Scholastic Backwardness due to Socio-cultural Factors that Influence

4.
the Learning Environment of the Child and

5. Scholastic Backwardness due to Socio-emotional Factors.

,~ Furthermore, the definition of each of these categories was evolved

on the basis of the nature of manifestation of academic deficits,
involvement of major contributory factors and the distinctiveness of the
intervention required.

i. Scholastic Backwardness due to Sensory Defects

Th i s category comp r i se d ch i Id re n who were perform i n g

significantly below the expected grade level due to hearing or
visual impairments that resulted in difficulty in acquisition of basic
academic skills related to reading, writing and arithmetic. The
problem was not due to mental retardation or borderline
intelligence. The scholastic backwardness due to sensory defects
may occur concomitantly with Socio-emotional problems but are
.. I not the direct result of these conditions or influences.

ii. Scholastic Backwardness due to Learning Disabilities

This category comprised children who were performing
significantly below the expected grade due to disorder intrinsic
to the individual which was presumed to be due to central nervous
system dysfunction (processing defects) that are manifested by
significant difficulties in acquisition and use of listening, speaking,
reading, writing, reasoning or mathematical abilities. The problem
was not due to impaired cognitive abilities (mental retardation
or border Ii ne in tel I igence) or sensory defects. The learning
disability though may occur concomitantly with socio-emotional
problems or socio-cultural influences or fine motor coordination
difficulty but the academic deficits in these children is not the
direct result of these conditions or influences.

iii. Scholastic Backwardness due to Fine Motor Coordination

Difficulties
This category comprised children who were performing
significantly below the expected grade due to fine motor
coordination difficulty that effected the legibi I ity and speed of
writing. The scholastic problem was not due to mental retardation
or sensory defects or learning disability. The problem may occur
concomitantly with Socio-emotional problems or Socio-cultural
influences but the academic deficits in these children are not the
direct resu It of these conditions and influences.

67
 th
Sc ho las tic Ba ckw ard nes s du e to So cio -cu ltu ral Fa cto r
iv. ent of the Child s at
Inf lue nce the lea rni ng En vir onm
e rf O r m i 11 g
e d c h i I d re n w h o we re p
T_h i ~ _c a t e g o r y co m p r i s factors
ed gra de due to soc io- cul tur al
s1g nif1 can tly be low the exp ect ool i
I ity and con tin uit y of the ir sch
tha t had inf lue nce d the qua
and res ulte d in ins uff icie nt
and ina pp rop ria te ins tru ctio ns.
r~!
ion or
ola st i c bac kw ard nes s wa s not due to Me nta l Re tar dat
sch ble m.
rni ng Dis ab ility or Sensory Pro
Bo rde rlin e Int elli ge nce or Lea oti on al
nc om ita ntl y wit h So cio -em
Th e pro ble m ma y oc cu r co dem ic
na tio n dif fic ult y bu t the aca
fac tor s or Fin e Mo tor coo rdi the se
is no t the dir ec t res ult of
de fic its in the se ch ild ren
con dit ion s.

Sch ola sti c Ba ckw ard nes s du e to So cio -em oti on al Factors
v.
rm ing
ch ild ren wh o we re pe rfo
Th is ca teg ory co mp ris ed otio nal
ect ed gra de due to So cio -em
sig nif ica ntl y be low the exp e
tha t we re em bed ded in the tem pe ram en t and /or hom
fac tor s the
on me nt of the ch ild and we re sig nif ica ntl y aff ect ing
en vir ma y or
e ing of the chi ld. The chi ld
em oti on al and me nta l we ll-b dem ic
icit s in acq uis itio n of bas ic aca
ma y no t sho w si gni f ic ant def line
to me nta l ret ard atio n, bor der
ski lls . Th e pro ble m is not due occ ur
ab i lity . Th e pro ble m ma y
int ell ige nc e or lea rni ng dis io-
ita nt ly wi th fine mo tor coo rdi na tio n pro ble m and soc
con com chi ldr en
aca dem ic de fici ts in these
cul tur al infl uen ces but the
se con diti ons .
are not a dir ect res ult of the

orie s of
de fin itio ns tha t the sub -ca teg
It is evi de nt fro m the abo ve Wh ile almost
re diff ere nt fro m eac h oth er.
Sc hol ast ic Ba ckw ardness we ll are as, the
g de fic its in ac ad em ic ski
all ch ild ren we re dis pla yin they
on of aca de mic de fici ts we re typ ica l of the cat ego ry
ma nif est ati
rep res ent ed . (Bo x A 1)

ness : Manifestation of Academic

Box A1 : Categories of Scholastic Backward
Problem

Category of Scholastic Manifestation

Backwardness
Du e to Sen sor y De fici ts
ng ne_a~ or
Dif ficu lty in doi ng tasks req uiri
g, wri ting ,
dis tan ce vis ion such as rea din
ual deficits)
cop yin g fro m the boa rd etc. (vis

s, learning
Dif ficu lty in foll ow ing instruction
g deficits)
concepts spe llin g rules etc . (hearin

68
 M an ife sta tio n
I Category of Sc ho las tic
I
,. j Backwardness
I
ks , di ffi cu lty in
Av er sio n to wr iti ng tas
Due to Mo tor Sk ill or co pin g wi th tim e
co py ing , wr itin g leg ibl y
Co ord ina tio n Di ffic ult ies ts
bo un d wr itte n as sig nm en
tw ee n the ch ild 's
ity Hi gh dis cr ep an cy be
Due to Learning Di sa bil pe rfo rm an ce
ca pa cit y an d ac ad em ic
rm an ce ac ro ss
Un ev en lev els of pe rfo
.
dif fer en t ac ad em ic areas
ult es , wh ich ma y
Ha ve pe rce ptu al dif fic
reversals of let ter s/
ma nif es t in the for m of
su bs tit ut ion an d
nu mb er s om iss ion s,
wh ile rea din g an d
jum bli ng of let ter s/w ord s
wr itin g etc.
rie vin g inf or ma tio n
Ma y have dif fic ult y in ret
mo ry.
from short or lon g term me
m st an tia lit y in
Ma y de mo ns tra te cir cu
nif es t its ef in lac k
. I~ language wh ich ma y ma
an d or ve rb al
of pr ec isi on in wr itt en
language.
de fic its in ba sic
Due to Socio-cultural fac
tors Manifestation of cu mu lat ive
din g, wr itin g an d
academic sk ill areas of rea
ari thm eti c and concepts.
of processing or
There wi ll be no evidences
the r the re ar e
pe rce ptu al de fic its ra
rni ng .
evidences of po or basic lea
pin g wi th me diu m
Ma y have dif fic ult y in co
of instruction
in ac ad em ics bu t
Due to Socio-emotional Ma y be tra ilin g be hin d
de fic its in ba sic
factors may not have sig nif ica nt
ading , Wr itin g and
ac~demic skill areas of Re
Ar ith me tic
re are de fic its in
Even in cases wh ere the
ma y no t be an y
ac~demic skill areas, there
fic ult ies
evidences of processing dif
y aversion and
Such ch ild ren may dis pla
em ic lea rni ng or
po or mo tiv ati on for ac ad

