shall be 25mm. But when it comes to
compaction of concrete using immersion vibrators,
it leads to major difficulties as available needle
vibrator diameters are ranging from 25mm to 90mm.
However, this issue has been addressed in BS
EN 1992-1-1: 2004, Part 1-1: General rules and rules
 MODULUS | June 2023
Vol. 33 No. 02
for buildings. There, under clause 8.2 Spacing of
bars, it has specifically mentioned that spacing of
bars shall be such that the concrete can be placed and
compacted satisfactorily for the development of
adequate bond. Further, it has mentioned that there
should be sufficient space between the resulting
columns of bars (when several layers of bars are
present) to allow access for vibrators and good
compaction of the concrete.
IS: 3558 – 1983 (Reaffirmed 2004) is an Indian
Standard Code of practice for use of immersion
vibrators for consolidating concrete. Under clause
8.8 on vibrating the reinforced concrete, it
recommends making sure minimum space of 75 mm
exists between the bars or groups of bars to allow the
vibrator to pass freely. In local construction
industry, still the British Standards are mostly used
for design of reinforcement in structural elements
which had given less attention for practicality in
compaction of concrete. Therefore, it’s better to
work on reinforcement detailing along with
standards for vibration of concrete.
6.2 Incorporating general details of structural
drawings to special cases
As illustrated in Section ‘4.4’ under Field Survey
of this paper, there are some situations, where
following general notes/detailing as they are,
tending to create a mess. For example, there can be
a general note to terminate all column re-bars by
bending an anchorage length inward. But this cannot
be applied directly for a heavily reinforced column
as it ends up in congestion. In such situations,
execution team has to bring the issue to the designer
prior to execute it at site. Most of the time, this kind
of issues were taken to the designer when the work
was half-way done. On the other hand, designers
need to be skilful enough to foresee this type of
issues at the design stage. They can make aware the
execution team in advance. Usually, placements of
embedded parts are done by the mechanical team of
a project. They should have coordinated it with the
reinforcement designers to avoid any kind of a
congestion in structural elements.
6.3 Points to be considered in improving
workmanship related to shuttering
Most of the time, whenever a honeycombing was
observed, contractors conclude it as a result of poor
compaction. But the root cause can be some other
reason. Understanding of root cause is important as
it helps to avoid recurrence of the same later.
Defective surfaces due to concrete slurry leakage
could be misunderstood as a result of poor
compaction. If the root cause was understood
correctly, modifications to formwork system can be
arranged. Minimizing the number of joints in
shuttering can be a good improvement. Then,
application of form oil is also important in order to
SOCIETY OF STRUCTURAL ENGINEERS, SRI LANKA _____________________________________________________________________________14
RESEARCH FORUM
have a smooth surface finish. Most of the time,
defects due to not applying form oil are
misunderstood as defects due to poor compaction. If
the root cause is identified correctly, the team can
take necessary actions to overcome that in the next
task. Use of un-damaged shutters is important to
have a smooth surface. Verticality and correct
alignment of formwork panels are also important to
avoid honeycombing.
6.4 Use of self-compacting concrete and
importance of experienced work groups.
For unreachable areas in structures and
congested spots, self-compacting concrete can be
used. However, identification of such requirements
and pre-planning is important. Experienced concrete
pouring groups, concrete supervisors and formwork
supervisors can make a considerable impact on the
outcome. There are such reputed contractors and
working groups in the industry who produces
concrete with less defects. The relationship between
experienced working groups and occurring of
honeycombs shall be further studied.
7. Conclusions
Honeycombs are a commonly found concrete
defect in local construction industry. Honeycombs
are first observed by the frontline workers and most
of the time they tend to judge the defect and do
remedial works not knowing the root cause for the
defect. Understanding the root cause for each defect
and addressing them are important in avoiding the
recurrence of the same defect in future construction.
Improving workmanship of the workers to produce
defect free structures is the biggest challenge in the
field. Proper planning at the design stage of a project
and at initial stage of construction works has the
potential to make a huge impact on effortless
workmanship improvement of the workers.
Making aware the workers, site staff, designers
etc. of the governing principles behind standard
practices of shuttering, consolidation of concrete
etc. is important. There are enough standards and
codes of practice for each task as mentioned under
relevant sections of this study. Finally, the gap
between site practices and standard practices needs
to be minimized. Correct practices are always
capable of saving money, material, time, and the
work force of a project. Identifying the location and
severity of honeycombs/defects in a concrete
element is as important as preventing it. Rebound
hammer test is mostly practiced in local industry to
evaluate the defective areas of a concrete element,
but that evaluation is not up to satisfactory level.
UPV test is somewhat an acceptable method in
evaluating defective areas. However, both these
methods are considered as conventional approaches
in non-destructive evaluation. There are drawbacks
 MODULUS | June 2023
Vol. 33 No. 02
to these conventional approaches. Therefore, there is
a global requirement to move with modern non-
destructive evaluation methods for localized
concrete elements, which are still under
development.
8. Acknowledgement
RESEARCH FORUM
[9] S. H. Gebler, “ACI 309R-96 Guide for
Consolidation of Concrete Reported by ACI
Committee 309,” 2001, pp. 1–39.
[10] M. M. Chehab and T. J. Pasko, “Identification
and Control of Visual Surface Defects,”
Reports, ACI 309.2R-15, 2016, pp. 909–961.

