Government College University Lahore

Department of Political Science

Name:
Anila Nawaz (2244-BH-PS-20)
Shabeeha Tariq (2223-BH-PS-20)

Course Title:
Sectarianism in Pakistan

Course Code:
PS-4208

Course Instructor:
Dr. Saqib Khan

Section:
PSA1
 Religious Sectarianism Destroying the peaceful image
of Islamic Country: A Case study of Pakistan
Abstract:
Sectarianism is the conflict between two groups on religious bases. It is the most common cause
of violence in the country in the name of religion. In our country people are religiously
emotional, so sectarianism is the common cause of violence. Historically this term paper
explains all the events which increased the intensity of sectarian conflicts in the country. It is
between two religious groups Shia and Sunni. The fire flames by two main events those are the
Zia era islamization and Iranian Revolution. Many people till now are killed because of sectarian
violence. Both sects have established their organizations by the name of Shipa-e-Shaba and
Shipa-e-Muhammadi All these issues destroyed the image of Islam and Pakistan all over the
world. In the era of general Musharraf, he banned religious militant organizations and tried to
implement peace. This study also mentioned the terror areas in the country like Jhang where
sectarian conflicts are at its peak. clergy was the main factor they needed to created religious
awareness so people can look through what they are doing. Religious harmony is important for
any society to exist together. there were many foreign funding’s through which these
organizations were getting trained. Till now the government has tried their best to maintain the
peace in the country. Through our extensive case study and references we have tried to cover the
major events involved in religious sectarianism and how they are destroying the peaceful image
of the country.

Introduction:
Sectarianism is the conflict between any two groups on the basis of some principles they would
find difference in that. That groups could be political, cultural or the religious groups. Most of
the time the principles or the rules given by the government under which people had to live,
differences in these rules and leading that to conflicts is also considered in sectarianism. Now to
specify the type here we will be talking about the religious sectarianism. Here meaning lies that
different sections or groups of people in same religion but having different beliefs and practices
relating to the religion and that difference leading them to split into fractions. Religious
difference can be related to any religion but they are more prominent in Islam and Christianity.
In Christians we will see the two different groups mainly named as Protestants and Catholics.in
them we have the example of 16th century reformations which led to many conflicts. In Islamic
sectarianism there are two groups in Muslims one is the Shia group and the other one is Sunni
group. From historical point of view this conflict started from centuries back where the question
rises who would led after the Prophet Muhammad and the conflict goes on till now. Rather than
there are some differences in their beliefs as well. Sectarianism is the phenomena which in this
contemporary world is controlled by many factors that could be political, social or the
economical factor. In all these cases sectarianism has always led to violence in the society. It
always breaks the harmony of people living together. Religion is the sensitive topic which needs
a lot awareness people get easily triggered by it. In the following term paper we will try to
understand the concept of religious conflicts and through some case studies we will try to find
the initiatives that are taken to control this issue.

Definitions of Religious Sectarianism:

Following are some different definitions of religious sectarianism
1. “Being intolerant towards a specific group of people depending on their religion
because they have slightest difference in their practices is religious sectarianism. It
also becomes the root cause for terrorism and violence.”1

2. “Sectarianism is relation to certain group affiliated to specific sect of religion”. 2

Peaceful image of Muslim Countries:

For the development of any society religious harmony is necessary. If people will be divided into
different sects and groups, it is not possible. It will never cause the unity of people. What
causes sectarianism and his disharmony in any sovereign country is the people
leaders from these Shia and Sunni sects. They will spread their certain messages
against each other to their followers which causes these conflict. Islam is a
peaceful religion it has never supported the integration of different groups. There
are many qur’anic verses which proves that there is no place of sectarianism in the religion. But

1
“Sectarianism definition and meaning”, Anon,
https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/sectarianism, accessed on April 1, 2023
2
“Sectarianism”, https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/sectarianism, accessed on April 1, 2023
here in the case study of Pakistan we will see that how even the political leaders for their benefits
gets people into these conflicts, they will support certain Shia Sunni groups so that in return they
get the support of people from these sects an d they can make their positions strong. In all the
Muslim countries whether it is Pakistan, Saudia, Iran etc. all of these countries are facing these
sectarian issues. This will destroy the peaceful image of the Muslim countries because Islam is
the religion of peace. It does not have the space for sectarianism in it. Even in Pakistan these
sects get foreign support what does all this mean it is clear that religious violence and conflicts
are the biggest rock in the socio political development of the country. This thing not only
destroys the image of the country but also of the religion. The world is already witnessing
enough islamophobia cases.