69
 d
Undoubtedly all children who were not performing well academically require
educa tional
suppo rtive educa tional interve ntions . Nevertheless, the type of
ment of the major
intervention they required was characteristically specific to involve
ntion would
contributory factor to their academic problem. Only the correct interve
ition of
help to surmount the deficit that was mainly interfering with the acquis
require
academic skills. For example childre n with learnin g Disabilities would
difficulties
educational interventions that would help them surmount their processing '
factor~
whereas children who had deficits in academic skills due to socio-cultural
,

their basic
would require enrichment activities and educational interventions to build
foundation for learning. (see Box A2)

Box A2 : Categories of Scholastic Backwardness: Interventions Required for

Scholastic Backwardness

1. Due to Sensory Deficits

Assessment of functio nal limitat ions, assistive devices to minim ise these
of
limitat ions, regula r . monito ring of sensory defects, alterna te modes
teachi ng, class room provis ions and remedial interve ntions .

2. Due to Motor Coordination Difficulties

e
Occup ationa l therap y interventions and handw riting drills to improv
of
qualit y and speed of writing work. Provisions for alterna te forms
tive
evalua tions and reduci ng the load of writing work. Use of alterna
mode of written comm unicat ion such as typew riter or compu ter etc.

3. Due to Learning Disabilities

Individ ualise d Educational Programme to strengthen basic academic skills

and
(reading, writing etc.) through multi-sensory approa ch; provisions
exemp tions to cope with mainstream educa tion and alterna tive modes
of evalua tions.

4. Due to Socio-cultural Factor that Influence the Learning Environment

of the Child

Remedial interve ntion to bridge learnin g gaps, enrich ment programme,

for strengthening language and acade mic concepts.

S. Due to Socio-emotional Factors

e
lndiv~dualised couns elling/ play therap y to resolve conflic ts. Provi~
ial
~motio nal suppo rt and enhan ce motiva tion for learnin g; Remed
Parent al co'uns elling to
interve ntion to bridge learnin g gaps if any;
restructure home enviro nment and promo te understanding.

70
 in term s of act1 01o gy ,
The dist inct nes s of thes e cate gor ies
requ ired mak e them c lini c.1lly
man ifes tatio n and type of inte rven tion s
usef ul for diag nost ic prop oses .

Fra me wor k for Assessment

ic bac kwa rdne ss and th e

The clin ical ly deri ved cate gori es of scho last
a con cep tual fram ewo rk for
mul ti-ca usal ity of the prob lem had led to
com plai n rela ted to acad emi cs .
asse ssm ent of chil dren with the pres enti ng

mod el of asse ssm ent

The fram ewo rk was base d on elim inat ion
of vari ous con trib utor y fact ors
(Fig ure 4). In this algo rithu m the asse ssm ent
maj or con trib utor y fact or. At
wer e sequ enti ally arra nge d to arriv e at the
blis h whe ther ther e wer e any
the first leve l it was reco mm end ed to esta
This cou ld be esta blis hed by
lear ning gaps in Basi c Aca dem ic Skil ls.
asce rtain the leve t at whi ch
con duc ting the Edu cati onal asse ssm ent to
of the acad emi c skill area s
the chil d was func tion ing opti mal ly in each
e wer e no lear ning gap s then
of read ing, writ ing and arith met ics. If ther
soci o-em otio nal reas ons that
the prob lem was mos t likel y to be due to
If, how ever lear ning defi cits
wou ld requ ire furth er inde pth expl orat ion.
reco mm end ed to rule out
in basi c acad emi c skill s wer e obse rved , it was
itive asse ssm ent thro ugh a
sub aver age inte llige nce by cond ucti ng cogn
that gav e a deta iled prof ile
batt ery of Inte llige nce tests , pref erab ly the ones
it was imp orta nt to see
of vari ous cog nitiv e proc esse s. Furt herm ore,
whe ther ther e wer e any sens ory defi cits
. Pare ntal inte rvie ws, play
wou ld give imp orta nt lead s
obse rvat ions and othe r stru ctur ed asse ssm ent
conf irma tion thro ugh med ical
for thes e defi cits, whi ch may need furth er
disa bilit y, was esta blis hed
inve stiga tion s. Nex t, invo lvem ent of lear ning
obse rved duri ng the cog nitiv e
thro ugh evid ence s of proc essi ng diffi culti es
d dur ing the edu cati ona l
asse ssm ent and the erro r patt ern obs erve
ted to rulin g out defi cits in
asse ssm ent. Ano ther aspe ct of asse ssm ent rela
gene ral mot or coo rdin atio n
fine motor coor dina tion . To do so, chil d's
her acti vitie s of dail y livin g
abil ity was expl ored in the dom ains of his/ '
play beha viou r and qual ity of writ ten wor k.

due to sub- aver age or

In m~n y chil ~ren the le~r ning gaps cou ld be
equ acie s in the lear ning
poo_r basi c lear ning eme rgin g out of inad
rs). Thu s, it was imp orta nt
envi ronm ent of the chil d (soc io-c ultu ral facto
leve l for chil dren who se
to ru.le out soci o-cu ltura l fact ors at the next
to sub- aver age inte llige nce·
lear ning ga_p~ co~l d not be acco unte d due
culty and lear ning disa bilit ies'.
;;ns ory d~f1c1ts; fine mot or coor dina tion diffi th
or are not dom inan t th
•· the s.o cto- cult ural fact ors are not pres ent
.. od due to soci o-em oet~1onael
chil d's acad emi c prob lem is in all like liho
facto rs.