Authors wishes to acknowledge the assistance [11] B. H. J. Pushpakumara, S. De Silva and G. H.

given by the technical staff of Structural Mechanics M. J. S. De Silva, “Visual Inspection and Non-
Laboratory of University of Moratuwa and the Destructive Tests-based Rating Method for
Contractors, Project Managers and Project Staff who Concrete Bridges”, International Journal of
assisted for the field survey in local construction Structural Engineering., Vol. 8, 2017, pp. 74–
industry. 91.
[12] C. Sikorsky, “Development of a Health
9. References Monitoring System for Civil Structures Using a
Level iv Non-Destructive Damage Evaluation
[1] H. N. Walker, “Petrographic Methods of
Method”. Proceedings, the 2nd International
Examining Hardened Concrete: A Petrographic
Workshop on Structural Health Monitoring,
Manual”, Reports, US Department of
1999, pp. 68–81.
Transportation, VTRC-92-R14, 1992, pp 87-
95. [13] G. M. Owolabi, A. S. J. Swamidas and R.
Seshadri, “Crack Detection in Beams using
[2] J. Kolek,, “Research on the Vibration of Fresh
Changes in Frequencies and Amplitudes of
Concrete,” Reports, Conference on
Frequency Response Functions”, Journal of
Vibrations—Compaction Techniques, Julius
Sound and Vibration, vol. 265, 2003, pp. 1–22.
Hoban, Budapest, Hungary, 1963, pp 37-41.
[14] L. Alexandre, L. F. Caetano, J. A. Chies,
[3] R. H. H. Kirkham, “The Compaction of
“Investigation of the Potential for Evaluation of
Concrete by Surface Vibration,” Reports,
Concrete Flaws Using Nondestructive Testing
Conference on Vibrations- Compaction
Methods”, Hindawi Publishing Corporation,
Techniques, Budapest, Hungary, 1963, pp 62-
2014.
69.
[15] Johnson, E. A., Lam, H. F., Katafygiotis, L. S.
[4] A. M. Alexander, “Study of Vibration in
& Beck, J. L., “Phase I IASC-ASCE Structural
Concrete; Mechanics of Motion of Fresh
Health Monitoring Benchmark Problem Using
Concrete,” Technical Report No. 6-780, Report
Simulated Data”, Journal of Engineering
3, U.S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment
Mechanics, 2004, pp. 3–15.
Station, Vicksburg, MS, Sept., 1977, p. 32.
[16] Karbhari, M. and Lee, L. S. W., “Vibration-
[5] R. L’Hermite, and G. Tournon, “Vibration of
based Damage Detection Techniques for
Fresh Concrete (La vibration du beton frais),”
Structural Health Monitoring of Civil
Annnles, Institut Technique du Batiment et des
Infrastructure Systems”, Woodhead Publishing
Travaux Publics (Paris), 1948.
Series in Civil and Structural Engineering,
[6] L. L. Galappaththi, K. K. A. Perera, and A. K. 2009, pp. 177-212.
Jayawardana., “Investigation on structural
[17] H. R. Kumavat, N. R. Chandak and L. T. Patil,
issues caused due to lack of quality assurance
“Factors Influencing the Performance of
and quality control (QA/QC) practices and
Rebound Hammer used for Non-destructive
methods to rectify the observed issues in
Testing of Concrete Members: A review,” Case
construction sites.”, Annual sessions, Institute
Studies in Construction Materials, 2021, vol.
of Engineers, Sri Lanka, 2016, pp 28-34.
14.
[7] “Use of Immersion Vibrators for Consolidating
Concrete,” Indian Standard, IS:3558-1983,
2004.
[8] A. C. Davis and A. C. Ansari, “ACI 228.2R-98:
NDT Methods for Evaluation of Concrete in
Structures,” Manual of Concrete Practice, 2004,
vol. 98, p. 62.