Historical background of sectarianism in Pakistan:

The Shia Sunni conflict was rooted into the country since the British ruled over here but this
issue got fired more in 1980s where after the Iranian revolution things started to get out of hand.
Saudia Arab was also included in these issues. All the Shia and Sunni groups in the country were
getting their support from these foreign countries. These countries were also against each other.
They trained the groups and the conflicts were started in our country. It is astonishing to know
that how these countries brought their issue into ours knowing the religious sensitivity in the
country. In the early history of Pakistan we can easily notice that there was no space for
different sects. When Pakistan was created it was established mutually there was secular
governance. People from every sect embraced each other. Even though in the text books we can
notice Muslim rulers were never in the position for any sectarianism they even accepted Hindus.
This shows the secular state by the Muslim leader. Even after the creation of Pakistan all this
Shia Sunni biasness was buried but it got in flames after the Iranian revolution. Pakistan went
against the Iran because of several reason one of the most important was Saudia was supporting
Pakistan financially a lot. “it gave Pakistan the seed-money for its Zakat Fund which now
stands at almost Rs 12 billion annually to be distributed among the poor but which went
predominantly to the seminaries during the 1980”.3For the soviet war after the united states
Saudia was the main support for Pakistan. Taking the advantage of this situation they started the
islamization of the country under the rule of General Zia where he implanted the Hanfi principles
from the Sunni sect all over the country. Obviously Shia people got offended because they had
different beliefs and practices. Shia people had different methods for zakat and many other
things than Sunni. So being a secular state it was wrong step that Pakistan took. So when
islamization began different protests and campaigns started by the Shia sect. they did not accept
this method. Deobandi from India started the campaigns that Shia should be considered non-
Muslim by the constitution. Such poison started the conflicts more in over country. In 1985 Shia
sect formed their group of Shipa-e-Muhammadi. Shia people followed the Najaf principles. Most
of the Shia population lives in the northern side of the country. Many fatwas were given against
Shia community. How one can say that there is no sectarianism in the country when they had
faced number of target killings in the country just because of religious issues. In Pakistan in the
city jhang a proper militant group by the name of laskr-e-jhang was e stablished against the Shia

3
Khaled Ahmed, “the roots of sectarianism in Pakistan”, Vol 2 No 4, October 04, 2013.
community in jhang because they were in majority. Much of the sectarian violence was done by
these groups. Then in the era of general Musharraf many other Sunni groups started their
trainings against Shia stance and anti-Shia campaigns started in the country. What Islamic
scholar says the argument is that Shia community has disrespected the companions of the holy
prophet in the early history. This is what all this conflict is about which has lead us to killings
and violence’s. in 1980s Baluchistan there was major killing of Shia people in month of June
and July. So all these things become the root events this sectarian violence in the country which
exists till now.

Sectarian Conflict:
the groups created by these religious sects only increased the sectarian issues and created a bad
image of Pakistan and Islam on the international level. These groups have specified their
teachings and opened their own institutions so they can preach their own messages and
propagandas. They would adopt different methods to get people to come to them knowing that
people in Pakistan are religiously sensitive. The Deobandi sect has created three different groups
one is Jamat-e-islami, it is for the purpose of politics other one is shipa shaba which led the anti-
Shia stance and the last one is laskr-e-jhang which is mainly involved in many terrorist issues in
the country. Sunni sect is also divided into four groups Deobandi, al hadith, Wahhabi and
bralevi. They all belong to same sect but had slight difference beliefs. Bralevi and Deobandi
believes in Sufi culture where as Wahhabi and al hadith rejects. Some issues were also raised
from these groups in 1990s. the main group of the Shia community was Tarik-e-Jafri but its
activates were stopped forcefully in 2002 after that we can see the other organization of Shia
community was ship-e-Muhammadi. All these organizations have done nothing except the
violence and only raised the conflicts all over the country.

Sectarian Radicalism:
Sectarian radicalism we can say is the tragedy through which these religious propagandas are
advocated through politics or political movements. It is also considered as fundamental change
done by the political leaders or parties. In Pakistan we can see that how these political
radicalisms increased the sectarian violence in the country.