71
 . _ Algorithm for Assessment of Childr en with Scholastic Back Wardness
F,gure 4
Presen ting complai nt of Scho lastic BJckw Jrdness

Are there Leaming gaps in 8J ic Aca demic Skill s?

Is the Intelligence of the Child Average?

SB due to
socio-emotional factors

Yes No

Are their any • Mental retardation

sensory deficits • Borderline lntelli~ence

$~
Establish Nature and
Impact on Functio ning
-----------.

ls it the domina nt factor?

Yes No Are there any

processing deficits

Yes

SB due to Are the any motor skill problem that

learning disabilities is affecting handw riting skills

Yes
Establish the nature and impact
Are there any socio-cultural
ls it the domina nt factors factors effecting the learning
environ ment of the child?
No
Yes
SB due to It is a domina nt
motor skill Problem factor
SB due to
No socio-emotional factors

Scholastic Backwardness
due to socio-cultural factors

72
 Though the eliminatio n model of assessmen t gives a ready frame and does
not allow missing the key factors related to the child's problem yet, the assessmen t
of scholastic problems is not complete without explaining the socio-emo tional
and socio-cult ural factors as well (for all cases). This is because scholastic
problems in children have multiple etiology. Therefore , even when the ~~j_or
contributo ry factors relate to constitutio nal or organic factor, there is a poss1btl1ty
that socio-cul tural and socio-em otional fa c tors coe xist with the dominant
problem.

Therefore, it is recommen ded that assessmen t of scholastic backward ness

be carried out within the ecological framework wherein a range of assessmen ts
are required to explore the bi-directio nal relationsh ip between the psycho social
aspects of the child's environm ent (Home & School) and his/her own strengths &
limitations in different areas of functionin g and adaptation . In this problem
solving process the parents and the child have to be taken as partners in identifying
the conditions in which the child would function most effectively . This alone
would make the process of assessmen t shift from customary mode of diagnosin g
the problem to a dynamic problem solving process that facilitate promoting a
'goodness of fit' between the child and his/her environme nt.

The Centre operationa lises the ecological frame of assessmen t by using a

combinati on of structured , norm and criterion-r eferenced measures alongwith
informal measures of assessmen t to get clues and facts on the underlyin g dynamics
of the problem. Thus even when a structured test of adaptive behaviou r was
conducted the informatio n was authentica ted, expanded and suppleme nted by
making behaviour al observatio ns of the child, eliciting parental concerns and
exploring parenting styles. The underlyin g spirit is to unearth the specific
condition s that promoted or hindered the adaptive behaviou r of the child.
Similarly, during the cognitive assessmen ts of the child, even though standardis ed
tests were used, invariably observatio ns were also made to explain the child's
non-perfo rmance over the tasks. The assessmen t therefore, did not only reveal
the overall level of functionin g (IQ score) of the child but, also the relative
strengths and weaknesse s of the child across various cognitive processes and the
probable reasons for the same. Educational Assessment was deliberate ly designed
to follow the mode of informal assessmen t that represente d a very ·structured
and systematis ed problem solving approach to understan d where all was the
breakdow n and what were the specific reasons for breakdow n across academic
skill areas and their subcompo nents. The informal assessmen t facilitated the
examin~r to exper,im!n t and play a detective by using interactive mode (teaching,
r prompting , questionin g scaffolding etc.) to understan d how the child te.uned
and how could he/she benefit from modificati ons in instruction s or changes in
level ~nd content of curriculum . Furthermo re, the contexts of the child were
extensivel y explored through interviews with parents and family members t
und~rstan d the processes of socialisati on and family routine, stressors on th~
family a~d the support network available to the parents. Parental attitud
expectatio ns and understand ing of the child's problem was raison d' t ~'
ahssessment process. This too followed informal processes of assessme ~/e ~o t .e
t e goal was to understan d the family's Inherent stren h . . . w erein
context of promoting a 'fit' between the child and hi 8/ht sand _hm1tat1ons in the
s er environm ent.

73
 Section II
Process of Assessment of Children with
Scholastic Backwardness
 Process of Assessment of Children with
Scholastic Backwardness

I
I
Process of Assessm ent
1lw ~t•rtion u, the doc umc nh rht f"''< •. ._~ ,ind pa·m, ~,·
fl''""~,pc< Iii< ;,lly
0 1 ..,~')t'"n,t•n t tollowed
hy the Child Cuid;rncr ( t·nlrt• 10 ,ltr"1<· ,tf , 1 d1 ttF('H)S !1 <
vvtH~ up tor chilcir<•n with educ~,tional problem~ . Jtw l.,rN p.ur <,f rh,. . d , ~1p10
I ;'ll,o cicsnibc, th~ out ( omf." of th<- int()r vc nriom followed by rh,· pt1rt •o h to,
r twlp•nR their chilrtren with t·duc.ttion,1I problem~.

Pren1ise and Goal of Assessm ent

r
,'
A~scssmen t rcpre~ent s the initial steps in 1111 clinic.,1I work with c hdrfrc n
;rnd families. It is the process by which profcssion,1I, ;rnrl c li cnb ,ntcr t'H I to
i irlcnti(y the problems and concerns, leading to clini c.i i d1.ign o~ 1, ,ind rvo h, ,n~
th<:' trc,1tmcnt plan and recommen dations .

At the Child Guidance Centre, the assessment of the ch tld', problem ,,

conducted within the multidime nsional model of assessment and is <. .ur, cd out

f by" multi -disciplina ry team of professionals comprisin g c1 Soci~,1 Work er. Chilo
Developm ent Worker, Psychiatrist, Clinical Psychologist and Speech Therap"l.
Assessment Is undertake n through multiple measures that include co ll,1ring dJt._,
from various sources and surveying all domains of child's developm ent .,nd h, ~/
her ecologica l setting.

The broad goal of assessment is, understan ding of the chHd's problem .rnd
to promote a 'goodness of fit' between the child and his/her cnvironmf !'nt . ln
ot her words, the assessment is not limited to formal diagnosis b.1sed on p,~~nce
and absence of the problem. Rather, the focus is on understan d ing the chitc1 ,n
the context of environme nt to answer two fundamen tal questions - wh y the
child is not p~rformin g properly and in what type of environme nt and und('r
what conditions the child will perform optimally.

