Overview of the circulation (hemodynamics): interrelationships among pressure, flow, and resistance (the

Ohm's law); the resistance to blood flow (the Poiseuille's law); total peripheral resistance; vascular compliance;
law of Laplace. Arterial pressure: a pressure pulse contour; transmission of pressure pulses; measuring of
maximum and minimum arterial pressures.

The microcirculation. The regulatory role of arterioles. Functional structure of capillary system; vasomotion;
average function of the capillary system. Exchange of nutrients and other substances between the blood and
interstitial fluid (the Starling forces). Formation of lymph and the lymph flow. The veins and their functions.
Venous pressure and venous flow. Factors that determine venous flow and lymph flow.

The functional anatomy of the heart. Physiology of cardiac muscle: action potentials and refractory period in
cardiac muscle; cardiac muscle as a syncytium. The specialized excitatory and conductive system of the heart.
The mechanism of sinus nodal rhythmicity. Ectopic pacemakers; extrasystoles; cardiac arrhythmias.

The heart as a pump. The cardiac cycle. Function of the valves. Heart sounds and
phonocardiography. Heart rate, stroke volume, and cardiac output in various conditions.

The electrocardiogramm (ECG). Electrocardiographic leads: the three bipolar limb leads; chest leads. Analysis
of the ECG (waves, intervals, the mean electrical axis of the heart; the rhythmicity of the heart).

Regulation of heart pumping. Heterometric regulation: Frank-Starling's law and regulation of venous return.
Homeometric regulation of cardiac output. Control of the heart by the sympathetic and parasympathetic nerves:
chronotropic and inotropic effects.

Regulation of arterial pressure. The baroreceptor reflexes; control of arterial pressure by the carotid and aortic
chemoreceptors.The sympathetic vasoconstrictor system; the vasomotor center.

Renin-angiotensin system, vasopressin, atrial natriuretic peptide, and sympathoadrenal system in long-term
regulation of arterial pressure and body fluid content.

Local control of blood flow - humoral mechanisms. Role of endothelium. Vasodilator metabolites. Tissue
hormones: kinins, prostaglandins, angiotensins, histamine.

Circulation through special regions: cerebral circulation; coronary circulation; the cardiovascular system and
skeletal muscle blood flow in the rest and during exercise.