SOCIETY OF STRUCTURAL ENGINEERS, SRI LANKA _____________________________________________________________________________15

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Comparative Study on Different Structural Forms of Telecommunication

Towers
B. Kiriparan1, J. Janusan2, J. A. S. C. Jayasinghe3 , U. I. Dissanayake4

Abstract
Telecommunication infrastructures plays a key role in providing telecommunication service. The rapid increase
in usage of telecommunication devices during the recent past created necessity for construction of new
telecommunication structures and upgrading of existing structures to meet the increased demand. Ground
based towers, monopoles and guy mast structures are three commonly used structural forms of
telecommunication towers. The factors such as land usage for the infrastructure, cost, material usage,
structural performance, space available for connection of antennas and constructability to be critically
considered during the preliminary design to select most suitable structural form. This study investigates the
trend in variation of above-mentioned parameters for different structural forms based on the data collected
from 31 telecommunication towers designed by the author in Sri Lanka. The results presented in the form of
graphs provide useful information for structural engineers and other decision makers in the telecommunication
infrastructure development sector in the selection of a most feasible structural form for the telecommunication
structure according to the project constrains. Further, the comparison of lateral stiffness, material usage and
the exposed surface area against wind loading for different bracing configurations commonly used for
rectangular based telecommunication towers were presented. These results will be useful for structural
engineers to select optimum bracing configurations based on the extent of wind loading.

Keywords: Telecommunication towers, Monopoles, Guy mast, Preliminary design.

this study. Available data collected from 31

1. Background
Currently, several nations around the world
emphasis the digital revolution. The Sri Lankan
government has also started working towards
“Digital Sri Lanka”. This creates huge demand in
the internet usage and data transfer. Construction of
new telecommunication structures and upgrading
the existing structures have been accelerated in the
recent past to create the required space for
telecommunication equipment. The selection of the
most suitable structural form for a Ground based towers (Self-supporting/lattice
telecommunication structure satisfying the site-
specific requirements is a challenging task for
structural engineers involved in the design of
telecommunication infrastructure (Elhakim et al.,
2022). The influence of various critical factors
(such as structural performance, cost, land usage
and constructability aspects) governing the
selection of a structural form for a
telecommunication structure are investigated in
B. Kiriparan1, J. Janusan2, J. A. S. C. Jayasinghe3,
U. I. Dissanayake4
1Department of Civil Engineering, University of Jaffna,
2Structural Engineers and Design Consultants (Pvt) Ltd.
3,4Department of Civil Engineering, University of Peradeniya.
1
kiriparan@eng.jfn.ac.lk
2janusan@hdinfrastructuredesign.com , 3supunj@pdn.ac.lk
4udissa@pdn.ac.lk
different forms of telecommunication structures
designed by the author was used to develop
required comparison in this study. The findings of
this study will be useful for structural engineers,
project managers and other decision makers
involved in the design of telecommunication
infrastructures to choose a most viable structural
scheme during the conceptual design stage.
Telecommunications structures are often
divided into three main structural forms such as
towers), Guyed masts and Monopoles. Ground
based towers (Figure 1) could be either triangular
based (with three legs) or rectangular based (with
four legs) pin jointed steel structures. In general
practice, they are wider at the base level and
narrow down to top. In these structures moments
induced by the lateral wind loads are resisted as
axial tension and compressive forces. Hot rolled
angle sections are mostly used in ground base
towers. However, in triangular based towers usage
of circular hollow sections was also noted.
In guyed masts (Figure 2) steel cables are used
to support the steel mast at different levels against
the lateral wind loads. In these structures wind
induced lateral loads are predominantly resisted
by the guy cables in form of tensile forces and
steel mast carries compressive forces from the
gravity loads and vertical component of the thrust