Multiple Domain s of Assessment

In order to understan d the causal link, to the ch i ld's proble-m (,II the ctitic., t
f .lc to~s that can contribute to the problem oi ~cholau1c b.ic"\' ..uri,wH a,e
exa ,nin~d . T~us, p~ysical and s~OS0')1 foctors , cosn111ve pott'nt•al ,,, ,n , oh t'-O~ot
01 leilr ntng d1sa~1l11y. competen q, in b,u1c .,c"demic sliolls corh iSt\"nc , ,lf\d tv~
of lea, _n ing t-rwironme rit of the child , home erw1ronme nt .1nd tem~iam eot or
th ~ ch tld are all (Hlplo,ed {See oo~lJ I ).

77
 During Ass ess me nt
Box 81 : Multiple Do ma ins Co ver ed
late d Fac tors
• Phy sica l, Sen sor y and He alth -Re
• Tem per am ent and Beh avi our
rld
• Ch ild' s Perception of hi s/h er Wo
ni tiv e Ski ll s
• lnte llig e n<:c and Profile o f Cog
• Basic Aca d e mi c Skill s
ive Hc ha vio ur
• Cop ing Me c han ism s and Ad apt
• Com mu ni ca tion Skills & Spe ech
ble m
• Par ent al Pe rce ptio ns of the Pro
Sup por t net wo rk
• Fam ily Str uct ure , Res our ces &
ing Sty le
• Pro ces s of Soc iali sati on & Par ent
Pat tern s
• Fam ily Dy nam ics & Inte rac tion
and Pas t Sch ool ing
• Lea rnin g Env iron me nt: Pre sen t
or
min atio n mo del ' wh ere by pre sen ce
The ass ess me nt fram e foll ows an 'eli blis hed
ted to sch ola stic bac kw ard nes s is esta
absenc e of all the key var iab les rela
ry fac tor is also sift ed out .
and the mo st dom ina nt con trib uto

Mu lti ple Sources of Information

re
g the ir chi ld for gui dan ce and the refo
Inv aria bly it is the par ent s wh o brin lead s for
ir par tici pat ion pro vid es imp orta nt
the y are the ma in info rma nts. The rela ted
olv em ent in all futu re inte rve ntio ns
the dia gno sis and fac ilita tes the ir inv
to ma nag em ent of the pro ble m.
or
par tici pat ion of the chi ld also . A maj
The ass ess me nt con scio usl y see ks the tion ship
ing rela tion shi p wit h the chi ld. A rela
inv estm ent is the refo re ma de on form ion of the
t is war m and acc ept ing pro vid es am bia nce for act ive par tici pat
tha sol vin g.
s of und ers tan din g and pro ble m
chi ld and fac ilit ate s the pro ces rac tion s.
neo us and nat ura l the rap eut ic inte
Fur the rmo re, it pav es way for spo nta ld is
stru ctu red and form al ass ess me nt is und erta ken onl y wh en the chi
Mo re
fou nd to be com for tab le and rea dy.
ide s the par ent s and the chi ld, oth er sig nifi can t sou rce s tha t are tap ped
Bes situ atio n-
. Sin ce the chi ld's beh avi our can be
inc lud e tea che rs, sibl ing s, pee rs etc wit h the
in the chi ld's env iro nm ent inte rac t
spe cifi c, and also sig nifi can t peo ple s
the ir ow n uni que way s, the refo re obs erv ing the inte rac t•on patte,n
chi ld in
ts bec om es sign ific ant .
wit hin the fam ilia l and sch ool con tex

Mu lti ple Measures of Assessment

le
elo pm ent are assessed thro ugh mu ltip
The chi ld and his/ her con tex ts of dev ctur t'd
red me asu res wh ile oth ers are uns_tru
mea sur es, som e of the se are stru ctu n of test s of
me11ures inc lud e adm in istr atio
or sem i-st ruc ture d. The st,u ctu red i-
e, ada ptiv e beh avi our , per s
. ona lity, aca dem ic skil ls etc . The sem
inte llig enc the
inc lud e ob!iervaUo ns oi chi ld thro ugh
stru ctu red or uns truc ture d me asu res ctu red
hom e visits, sch ool Yisits etc . The stru
me diu m of pla y, par ent al inte rvie ws, the nor mat ive
the chi ld's dev elo pm ent in
mea sur es pro vid e info rma tion abo ut

76
 context, while the unstructured measures help in understanding qua I itative aspects
of child 's behaviour and environment (Box B2).
Box 82 : Multiple Measures of Assessment

TYPE PROCESS
Case History What?
• Understanding parental perception of the ct,ild & his/
her problem and their expectations from the Centre
• Exploring significant developmental events, family
structure, disciplining and parenting styles
• Exploring child's behaviour and abilities across
different areas of development
How?
Parental Interview
Who?
Social Worker
Play What?
Observations • Rapport formation
• Understanding child's behaviour and temperament,
attention skills & coping mechanisms.
• Knowing child's perception of the situation and the
problem
How?
• One-to-one play activities with the child
I
• Using constructive and creative play material, games,
outdoor activities and toys
Who?
• Child Development Worker

Psychiatric What?
Assessment Interlinking presenting complaints with significant
medical and developmental history and observations of
the child to reach at provisional diagnosis
How?
• Parental interviews
• Observations of the child
•
Who?
Review of past medical records and treatment

Child Psychiatrist
Psychological WhaH
Assessment Assessment of cognitive abilities, adaptive behaviour,
personality traits and significant areas of conflict
How?
Administration of tests of intelligence, and adaptive
behaviour; semi projective and projective personality
tests; rating scales etc.
Whol
Clinical Psychologist

79
Educational What?
Assessment Assessment of basic c1cadernic skills of reading, writin
arithmetic and their sub component s g
How?
Assessmen t and observc1tio ns of the child usin
educationa l games, bilttery of academic skills assessmen~
tests and perusrll of school records
Who?
Child Developme nt Worker

Social What?
Investigations Assessment of home and school contexts of the child
How?
Interviews with the parents and other relevant persons;
home visit and school visit
Who?
Social Worker

Speech & What?

Language • Assessment of structure and function of speech organs
Assessment • Expressive & comprehen sive language level o( the
child
• Articulation & Fluency
How?
Clinical observation and interactions with the child to
obtain free language sample
Who?
Speech therapist

Assessment Sequenc e
The process of assessment is highly individualis ed yet, there is a broad
scheme that is followed to unearth the entire matrix of factors contributing to
the <.hild's problem.