Extremists:
There are extremist organizations working with in the country. Pakistan condemns al-Qaeda but
both these sectarian organizations like laskr-e-jhang and al-Qaeda are involved in terrorist
activities. They are having close links that means there are domestic extremists activities going
on in the country. Many investigations are done for these terror. Faisal Saleh Hayat belong to the
Shia community he was the interior minister in general Musharraf era he blamed Jamat-e-islami
for terror attacks that their members are involved in it. It is also to be believed that all this is
done knowingly to damage Pakistan. The external factors are clear who are not Muslims and
doing all this but the hazardous are those who are staying in the country and counted themselves
as Muslims and increases these conflicts. Also Saudia-Iran conflict played the major role in
domestic sectarianism in the country.
Madras and Mosques:
In Pakistan madras are also used an element for the sectarian issues. Till now there are more than
ten thousand madras in the country. It is to be believe that people who cannot afford schools they
sent their children for getting religious education can become mulanas afterwards. An exam is
also conducted for all these students. In madras students learn their certain ideologies and their
perspective is set by their teachers. In Pakistan there are 58 religious parties under which other
small groups works for politics and other works for the sectarian issues. Pakistan is not a place
where there is one religion. Sunni sect no doubt wants their dominancy in the country. Mosques
and madras are the places where pupils are taught about their sects and their perspectives are set
against other Muslim groups. This is also the sole reason why sectarianism in increasing so
widely in the country. It would also not new to say that even government sometimes taking the
pressure from religious groups will take initiatives against the other groups. For their own
political benefit if this will go on then sectarianism will never end from the country. Because of
sectarianism other issues like social discrimination, identity discrimination, legal biasness such
issues are also rising in the country.

State-endorsed radicalism:
“Pakistan is an Islamic state, not a nation-state.”
Niamatullah Khan4
When state follows a one religion and expressly pushed it into politics then conflicts started to
provoke in the society as whose model should be prevailed in the society. In Pakistan, the case is
similar as state policies are inclined towards theocratic models and plays a major role in
politicizing religion. When theocratic model dominates the society religion becomes a currency
of power. Therefore, it is important to analyze and trace the origin and development of politics in
Pakistan which is majorly based on faiths and also it is important to analyze how sectarian issues
emerged in constitutional and political history of Pakistan. It is also important to access the
factors that has intensified the sectarian competition in Pakistan.

Religious Extremism’s Roots:

The statements like “Who is Muslim”, “what kind of declarations of beliefs should a Muslim
make” intensified the roots of religious sectarianism in not only British India but also in newly
created state as well. The spiritual leader of Islmaili Shias, Sir Agha Khan led the movement of
Pakistan and was a founder of All India Muslim League. Later on, in the newly created state the
elites that had represented the Muslims in various institutions of British India i.e. civil, military,
political sought to integrate the religion in the state. The leadership of Muslim League in the

4
“Islamic Law, the Nation State, and the case of Pakistan”, Wilson Center,
https://www.wilsoncenter.org/event/islamic-law-the-nation-state-and-the-case-pakistan, accessed on April 2,
2023.
newly created state started to legitimize their power on the basis of religion as they lack the
popular support.
Shabir Ahmad Usmani who was a Deobandi was tasked to frame the constitution of Pakistan, he
incorporated the Objective resolution in 1949 as the basis of future constitutions. According to
which sovereignty belongs to Allah and the authority that has been delegated to Pakistan by
Allah should be in accordance to the teachings of Islam.
The religious parties and the mullahs were of the view that if they adopt the Islamic constitution
this would give them authority to make the public policies as well. To form such a constitution
they consider the four major activities of British India:
 Khilafat Movement and Hijarat Movement (1920-1924)
 Islamic institutions e.g. madrass at Deoband, Bareily, Lucknow
 The restoration of Islamic image by adopting fundamentalism e.g. JI
 Activism of Mullahs
The anti-Ahmadi movements in the forming years of Pakistan’s shows how these events
incorporated the sectarian violence in Pakistan.
1. Munir Report:
After the creation of Pakistan, the anti-ahmadi movement can be seen as the continuation
and expansion of current Shia-Deobandi conflict. It was started by the ulemas to declare
the small but politically influential minority of Ahmadi as non-muslims. Ulemas and
leaders of Sunni as well as Shia sect joined in the agitation of anti-ahmadi. In this
struggle, the public emotions were greatly hurt and incited at such a high pitch that
Punjab particularly Lahore became a graveyard where thousands of people were
murderously rioted. This was also one of the reason of imposition of first martial law in
Pakistan in 1953. A judicial court of inquiry was asked to investigate the reasons behind
the riot and in the result Munir Commission Report was formed. The report also invited
the protesting ulemas to define who is a muslim according to them. The deobandi ulemas
also presented the same edicts against the Shia and status of shia was also debated.