SOCIETY OF STRUCTURAL ENGINEERS, SRI LANKA _____________________________________________________________________________16

 MODULUS | June 2023
Vol. 33 No. 02
transferred from the cables. Compared to the
ground-based towers lateral force induced
moments are very less in guy masts. Thus, mostly
uniform cross sections are used throughout the
height. Since larger lever arms are not required for
guy masts, closer leg spacing with pinned base is
adopted as shown in Figure 2. In the guy mast
structures steel is used in most efficient form by
transferring majority of the lateral forces in form
of tension in the cables. Thus, guy mast is
generally found to be the most economical
structural form. However, it requires larger land
extent for the anchoring of guy cables and require
skilled resource for the erection. Further,
structural redundancy of the pin-based guy mast is
less compared to the ground base towers as failure
of a cable may lead to the collapse of the entire
structure.
Figure 1: Rectangular based, 100 m high –
Ground based tower.
Guy
cables
Mast with
uniform
cross
section Pin base
Figure 2: Triangular base, 45 m
high – Guyed mast
SOCIETY OF STRUCTURAL ENGINEERS, SRI LANKA _____________________________________________________________________________17
RESEARCH FORUM
Monopoles are single cantilevered poles
significantly differed from guyed masts and
ground-based towers. The moments induced from
lateral loads are resisted by the cross section of
the pole. Monopoles demand less footprint, easy
for construction and have better aesthetic appeal.
Camouflage monopoles as shown in Figure 3 can
be used in environmentally sensitive areas.
Commonly, cantilever poles consume more
material to provide required lateral stiffness
compared to the ground-based towers.
Based on the general comparison criteria
(Aesthetical, Economical, and Structural
Considerations) it is obvious that the monopole
can be a strong competitor, particularly from a
visual perspective while ground based tower
earned a significant attention in terms of cost
(economical) and structural considerations (Azhar
AM & Inam JH, 2018). Monopoles significantly
outperform ground-based towers in some aspects.
They are more reliable under extreme conditions
since they are made with circular hollow sections
(CHS). As they have only few components,
installations is easy and faster. In addition, they
required lesser footprint. Considering all these
aspects, it is not possible to conclude mono poles
are better options. Because Guyed masts can make
a strong impact in cost consideration. Here's
something to keep in mind, general statements do
not always result in a better solution. A detailed
investigation has to be carried out to come up with
an optimum solution.
Figure 3: 40 m high - Camouflage monopole
This paper discusses the performance of each
tower types with respect to different project
constrains such as cost, land usage, material
 MODULUS | June 2023
Vol. 33 No. 02
usage, structural performance, and