At the outset, the social worker interviews the parents to understand ~he
5
child's problem as perceived by the parents and obtain a comprehen i\e
d_eve lopmenta I hi story of the chi Id. The Chi Id Developme nt \~orke~
simultaneou sly involves the child in a play session to form a relation~h•P and
s~ttle his/her anxieties about the setting. Parental interview is generally _,ollowe d
1
by psychiatric assessment that is carried out by a psychiatrist. He rev,~ws ' " d
analyses the child's problem in context of his/her de~elopmen t"I, me.d,cal a~e
educational history. Further, his own observation s of the chi Id and forrnl)' ena·fc1
him to reach at a tentative diagnostic formulation . He then , recommends spec,
assessments that would be desirable to reach at the exact diagnostic workup.
II . , clinical
Thereafter, the next sets of assessments are geared towards co attng le to
evidences to highlight actual causal links to the child's problems. Seque

80
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1111,11,,. vl i; ll r, .11 ,, pLir1111 •d 1r, f>b•,1,, ;, ,
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~ .trl' 1'1, ,11 li11 h• d tuHt•tti,,, "',, ,,,,Ii
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t1 rir, cm11hl1 •11 111 r, 1 l,1tlr111 th <.· ,m, bl,·r
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1c c· ,lllHHlH t> I lht· 1,•,m1 "'"' "b(•,r, (urtht-r

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d1il d .111d h l-1/h , ·r { ,mt i· x l of
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d,•v,,111p11wn1 Is ulldrn1blt dly ., 111111.-) r o11
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illuw r rwrnl>cr o( v..rl ah lt•!, to h(• c•xplor,•
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or t l?-( ii wou ld lw ,1 < rnnp rnni l st'. Tlw
1 1

.,nd thfl m•t d 10 t'11S111·0 opll mnl pnrt klp n1io1

1 1 of 1lw chil d In th e prm , 41•i of probl<:rn
1

to
An ,111aly slti of tlw ,1v..r,1~v tlmt• -.p 4•nt
,o lvlll g n,,,k \'s It nn c•xlc•ll sivc lll'<> CC.'Sti, ,ind ,nit•
t omp lt•lt tlw m,sc.•ss mr111 c,f th
1 e chllcl rovun lccl thnl npproxlrn.atc.!ly nluc
rt•<.111irc •d to l ornplcJt111h,, ,rn~e'l•,rTwnt.
h.,lf hours, sprt•MI <>Vt r ) lo 14 st•ssions, W<' ro
1 1

mponents
Diagnostic Process : An Outline of t.he Sub-co
,HSt!S1t m c n1 h,,v e lwc n cJc•linc..• ,,tt•d
. Tlw con n·pl ui,I fronw1 ;rn ~J t~w prot: c~ s of e ir
111 the folluwlt1K p.irt nf h ><I. rhc spc r lfl c dim ension s of ""'-l ',~rt lC llt ,rnd th
tr;ln s.1 ctio11 ,HP l11divldunlly desc ribed .

1. C.ue tilt,tory
s i~ con duc ted ,, t th t• , ,
, A struc 111rc•d intm vh•w with lh o piHtmt rh , . ,ut,c :t, with
l c.•m of tlw child
"'' " "' ol llncl t•rst:rndinK th o prob
, omp ro hon sivt• .ic·c tHtnt of tho child 's
JJrobl cm ns
I Ii c
m1;- ;v1 t•w
)Y the
~Net\tee
pr o
JJ.H
vlch
Cnh
: '> ;-.
or
tlw rt,forrnl bod y, tlw dct,,ils ribout the
chi Id '
ture . ~ met _c.,, ,d cvc lopm cntl , I nnc l
t•dll r,Hl onn l hi lltory; and lh o snll cnl fea l
o th e chil d ~ hom e ,lnd sc. hC>o
,•n vlt·o nnw n1. (sl'c aµp cnd l x I)

~ ' . .
l'nrc nh nor m,,lly tl•11el lo lw som<'wlMI sir· d
µrnhlrm . l h<'rt'for, ,, 11 is nctl'S!,ill'y to res c ·. t:: ~~ ,rncl .1n)(1CJus abo ut the chil d's
'i
1t' tr ',ec lin~ s and not nsk qu e~ti on ~.
th.it ""'Y t•vokc• 8llil1 <>r mr1 kc them rc.•sp~ ;,4i i~ > c'! or I w child's probl em 11
· owc vcr,
81
 . . pportive cues and probes to be able to provide focus d
they may still requd1rehsu h' ld's problem and his/her environm ent. Much of teh
.,n forma tion aroun h t e c ked
. I •
to report is retrospec tive •
in nature, hence providi e
. f~ rmat1on
. .
that t.
ey are as
sential for effectively interview. ing. t h e parents. The parental ng
111
fact!. itat1ve. cues is esf thPir backgrou nd, educatio . n an d awarenes s a b out the child'
attributes in termsf anxiety
o - etc . may determin . e t h e mo d e .in w h'1c h t he .mterviewes
problem, Ieve I o . r
decides to interact with the parents.
Th ode of interaction may vary but no comprom ise is made to provide
an envi~o~ment that is warm and em~ath~ tic. Em~athy and non-judgmental
attitude not only helps in getting the desired informati on but also la~s ground for
a positive relationsh ip be~ween the_ therapist and the parents that 1s pivotal for
all future interventions with the child and the family.
Care is taken to ensure that both parents are present for this interview and
that the child does not witness the interactio n. Though it may seem trivial, yet
the entire mode of assessment at the Centre is made transpare nt to the parents so
that there is a clear understanding about the way the assessme nt would proceed.
This streamlines the expectation of the parents from the Centre, helps to promote
a harmonious relationship with them and ensures their cooperat ion during the
process of assessment.
The case history not only provides hardcore data about the problem of the
child and his/her development but also initiates of the process of knowing the
family and their mechanisms of coping with the problem of the child (Box B3).