2. Role of Zia:

“Religious politicians were the only ones Zia liked because they supported military
strategy and didn't bring up concerns about human rights or development. Politicians
were diverted by using religion.

Sanaullah Baloch, senator"5

Religious sectarianism particularly Deobandi, Wahabi, Ahle Hadith and various

beneficiaries organizations such as Jammat-e-islami (JI) were promoted by Zia ul Haq. In
5
“Sectarianism in Pakistan – ETH Z”,
https://www.files.ethz.ch/isn/28410/095_the_state_of_sectarianism_in_pakistan.pdf, accessed on April 2, 2023.
 public and private colleges and universities Islami Jamiat Talaba (IJT) a pressure group
of JI became active. To support the Jihadi activities in Afghanistan Zia ul haq supported
Deobandi Madrassas. Moreover, he used these sects to control the shia’s activities which
was supported by Iran under PPP. Shias were supported and aided by Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto
on religious sectarianism and he also issued orders for their protection. The islamization
of Zia which is also known as Zia’s sunnism resulted in the march of Shia towards
Islamabad where they demanded their rights. All their demands were rejected by Zia but
after his death Shia sect divided and started to support different political parties such as
PPP, PMLN, and MMA etc.

3. Role of Musharraf:
Government of Musharraf tried to control militancy and terrorism after 9/11 attack. For
this, he started various operations in FATA against Al-Qaeda and their facilitators. The
incident of Lal Masjid was also very important. He ordered number of military actions on
Lal Masjid situated in Federal city of Islamabad. During this military action some 150
students, children, teachers and military personnel were martyred. Number of females
were also kidnapped during these operations and state was unable to protect them.
Several religious sectarianism protested against Musharraf’s orders. The students of Lal
masjid were spoiled by militant organizations such as Lashkar e Jhangvi, Tehreek-e-
Taliban Pakistan etc as these students were interlinked with these organizations.

4. Foreign support:
Foreign countries use Pakistan for their own interests in the region. The countries like
Iran and Saudi Arab supported the religious sectarianism in Pakistan to further their own
interests. Instability and religious conflicts were created between the Shia-Sunni sects by
them. To fight in Afghanistan political parties like JUI and JI provided the financial
support and trained them. Shia and sunni were fighting against each other. On the one
hand shias were fighting against the state of Pakistan by taking help from Iran, India, and
Jews. On the other hand, to reduce the influence of Iran in Pakistan Sipah Sahaba
Pakistan was formed in 1985 with the support of Saudi Arab against the Shia movement.
Moreover, Russia and other intelligence agencies provided financial support to different
sectarian groups to fight against the NATO but all these strategies failed because of
successful Pakistan military forces.

Regions of Terror in Pakistan:

The seriousness of the current situation of sectarianism can be examine by analyzing the
different regions of terror in Pakistan.

 Punjab (Jhang):
The highest rate of sectarian violence is found in the southern Punjab, a region stretches
from Jhang to Dera Ghazi Khan. There is also great concentration of madrassas and
stronghold of Sipah-e-Sahaba and Lashkr-e-Jhangvi. Jhang is located at the brink of
central and southern Punjab with a population of 3 million of which quarter of
 population is Shia. Sectarian politics in Jhang dates back to 1960s. There is no history of
sectarian conflicts between Shia and Sunni sects before that. Sectarian politics is totally
unknown in Jhang but with the formation of Sipah Sahaba Pakistan in September 1985
by Haq Nawaz Jhangi it became prominent and intensified.

Jhangvi have been known for his anti-barelvi and anti-Ahmadi stance. He had also
focused his attention on Shias. They kept targeting the Shias by setting up pickets and
preventing them from performing their religious rituals.