constructability. In addition, the effects of bracing
patterns of rectangular based free-standing towers
are studied. Trend in variation of different design
constrains are predicted based on data collected
from existing towers will be useful in the
conceptual design.
2. Design Consideration
In this section various key factors to be
considered in design of telecommunication
structures are discussed. The design of
telecommunication towers is governed by lateral
wind loads. Thus, estimation of precise wind
loading and analysis of the structure against lateral
wind load to obtain internal forces and
deformations is an important task. Calculation of
wind loads through wind pressure gradient are
defined in different design codes. The chosen codes
must be used with the appropriate wind speed,
partial safety factors, and load factors.
2.1 Design codes and standards
There are different design codes and standards
available for the design of telecommunication
structures. The most often used codes are AS 3995,
AS 4100, EIA-222-F, TIA-222-G, ASCE 10-90,
ASCE 10-97, BS8100 Part 3, BS449, BS 5950, and
IS 802. In Accordance with Telecommunications
Regulatory Commission of Sri Lanka (TRCSL),
ANSI/TIA-222-G-2005: Structural Standard for
Antenna Supporting Structures and Antennas
published by Telecommunications Industry
Association in August 2005 is used as the primary
standard for the analysis and design.
2.2 Loadings
Dead Load
Self-weight of the structural members and
nonstructural components such as ladder, platforms
and fixers were considered based on the material
unit weights. Another major contributor to the dead
load is cellular antenna. Global system for mobile
(GSM) antenna/ panel antenna, Microwave (MW
disc) antenna, Active antenna unit (AAU) and
Remote radio unit (RRU) are some most common
types of cellular antennas. Loading from these
antennas are taken into the analysis as per the
client’s requirement.
RESEARCH FORUM
general practice, the approximate wind profile is
developed to carryout calculations to find out this
lateral force. Power law and Logarithmic law are
the commonly used methods to describe wind
profile (Emeis S & Turk M, 2007).
As per ANSI/TIA-222-G-2005 design code
following equation derived from power law is used
to define velocity pressure coefficient (Kz),
2
𝑍 𝛼
𝐾𝑧 = 2.01 ( ) ------------ (1)
𝑍𝑔
where,
Z = height above ground level at the base of the
structure
Zg, α and are parameters depend on exposure
category.
velocity pressure (qz) shall be determined as
follows:
𝑞𝑧 = 0.613𝐾𝑧 𝐾𝑧𝑡 𝐾𝑑 𝑉 2 𝐼----------(2)
where,
Kz = velocity pressure coefficient
Kzt = topographic factor
Kd = wind direction probability factor
V = the basic wind speed [m/s]
I = importance factor
Generally, in the design of telecommunication
structures, wind loading is calculated in every 30
degree approaching wind angles based on the
following parameters (ANSI/TIA-222-G-2005).
▪ Basic wind speed
▪ Topographic Category
▪ Exposure Category
▪ Structure Class