Box 83 : Case History - Significant Dimensions of Information Obtained

• An understa nding of the child's problem , its onset,

~an!f~station and course of treatment (if any)
• S1g_nif1ca~t developm~ntal and education al history of the
child_, his/her a_dapt1ve behaviou r, tempera ment and
functional level in academics.
• Family back~round, interaction patterns, parenting styles
and stresses in and on the family
• Parent's. understanding of the problem and their coping
mechanisms
• Management strategies and parental expectati ons from the
Centre

2· Play Observation Sessions

Play is natural and intrinsic activity that children enjoy spontaneously.
Therefore, mode of play is extensively used for assessment at the Child Guidance
~entre. Play provides a canvas to unobtrusi vely observe the child's temperament,
ehavi_our_and aptitudes. Further, the warmth and the acceptan ce exteo ded
~he chit? m the process diffuses his/her defenses and inhibitions and promoth
!~
interactio
h'ld' . n · The un guard e d communi.cation
. provides. . deta1·1 s about. t fl)e
extensive
c 1 5 inner world of feelings, perceptions, fears and aspirations. (see appe nd1 x
 ldre n
ilia r and anx iety -pr ovo kin g for chi
A clin ica l setting is nor ma lly unf am s are bei ng
assessment. Thus, wh ile the par ent
wh o are bro ugh t by the parents for rke r ver y
r, the Ch ild De vel opm ent Wo
inte rvie we d by the soc ial wo rke inte rac ting
y session. The prim e inte ntio n of
stra teg ica lly takes the chi ld for a pla e him /he r
to settle his /he r anx ieti es and giv
wit h the chi ld dur ing this tim e is rma l set ting
y session is con duc ted in an info
space and tim e to unw ind . The pla rac tive
om or a pla ygr oun d. The wo rke r and the chi ld ent er into an inte
of pla yro ivit y is
e ove r a pla y act ivit y, wh ich is mu tua lly enj oya ble . The act
inte rfac , TV, like s,
igu ing ly inte rsp ers ed .wit h ligh ter con ver sat ion s rela ted to frie nds
intr com fort abl e
e is taken to pro vid e the chi ld wit h
dislikes etc. Du ring the session, car s not ma ke
from eva lua tive remarks and doe
env iron me nt tha t is rela tive ly free lim itat ion s
chi ld is acc ept ed des pite his /he r
demands or impose restrictions. The is hel ped to
s rec ept ive and opens up, he/she
and ina bili ties . As the chi ld appear tre.
bts abo ut the set ting and the pur pose of bei ng bro ugh t to the cen
cla rify dou two the
mo st chi ldre n ma y eas e out and start rela ting in a session or
Wh ile ger to fee l
ed chi ldre n ma y take a littl e lon
anxious, apprehensive and inh ibit e Table 60)
for these chi ldre n is not rushed (Se
related and to unf old . The process
sions
n According to Nu mb er of Play Ses
Table 60 : Distribution of Childre
Conducted with them

f (n = 195 ) Per cen tag e

No . of Play Sessions
47 23. 9
On e
118 60. 8
Two
30 15. 2
Three
b t ·
fac ilita te rela tion shi p for ma f
The init ial pla y sessions not onl y These are to bee xp Iore urtuh er
iodnf it
also refl. ects the probable diff icu.ltie s of the chi ld ·
h essments are pla nne d • Th e nex t sets of
f or w h 1c · subsequent pla·y sessions or ctss c · f · b
I
p ay sessionsk"IIare targ eted towards. obt ain ing more spe cifi in ormat1on a out
"ld' b·1· . behaviour.
th e c h I s s I s, a 1 1t1es, perception and
whe rein la ·t · .
No w the sessions are more focused
usi_ng specific types of play material
to obtain the fesi:~
~a;ions ~re con triv ed,
~bo ut the
chi ld to verbalise b n ~rmat1on
children._For example to enable the
and other creativ a ~u~ ~is/he r env iron me nt
make belief play, drawing, painting ing upo n
y be used s· ·1e act1_v1t1es, dep end
the age and interest of the chi ld ma . 1m1 arly, in ord er to exp lore the
'B .
child's reading, or arithmetic skills , usiness game" may b ecorne h and y as it
m I h h"ld . bl
ay revea t e abi lity with whi ch the is a e to read ins truc tion s on the
tion~.
board and handle monetary transac
I

.
Nevertheless, despite the factIthat p la.Y sessions are del ibe rate ly ma d
structured, the basic spirit of the e mo re
session remains the same The el
fun, lightness and spontaneity ar p ay . ern~n~s of
do not appear as evalua i e ensured. Care is taken that a v1ties
the chi ld. The wo rke rgc ;es and act1
and activities carefully :no~htasks to oases the gam es
e context of the chi ld's l and pro ble m.
age, leve

83
 ·re infor mati on to be explo red, he/>h
-
trame work of the spec1 , the mate rial and activ ity
so that the
d h1. Id to choo se f I e
I 1 the broa t ·mall y. The work er care u ly obser va
\\ 11 "' , dom to the c · .pates op 1 '"~
ncr I ree emer ging out of the child's
h,h too I comf ortilb le and par~1c1 d ·sinte rest etc.
anxie ty, '- b I · ·
hil ci 1ee ~ usnes s . .ble to child y re axin g certa in rules ,
t 1 nervo . h h" Id
in , -.1gns o ade acces s,
· · ~ The tJsks arefonsm .d.,n g supp ortiv eh cues dtot e c , . In many
,n:i btl1 t\- . or prov1
in ~>dcr.:1 ting the cxpecht.1 ~ctiv it y itsel f may also be c ange .
. hov,•cver, t e · I · b
,n,t.1nces , ria su,ta le for
. If w,·th a range of play mate
·pped 1tse · I
. lude toys , play mate na s,d const ruction
.-he ce ntre has equi . I d .
. ages. These inc creat ive play mate ria an e ucat,onal
childi L " .v ,os s vario us . 1
SC!S , ~,~1lle'> Jl1 d tdoor play mater,a ,
Oll
g;,nw , etc. (Box B4 l

Box 84 : Type of Play Equipments

\.V hcele d toy s, minia ture toys, dolls , doll house,
Toy.; l\· m.:1k c lwli el
k,trh en se t. furni ture etc.
pl.w m,1tcri :-d
Blo(i-.s . Puzzles, logos , mech ano set, etc.
Cons tructi on mate ri al
CrJv o n s, P:tint s , Plas ticine , Pape r Sand ·and
Crc;it ive mater i,,I
S,1 ndp1t. Wate r and gard ening set etc.

C;une s Lu do , Snak e & Lcldd er, Chin ese Chec ker,

Caro m , Plot-4 e tc.

Educati onJI g,1me :. Mem ory game s , Trum p card s, Scra bble,
Pic t 10 11Jry etc.