“Under such circumstances, it was "more convenient to pass by while pretending to

be a non-Muslim.”6

Before Jhangvi’s murder in 1990 there was brutal killing of more than 300 shias between
1985 and 1989. The rise of SSP in Jhang reflects the socio-economic divisions. They
also had support from Middle East. SSP and Lashkar-e-Jhangvi was supported by the
bazar merchants as well. This organization had different student wing across the country
mainly in Karachi and Punjab. It gained its manpower from different madrassas which
belong to Deobandi. In other areas of Punjab alongside Deobandi Ahle-Hadith sect is
thriving.

 Sindh:
Karachi, a capital of Sindh is a hub of sectarian violence where 70 Shias and Deobandis
were killed in 2004. There are number of madrassas in Sindh which provide cadres for
sectarian extremism.

“Shias make up a quarter of Karachi's population, but there was no sectarian

bloodshed before the jihadis returned from Afghanistan and Kashmir.”7

Political-religious parties like JI and JUI which represented their mohajirs play a great
role in making Pakistan a hub of sectarian violence. In the mid-1980s, the political party
of JI was the main and dominant party with the support of military. It is controlling the
students campuses through their student wing i.e. Islami Jamiat Talaba. Violence is ever
present in Karachi by the shia-sunni conflict in mid-1990s it deluged their by the rise of
madrassas. With this some 500 Shias were killed by Sunni extremism which also
targeted the professionals and made them to migrate.
Moreover, Deobandi sects gave birth to different venomous jihadi and sectarian organizations.
The most prominent example of this is the Jaish-e-Mohammad. Karachi is likely to remain a
violent city with the changing policies until the Musharraf’s government.
6
“Quaid’s Vision of State: Perspective and Prospects for Pakistan”,
http://nihcr.edu.pk/Downloads/Dr_Sajid/Articles/19%20-%20The%20Upsurge%20of%20Religious
%20Extremism.pdf, accessed on April 2, 2023.
7
Andreas Rieck, The Shias of Pakistan: an assertive and beleaguered minority, (United Kingdom: Oxford University
Press, 2015), 76.
 8

Initiatives:
This sectarian violence is reaching to dangerous level in the country which needs to be stopped.
It is not only damaging the image of the country but also our religions are getting effected by it.
So some measures were taken and are needed to be adopt by the government to limit this
violence in the country.

Musharraf’s Response:
General Musharraf changes the system from islamization to the modernization. He tried to
change the way through which there would be any conflicts between the two sects in the country.
But the madras and mosques were so powerful at that time that things remained unchanged. The
influence of Zia islamization is still in the country. The clergy and mullahs are all so strong right
now in the country that they are present in our parliaments.

Implementation of peace:
For the enforcement of peace many of these militant organizations and these sectarian groups
were banned permanently. Their offices got closed. All this was done so the sectarian conflicts
can decrease in the country. But when all this happened violence increased. People got
threatened by these groups. Even the law was afraid of them. The biggest flaw was the instability
of police. They shouldn’t fear these groups and do their duties honestly. They need to punish
those whoever tries to create violence in the country.
8
https://crss.pk/story/crss-launches-its-annual-security-report-2018-special-edition/, accessed on April 2, 2023
Sectarian Politics:
Political parties use sectarian conflicts as their agendas for their politics. They would support the
specific group so in return they can get the support of these people. If politicians mutually try
they can stop this violence, but no everyone is working for their own benefits. Moreover,
government need to take measures to stop conflicts. When mian brothers were in government
they took initiative measures against the militant organizations. As the government changes these
policies remained continued. All the political parties need to work on stopping the sectarian
violence instead of supporting the groups of their sects.

Education:
In Pakistan the rate of education should be above fifty percent but it is below 40 which is
concerning. A proper education is necessary for the development of country so people would
have the basic knowledge and they will avoid such small topics to fight over. In Pakistan the
people are emotional and sensitive if religion is the topic we have seen many cases of blasphemy
as well in the country. So proper awareness in important which can be done by education. The
education in madras of different sects is of no use they are biased. They are creating the
perspective of the students by their own point of views. So this needs to be stopped students
should be getting equal education despite of any sect or perspective.

Clergy:
What is effecting sectarianism more in the country is the clergy. The religious scholars also
supports the certain groups of their sects. All of them need to come forward as one and they need
to give lesson to the country to stay as one. There should not be any religious or sect
discrimination in the country. In Pakistan in history when sectarian violence got out of hand
meetings of Islamic scholars were held to create harmony in the country.