Wind load
In general, moving air is referred as wind.
When this wind hit by a surface, it's dynamic
energy is converted to pressure. Then this surface's Figure 4: Different bracing system considered
applied pressure transforms to a force. That is the for 60 m high – Rectangular ground-based tower
lateral load acting on the structure due to wind. In

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 MODULUS | June 2023
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2.3 Load Combinations
Following load combinations are considered for
the Ultimate and serviceability limit state design
checks (ANSI/TIA-222-G-2005).
▪ 1.2 Dead Load + 1.6 Wind Load
▪ 1.0 Dead Load + 1.0 Wind Load
2.4 Limitations
▪ The deformations under service loads at
any location on a structure shall not
exceed the following:
▪ A rotation of 4 degrees about the vertical
axis (twist) or any horizontal axis (sway)
of the structure.
▪ A horizontal displacement of 5% of the
height of the structure.
▪ For cantilevered tubular or latticed spines,
poles or similar structures mounted on
latticed structures, a relative horizontal
displacement of 1% of the cantilever
height measured between the tip of the
cantilever and its base.
3. Procedure
In this study data collected from 31
telecommunication towers with different structural
forms were compared to investigate the impact of
different design constrains in the selection of a
most suitable structural form for a project based on
site specific requirements. Twelve number of
ground-based towers with rectangular base, seven
number of triangular base towers, six number of
monopoles and six number of guy masts with
heights ranging from 9 m to 120 m were used in
this study.
Impact of different structural forms (ground
base, monopole & guy mast) in the material usage
(steel weight), required base width, land usage
(footprint) and cost variation were compared for
different heights of the structure. Further, the base
shear for different structural forms were compared
to assess the windward area of each structural form
attracting the wind load. Here, antenna loadings
and wind parameters were kept constants for all
cases.
In addition, the effect of bracing types on
structural performance were checked for selected 5
bracing configurations of rectangular based four
leg towers. In this study following bracing
topologies were considered,
Analytical models of the towers were developed
using the special purpose program called “MS
Tower”. A basic wind speed of 33 m/s is used for
the analysis. Utility ratio, deflections, base shear,
and weight of each case were extracted from the
analysis model.
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RESEARCH FORUM
4. Results and Discussions
The material usage in a structure indicates the
efficiency of a structural form and determines its
sustainability. Figure 5 shows the steel usage of
different structural forms considered. As expected,
the guy masts consume less material for all the
heights considered. In ground-based towers
triangular based towers are lighter than the
rectangular based towers. However, due to the
limitation on structural performance mostly
rectangular based towers were preferred beyond 70
m height. Interestingly, for the loadings considered
steel usage of the monopole structure was lesser
than the rectangular based structure up to 20 m
height.
Figure 5: Variation of weight with height of
structure
Land usage is an important constraint that
determines the type of structural form to be used
for the telecommunication structure. The extent of
land availability is not only a challenging factor in
urban cities but also it is a critical factor in hilly
terrains and forest reservations where significant
number of newly prosed expansions are located.
Figure 6 presents the variation of land usage for
different structural forms with the height. The
extent of land usage is calculated considering the
total land area required for construction of the
telecommunication structure including the
foundation and guy cable anchorage blocks. The
guy masts require a larger area for all the heights
considered. This limits the usage of guy masts in
many cases although it is the most economical
structural form. The monopoles utilize less space
compared to all other structural forms for all the
cases considered. Thus, monopoles are used to
overcome the space restrictions. However, the
available data for monopoles is only up to 40 m
height. Due to the increased cost and limitations on
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Vol. 33 No. 02 RESEARCH FORUM
structural performance monopoles beyond 40 m
heights are not often.

Figure 6: Variation of footprint with height Figure 8: Variation of relative cost with
of structure height for rectangular base towers
Cost for the infrastructure is a significant considered.
component of capital investment for the
telecommunication service provider. Thus, the
developer prefers to adopt a structural form with
minimum cost. However, in the design of
telecommunication structures along with the cost
for the infrastructure land usage is also critically
checked to overcome the space limitation and
minimize the recurrent expense on rental for the
land. Total structural cost is presented in Figure 7.
Guy masts are the cheapest solution for all heights
considered. Rectangular based towers are found to
be more expensive up to around 20 m height, and
beyond 20 m cost for the monopole structures
exceeds the four leg towers. Next to the guy masts,
triangular based towers are most found to be most
economical form for height ranging from 20 m to
70 m for the loading considered. Monopole
structures will be more economical for structures
up to around 20 m height under the loading Figure 9: Variation of relative cost with height
considered. The total infrastructure cost consists of for Triangular based towers considered.
foundation cost plus the superstructure cost. The
proportion of foundation to superstructure cost of
all the 31 cases considered are presented in Figure
8 – 11.

Figure 10: Variation of relative cost with height

Figure 7: Variation of relative cost with for monopoles considered.
height of structure

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Figure 13: Variation of base shear with height