Outci oor g;imc s Swin g s, Balls , Fri sb y, Badm inton , Cycle etc.

rich insig ht about

In the iinal anJly sis play sessio n prov ides. the work er a
or contr ived, play session
the child and hi s/her probl em . Whet her unstr uctur ed
gives inform ation abou t almos t all fac e ts of the
child 's deve lopm ent. The range
of proba ble data that can be obtai ned is outli ned
in Box BS. This data often
helps in subst antiat ing the findin gs obtai ned throu
gh othe r sets of assessment.

Box 85 : Dime nsion s of Behaviour and Development Observed through Play

Physical Cl,ardcteristics
Socio-Emotional Development,
• StJture/ body built Behaviour dnd Tempramenl
• Croo ming ·
Nutrition,11 status • Soci abilit y
.
cal deform,t • Activ ity level
• Observ..1ble phvsi
. y
• Atten tion Span
• Amia bility
• Self worth
Inter actio n patte rns
Conf lict s and beha viour
p robl e m s i

-- -- -- ---- - - - . . - J
 -- -- -- r- = -- -: ~epti-;ons;;of;;
-: ~Perc ;: ,- ;; -~- · -
t/,e chil d abo ut
Physical Characteristics
• Env iron men t (Fam ily, Pee rs,
• Stature/ body built
scho ols etc.)
• Gro omin g
Nutr ition al status • Self
•
• Personal prob lems
• Obs erva ble phys ical defo rmit y

Motor Skills Language Dev elop men t

Gross: • Acq uisit ion and Language Com preh ensi on

Mot or leve l of coor dina tion in
Skills skills related to uppe r and • Mot her tong ue, lang uag es
lowe r limb know n and pref erre d lang uage
for com mun icati on
• Cross lateral coor dina tion • Stru ctur al/ func tion al defi cits in
• Balance speed speech orga ns, if any .
• Any defic its in hea ring
Fine • Han d prefe renc e • Lev el of dev elop men t ,n
Mot or • Grip lang uage com preh ensi on
Skills • Fine Mot or Coo rdina tion • Prof icien cy in com preh enci ing
• Visual moto r coor dina tion the med ium of instr uctio n
• Qua lity of hand writi ng • Expressive lang uage I
• Leve l of dev elop men t in
expressive lang uage
• Abil ity to conv erse and answ er
in line with ques tions aske d
• Any arti cula tion or flue ncy
prob lems , if any
• Prof icien cy in oral expr essi on in
lang uag e of med ium of
instr uctio n in scho ol

Cognitive Dev elop men t Aca dem ic Skills

• Abil ity to follo w and generalise • Basic lear ning processes
l
rules
• Skill s of read ing, writ ing and
• Rea soni ng, prob lem solv ing arith meti c
and decision making
• Crea tivity
• Imag inati on
• Mem ory
• Perceptual Skills

la ther . .
The initia l play sessions may gravitate into sess ions 111 som e
refb y apy
ca~es. The warm and nurturing relationshi offe and the shar ing
y the wor ker
of inne r worl d of expe rienc es by the ch·id ff
~xce llent grou nds for wor king
through the conflicts and anxi eties and fi~d. o er
r1ct1ons and behaviour ing so ut,ons and alternr1t,·ve
' Ways of
·

85
 ·id th structured evaluatio ns are so anxiety provok·
et of chi ren, eneans to get informati.on a b out t h e1r . ing
In anot her s . . cognit•
ss1011 is t1,e on 1y I h ive
that the p Iay se . d m· cs In such instances tow atever extent possibl
f . al level in aca e I • • • • d Arit. hmetic Sk'IIe
and unction . d t ndertake the Reading, Writing an
situations are contrive o u. I

assessment through the medium of play.

3. Psychiatric Assessmen t
b quent upon taking the history by the Social Worker, the Psychiatrist
5u se lobal assessment of the child and his/her problem. Interview with
con d ucts a g d h h' Id' bl · h
the parents, helps the psychiatri st understan t e c _1 sl phr? em iHn t _e context
·gnificant medical, developm ental and educat1on a ,story. e integrates
0 f SI d .
. h h'1s ow~ o b servat1ons of the
significant data from the past medical recor s wit
child, along a cross-section of indicators related to conscious ness, .sensorium,
perception, comprehension and thought pro~ess. He f~~th~r subst?ntiates this
by exploring the socialisation process of the child and familial interactio n patterns.
(see appendix Ill)
His clinical interpreta tions of the significan t organic and environmental
factors lead to a provisional diagnosis of the child's problem. He also suggests
the requisite assessments that may confirm diagnosis of the problem.

In cases where there is an accompan ying physical/s ensory probl"em that

require investigat ion, the parents are so suggested . The results of these
assessments are subsequently integrated. Wherever required, the Psychiatrist
a~so prescribes medication for specific problems such as Epilepsy, Hyperactivity,
Pica, Nocturnal Enuresis, Depression etc. (Box B6).

Box B6 : Outcomes of Psychiatric Assessmen t

• Provisional diagnosis
• Medi~al _Problems and their bearing on the child's present
functionin g
• Recommendation for medical investigat ion and treatment
• Medicinal 'interventi on if required

4. Psychological •Assessment
The ~sycholo~ical assessment is usually conducted throu h structured tests
~oe~:~i:u1rnft~~at1on abol~t the child's (i) intellectua l functi~nin g (ii) adaptive
.11 ' persona 1ty characte ristics and (iv) family functionin g,
(see appen d1x IV)

Intellectua
role in th d'
· .· Th e assessment of intelligen ce plays an importan t
l Functl ~n,ng
tool f ~- ,agn~st1c process. However, intelligen ce test alone is not a definitiv_e
used ~ro iag~ohst1ch purpose. It compleme nts other assessments devices and ,s
ngw1t ot er measures.
All children
are inev·t bl
, complain t related to academic: learn inSb~
who h avea presenting
1 a Y assessed for their Intelligenc e to rule out the involveme nt of su

86
 t t ~ ,tJ,,l ;nu ,1,f1•llw,, ,, ,
\\ltH1\W~ I 11w1 1t1 vu t,l11llll t1!1 VII 111u 11l i•I ,.,tt,11 ,11111,1 ,,,,, ,u /f 1I f ·
'l h 11 ,1ll y ,I ' " '"''' y "' ,.,,,, i, 11,,,. I Ill 111,tnlll •'" 111 ,1 .. ,,11, fl" ,Iii« ,,f ,1,,, ' ' ' •

, ,\I IIHI ~ 1 tlHt\lll Vti ,1hll111 u~ .

