GURU NANAK COLLEGE

(AUTONOMOUS)
GURU NANAK SALAI, VELACHERY
CHENNAI – 42

• NAME OF THE PAPER : CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY

• SEMESTER : III
• PROGRAMME : B.Sc ADVANCED ZOOLOGY AND
BIOTECHNOLOGY
• NAME OF THE FACUTY : Dr.S.M.JEARMEEN
• DESIGNATION : ASSISTANT PROFESSOR
 CELL CYCLE
➢ The events occurring in the life of a cell from its formation to its division into
daughter cells
➢ 2 periods in the life of a cell
➢ Interphase and mitotic phase
INTERPHASE
➢ Stage of the cell cycle between 2 divisions
➢ Transcription and translation occurs
➢ Cells grows and longest phase
➢ Out of the 90 hrs,it lasts for 89 hrs – human cell
➢ Resting phase
➢ Nucleus – large distinct and intact
➢ Nuclear membrane intact
➢ Nuclolus distinct
➢ Prepares the cell for mitosis
➢ No division occurs
➢ Metabolic activities r high
➢ mRNA ,rRNA –r synthesized
➢ Chromosomes appear as long uncoiled threads and
they r intertwined
➢ Chromosomes duplicates into 2 chromatids
➢ Centriole duplicates into 2
❑ Chromosomes appear as long uncoiled threads
❑ Chromosomes duplicates into 2 chromatids
❑ Centrioles duplicates into 2
❑ 3 subunits – G1 phase, S phase and G2 phase
G1 phase
➢ G for gap
➢ Gap period between a mitotic and s phase
➢ First growth period
➢ Starts immediately after division
➢ Daughter cells grow and increase in size
➢ Longer phase
➢ Nerve cells remain permanently in this phase
➢ RNAs and proteins r synthesized
➢ Cell organelles r produced
➢ Cell grows, metabolic rate is high
➢ It produces the following components
➢ Proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, ER and mitochondria
➢ Duration – 10hrs
➢ Cell cycle is controlled by many checkpoints called restriction
points
➢ It only determines a cells fate to either
➢ Continue in the cell cycle and divide /enter G0/become a
specified cell /die
➢ Proteins like kinases and cyclins activate genes and their proteins
to perform cell division
➢ Cyclins act as major checkpoint . It determine whether cell divides
r not
➢
 G0 phase
➢ Quiesceent stage
➢ Stage of interphase of cell cycle
➢ Cell remains metabolically active
➢ No proliferation takes placecant exist for long periods
➢ Stop growth
➢ Reduced rate of RNA synthesis, protein synthesis
➢ Its not permanent
➢ Mature neurons and skeletal muscle cells remain permanent
➢ G0 cells r Not dormant
S phase
➢ S stands for synthesis
➢ DNA synthesis occurs - DNA molecules
duplicates
➢ Each chromosomes becomes 2 chromatids
➢ Histones r synthesized
➢ S-phase promoting factor rises
➢ SPF prepares the cell to enter S – phase
➢ Centrioles duplicates
➢ Growth of the cell continues
G2 phase
❖Gap period between s phase and mitotic phase
❖2nd growth phase
❖Nucleus increases in volume
❖Mitochondria and chloroplast divide
❖Mitotic spindle begins to form
❖Cell growth continues
❖Protein synthesis occur
❖Synthesis of cell organelles
❖Microtubules organize to form spindle fibres
❖Nuclear division follows
❖Maturation promoting factor is synthesised
2.Mitotic phase or M phase
▪ Division phase
▪ Short duration
▪ It has a duration of 45 minutes to 1 hour
▪ 2 subphases – karyokinesis and cytokineis
▪ Karyokinesis – division of nucleus into 2 daughter nuclei
▪ It has 4 substages – prophase,metaphase,anaphase and
telophase
▪ Cytokinesis – division of cytoplasm resulting in to 2 daughter
cells
MITOSIS
The division of a cell into 2 identical daughter cells
1st discovered by Fleming 1879

TYPES OF MITOSIS
1. Intranuclear mitosis
➢ Nuclear membrane remains intact
➢ Nucleus divides along with the cytoplasm
➢ Occurs in acellular organisms

2. Extranuclear mitosis
➢ Nuclear membrane breaks
➢ Mitotic events occur within the cytoplasm

3. Anastral mitosis
➢ In plant cells..mitosis without ASTERS

➢ 4.ASTRAL
➢ 5. Endoitosis
➢ Multiplication of chromosomes without nuclear division
➢ Polytene chromosomes r produced
➢ 6. symmetrical….2 equal cells r produced
➢ 7.asymmetrical …2 unequal cells r produced
▪ Mitosis consists 2 events
▪ karyokinesis and cytokinesis