Analysis:
Islam is the most peaceful religion in the world as it not only condemned the desperation of
affairs of Islam but also emphasize on obedience of other religions. But this didn’t remain same
as number of religious scholars divided the religion Islam in different sects such as (Sunni,
Wahhabi, Shia, etc.) for their own purpose and also called them as Kefir. This is not only done
by religious scholars but government of Pakistan is equally involve and responsible for this
motive. Moreover, religious organizations and foreign countries also use this sectarian conflicts
to further their own interests. The organizations like SSP, LeJ, and TTP etc. increased the
strength of militancy which is used to carry out the anti-state activities.
 9

Different religious scholars of different sects like Deobandi, Wahhabi, Sunni, and Shia preach
people for their own sects. They presented their religion as divine which leads them to paradise
and also misrepresented other religions by emphasizing that they shall lead you to hell. In Quran
Allah says many times that

And hold firmly to the rope of Allah all together and do not become divided.10

These religious scholars and motivators have different schools of thoughts and predecessors such
as Ghous-ul-Azam, Shah Waliullah, Khameeni etc. these different schools of thoughts often lead
to conflicts. During 1987-2013 approximately 3000 people were killed among them were some
of the prominent religious scholars such as Haqnawaz Jhangvi, Riaz Basra, Maula Sami ul Haq
etc.
Different religious sectarian organizations have their own madrassas in which students were
trained to carry out activities against the different sects and they also provide them financial aid
in different conflict zones like Jammu and Kashmir, Palestine etc. Majority of madrassas are run
by Deobandi sect and only 3% madrassas were run by Shia sect. The shia-sunni conflict is a big
hurdle in the development of country. The red mosque incident also clearly shows how weak we
are as a society where religious extremist wanted to impose their parochial beliefs on others.
In Pakistan, religious sectarianism is one of the biggest obstacle in the development and progress
of country. Due to religious sectarianism Pakistan have been considered as the conflict and
violent zone for the past years. This is also the reason why many foreign investors are not willing
to invest in Pakistan, not only foreign but local investors have also shifted their business in
different Middle East countries. Moreover, international organizations like World Bank, IMF etc.
have imposed number of sanctions on Pakistan due to which Pakistan has to face terrible
conditions in economic sector.

9
http://warontherocks.com/2014/05/whos-killing-pakistans-shia-and-why/, accessed on April 2, 2023.
10
“Sural Al-Imran Ayat 103 (3:103 Quran) with Tafsir”, Anon, My Islam, https://myislam.org/surah-imran/ayat-
103/, accessed on April 2, 2023.
Islam is the peaceful religion but after the death of Prophet Muhammad (P.BU.H) number of
sects have been established on the name of Islam. However, Islam condemned on all sects.
Muhammad Ali Jinnah in his last speech said that:

“Muslims are a nation, and Islam places a strong emphasis on respecting people for
who they are, regardless of their caste or creed, and it places limitations on any ills
that conflict with other religions.”11

Conclusion:
Religious scholars have destroyed the society by promoting religious sectarianism in the country
to earn their bread and butter. These scholars have also harm the future of number of students.
They blackmail the government for their own interests which in turn destroyed the image of our
country. Not only religious scholars, various political parties are also responsible for sectarian
conflicts. This has increased after the death of Zial-ul-Haq as he was a supporter of Deobandi
and Wahhabi sects. Moreover, he also supported the Russian and Afghan war.
Foreign countries have also supported the sectarian conflicts in the region to make the country
disunited and to hinder the development in the region. On the other hand, local militant
organizations like LeJ, SSP, SMP, etc. played a great role in promoting the sectarian conflict
against the state institutions for this purpose they used the students who get involved in bomb
blasts, targeted killings, suicides etc. These organizations proved harmful for the country
politically, economically and socially. Our government is also fail in forming policies to reduce
sectarian conflicts. Therefore, our proficient religious scholars and motivators fail to represent
the image of Islam and our country at national and international level.

11
Quaid-e-Azam and religious minorities of Pakistan, Anon, The Nation, https://www.nation.com.pk/14-Aug-
2021/quaid-e-azam-muhammad-ali-jinnah-and-religious-minorities-of-pakistan, accessed on April 2, 2023.