Figure 11: Variation of relative cost with height
for guyed masts considered.
In ground-based towers selection of an
optimum base width considering the structural
performance and the economy is a crucial task.
Figure 12 presents the variation of base widths
used in rectangular towers considered in this study.
This information will be useful for the selection of
base width during the conceptual design stages.
Variation of base shear of different structural
forms for the similar approaching wind
characteristics is presented in Figure 13. This
variation indicates that monopoles experience less
wind loads up to 30 m height due to the less
effective surface area. However, in the 30 m – 40
m range because of increasing the section size of
monopoles attracts more wind loads compared to
guy masts and triangular base towers. Four leg
towers experience higher structural wind loads due
to the larger exposed areas of structural elements.
of structure
The results from the comparison of five
different bracing configurations (TP 1- TP 5) for a
60 m four leg tower are presented in Figure 14 to
17. The comparison of material usage presented in
Figure 14 illustrates that, X bracing arrangement
with internal redundant members (TP 1) consume
less material than the X bracing without redundant
members (TP 5). Further maximum utilization ratio
of the critical member with this bracing
configuration (TP 1) is lesser than that of TP 5 as
per Figure 16. However, the configuration TP 1 is
more flexible with less lateral stiffness resulting in
larger deformation. Although the K braces
combined at the lower portion of a tower with X
braces are relatively heavier, reduce lateral
deformation and minimize the stress ratio in the
members. Using these comparisons presented
relatively stiffer configuration can be chosen for
heavily loaded towers in higher wind zones
whereas the towers with minimum weights can be
used for lightly loaded towers.

Figure 12: Variation of base width with height

of structure
Figure 14: Variation of steel usage with
topology

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 MODULUS | June 2023
Vol. 33 No. 02
Figure 15: Variation of deflection with topology
Figure 16: Variation of utility ratio with
topology
Figure 17: Variation of base shear with
topology
5. Conclusions
This study presented the comparison of
different structural forms of telecommunication
structures such as ground based towers, guy masts
and monopoles based on the data obtained from 31
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RESEARCH FORUM
projects implemented in Sri Lanka. The material
consumption, land usage, cost, base width, exposed
area for wind loading and structural performance
were compared for heights ranging from 9 m to 120
m. Further, the comparison of five different
commonly used bracing configurations for four leg
ground-based tower is presented. Based on this
comparison, the following generalized observations
can be made under the loading scenario considered.
▪ Guy masts are the most economical
structural form as expected if land usage is
not restricted. The approximate extent of
land usage with height can be predicted
using the given plots.
▪ Monopoles may be a more feasible
structural form for shorter
telecommunication structures (less than 20
m) considering all constraints such as
space required, cost, wind exposed area
and material consumption.
▪ Triangular based towers are most
economical for heights ranging from 20 m
to 70 m. However, beyond 70 m mostly
rectangular based towers are used.
▪ Monopoles up to 40 m utilize minimum
land space compared to all other structural
forms.
▪ An optimum base width for ground-based
towers is proposed based on the available
data.
▪ Along with the redundant X – bracings
combined with K-bracing at the lower
portion of the rectangular based towers are
heavier and capable to resist higher level
of loading.
▪ Introducing redundant members for
rectangular based structures with X –
bracing will assist in reducing the material
usage and improve structural performance.
The results presented in this paper in the form
of graphs will be useful for designers in the
selection of suitable structural form based on the
project specific priorities and constraints.
6. Acknowledgement
The authors gratefully acknowledge the support
of the Eng. Denuwan Gamage and Eng, Udana
Amarasuriya of Dialog Axiata PLC for their
valuable contribution in data collection and
valuable comments provided with respect to the
planning aspects of telecommunication
infrastructures.
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7. References

[1] Azhar AM, A., & Inam JH, A. (2018).

Detailed comparison study among 3 cell
tower alternatives (triangular, square lattice
towers and monopole) preliminarily based on
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https://doi.org/10.15406/mojce.2018.04.0013
4
[2] Elhakim, Y., Ismail, T., & Fahim, I. (2022).
Optimum Selection of Communication Tower
Structures Based on Wind Loads & lifecycle
cost analysis. Cogent Engineering, 9(1).
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[3] ANSI/TIA- Emeis, S., Turk, M. (2007).
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Applicability for Offshore Wind Profiles.
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(eds) Wind Energy. Springer, Berlin,
Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-
540-33866-6_11
[4] Smith BW, Støttrup-Andersen U. (2010)
Towers and Masts: The Past, Present and
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[5]Gomathinayagam, Somasundaram &
Shanmugasundaram, J. & P, Harikrishna &
Lakshmanan, N. & Rajasekaran, C.. (2000).
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[6] 222-G-2005: Structural Standard for Antenna
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