▪ Karyokinesis
▪ Division of the nuclei into 2 daughter nuclei
▪ 4 phases
1. prophase
➢ 1st stage
➢ Cells become spheroid and viscous
➢ Nuclear membrane disintegrates and disappears into the cytoplasm
➢ Chromosome become shortened and thickened
➢ Each chromosome is formed of 2 chromatids
➢ Nucleolus start to disappear
➢ RNA content of the chromosome increased
➢ Centriole separates migrates towards the opposite poles of the cell
➢ Around each centriole astral rays r formed in the cytoplasm
➢ Longer delicate spindle fibres run from end of the cell between the astral figures
2. Metaphase
➢ The chromosomes lie at the equatorial plane
➢ Some of the fibres of the spindle attach with the centromere of each chromosome – chromosome
fibres
➢ Some other fibres of the spindle extend from one pole to the other pole- continuous fibres
➢ Interzonal fibres- fibres occur in between the chromosomes

3. Anaphase
➢ The chromatids of each chromosome r separated and form two chromosomes – daughter
chromosomes
➢ Daughter chromosomes move towards the opposite poles of the cell
➢ The chromosomes develop the shape of j/l/v according to the position o the centromere in the
chromosome

➢ 4. Telophase
➢ Nucleolus begin to reappear
➢ New nuclear membrane develops
➢ Spindle fibres break down and disappear

Cytokiesis – division of the cytoplasm into 2 daughter cells – division starts as a constriction- it eepens
and thus 2 daughter cells r formed from a single parent cell.
MEIOSIS
introduction
❑ coined by farmer -1905
❑ reproductive cell during the formation of gametes
❑ reduction division
❑ reduced to haploid (n) from diploid (2n)
❑ produce 4 daughter cells from a parent cell
 TYPES OF DIVISION
1.HETEROTYPIC
2.HOMOTYPIC DIVISION

HETEROTYPIC DIVISION(1ST MEIOTIC DIVISION)

▪ diploid cell divided into 2 haploid cells
▪ daughter cell r different from parent cell in the chromosome no..
▪ heterotypic division
▪ prophase I
▪ metaphase I
▪ anaphase I
▪ telophase I
1. prophase I
✓ longer duration
✓ subdivided into 5 stages
✓ leptotene
✓ zygotene
✓ pachytene
✓ diplotene
✓ diakinesis

1.leptotene
❖ volume of nucleus increased
❖chromosome become distinct,long and uncoiled
❖diploid no..
❖series of bead like chromomeres
❖centrioles divides into two
 zygotene
2.

o 2 homologous chromosomes approach each other and begin to

pair
o pairing – synapsis
o pair(maternal and paternal chromosome)
o bivalents –pairs so formed
o chromosomes become shorter and thicker
o nucleolus increases in size
o centrioles – move to opposite poles
3. pachytene
▪ individual chromosomes of each bivalent begins to split longitudinally into 2
similar chromatids
▪ each bivalent now contains 4 chromatids – tetrad stage
▪ chromatids break at these points – broken segments r interchanged
▪ genetic recombination occurs
▪ interchange of chromatin materials – crossing over

4.diplotene
❖homologous –repel each other- separate each other
❖chiasmata begin to move along the length of the chromosomes from the
centromere towards the end
❖displacement of chiasmata – terminalization
5.Diakinesis
▪ terminalization completed
▪ nucleolus disappear
▪ nuclear membrane disappear
▪ bivalents repel and migrate to the
periphery of the nucleus just inside the
nuclear membrane
2. metaphase 1
❑ spindle fibres well developed
❑chromosome – equator
❑centromeres towards poles
❑arms towards equator

3.anaphase I
➢ homologous chromosome with 2 chromatids and undivided
centromere moves towards the opposite poles of the cells

4.telophase I
❑haploid no.. of chromosomes –uncoiled and elongated
❑nuclear membrane and nucleolus reappear
❑thus 2 daughter nuclei r formed
 5. cytokinesis i
▪ after karyokinesis , cytokinesis occurs and 2 haploid cells r formed
▪ these daughter cells pass through a short resting phase

homotypic division or second meiotic division

❑ daughter cells r similar to parent cell in the chromosome number.
❑ it consists of the following phases
▪ prophase II
▪ metaphase II
▪ anaphase II
▪ telophase II
▪ cytokinesis II

❖ prophase II
❖ chromosome appear distinct with two chromatids
❖ centrioles divides into 2, so formation of 2 centrioles- then each moves to opposite poles
❖ produce asters
❖ nuclear membrane and nucleolus disappear
▪ Metaphase II
➢ chromosome get arranged on the equator
➢ 2 chromatids separated by the division of the centromere

Anaphase II
❖ separated chromatids become daughter chromosomesand move to opposite poles due to
contraction of spindle fibres

Telophase II
daughter chromosomes uncoil
Nuclear membrane surrounds each group of chromosomes

Cytokinesis II

2 cells r formed from each haploid daughter cell – formation of 4 cells with haploid no..of
chromosomes

undergo further change ton develop in to gametes

 Significance of meiosis

1. Gametes r produced by meiosis

2. No meiosis – chromosome number is doubled
3.Result in the formation of abnormal forms
4. Owing to crossing over, genes from male and female
parents get mixed – causes genetic variation
5.Variations r raw material for evolution
REFERENCES

1.https://www.yourgenome.org › facts

2.https://biologydictionary.net › meiosis

3. http://www.biology.arizona.edu › Cell Biology › Meiosis