1•,y, ho dl,•H""' '' ' ·''" '''""""' 111 , l, ild1 n11 I• •'" '"''' "" ,,. ,,,,,1 ,,., / ,,,,,,.
11
, on,1u1lillf\ p,o, ""' · Ihm., ,,., .,, '"''" "
• " , 1,.,,,,,.,,
wlt l, tlh• ,,..11,,11 ,,, ,,c
1
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tiO<lo-t1111otlo11i\l t,H 101 11, 111,uti ~ 1 1H$11tinK of th t lnt••ll t', tu,,1 fw,, .11,,r,ir,Y, r,f th,~
, hlld thfc)U>,\h t~i.h 11101 l~1-wo n 1ti Prop,t o~~ iv,, M;atrl,, :. Ci•Jffl <.,:; , ~ 1,,v1,~•1 ·r, ·,c,,_H1
1

t)tnotlmMI iiH tol l\ .,,ti

ox plrnt,d tnrn~, l11tr1 t1~lvcly ln th,.i;,, c, ,1 ti•Jt thr tJLJY,h JJt;rt,,1r1,,l, ty
M1Stl~1<1 nwn1 ,rnd "0' 1,,l lnvt1M IH••tlon~. In n,M . ~ whi•ru lua rnln~ ij:tpt arc «.,~v,!r,.: r1r
wht,rc- thMt1 Is su~pl cloo of lnvolvtj 11ltlt1l o( lca rnh•ij dl r,tJ bility, rr10rc in-rJ,~r11h
ro),\"ltlvo f\ l\t.t}SIUfHH)t Iii c onduc wd th rouJ{h ., ,,omtJl11,,tlm1 uf tc,;t~ ~l H h ;J 1. t.,wnfo rd
Bl1wt lnwlll~unro Scn lfl, W<•r hl or'" 1111,,lllijCHH.t' St:t l,! (or Chlldwn lW I',( ,J c-t,,.
1 lw~t~ osst:}s~1r,e111 i. M<\ wiw,lly 1arw•1ud 10 ldc.: ntlfy .. p,:ti fi c per<-eptual :,,nd
co~v,ltlv o proc 11 s1w11 th,,t mny huvo ,\ hoa rln~ ,m ttw <.hlld't> prublc rn ,,5 ,.J l~o the
r hlld' s rolntlv1 1 str111,~1h IHt'i.ltt 10 pl an rnrncdiati on i.tr:JteijiCf> (fJux B7 ), Cu,?niti ve
,hscssmont 01 1l·w Cr ntrc• :n rol <:hc, to nl lu:ant two ,wti~ion i> of a dumti(Jn "' an
hour e.lc h to accornmodato tlw ijC:mcrnl att ention upan, fatigu u ;ind c:rn<1tir_,n;_, I
state of rhlldron.

Box 87 : Outcome• of lntelliRence Te1tlng

• Estlrnn1 c of potentiality of the child In terms o f IQ ~c.ore.

• Cognitive profile o { th e skill s assessed by th e test in terms
of th e child's strengths and limitations
• The scatter and di screpan cy noted at ross difforent f-> ki 11
,n eos
• Trend ;1nd error 3nalysls for dlfforentlal di agnosis

The commonly used tests at the Centre are Raven's p · •

Wechler's Intelligence Scale for Children and Stanfor;ofess111e M~troces,
Scale. In about 48 percent of children Stanford Binet Int 11',net ln~ell1gence
used as It has been adapted on Hindi s . eakl e. ,gencc c ale was
and has Indian norms. However one m p . ng population of the country
does not provide a separate v~rbal a ajor disadvantage of the test is that it
helps In the diagnosis of learnl nd performance sub skill profile that
Learning Disability Is suspected ~ Dlsa~llity. Therefore in cases wher e
Is preferred over Stanford Binet i'ntel~~hler s ~ntelllgence Scale for Children
Wechler's Intelligence Scale for Chlt~~nc~ . cale. However, in cases where
co rroborate Its findings related to lnte117n s admln~ stered, care i!, taken to
'v~l\,~edaplte the Inherent advantages of i~;~c ·iuot1ent with another test as
v, c ren, as non English k , , was used only in 52
assessed on the te,t ·- apea Ing children could not b e adequately
perce nt
 -
f psychological assessment is to explo
. . Another aspec t o . . h re
tive Behaviour· h h'ld
1 through interviewing t e parents on the
Ad a P · ur oft
hav10 eSc. le · · it ·
· h t h e b e h av1oural
· wit
t he Adaptive Be . and substantiating
. Behaviour ca d d . t·
Vineland Adaptive h'ld The Scale provi es a escrip ,ve account of
1 · o f communica · t·1011 activities
·
·
observations a bout the c. . · cross domains
the child's level of f~n~tio_ning and motor skills. This exploration provides
. . soc1al1sat1on a bl . .
of daily Iivmg, h ·festation of chi Id's pro em in pertinent areas
I ds about t e mani h I . . I .
important ea . . h the interview also e ps in iso ating specific
of social functioning. Furt er, . d by the parents.
maladaptive behaviour as perceive

·ty Functioning: Personality assessment gives insights

Assessment of Persona l I I I . h.
about the child's personality traits, conflicts, i nterpersona re ~t1ons ips and
• f h h'ld's environment Even though personal 1ty assessment
dynamics o t e c I • d d I I
provides valuable information, yet _they are c~n uct~ on y on se ected
children (37%) as it is extensive and time consuming. It 1s usu~lly undertaken
for those where there are indicators that the child has serious behaviour
problems or there are significant stressors in his/h_er ~nvironment, which
could have a bearing on the child's academic funct1on1ng.

The Centre uses a variety of personality tests ranging from projective,

semi-projective and structured personality questionnaires. The tests are
chosen in the context of the type of information to be explored about child.
Semi-projective tests such as Incomplete Sentence BI an k and Picture
Frustration Tests are used most frequently to explore major areas of conflicts,
child's level of frustration and tolerance and how he/she dea Is with conflicts
and fru_strations . Pr_ojective tests such as Children's Apperception Test,
Th~mat1c Ap?ercept1on Test and Make a Picture Story are used to enable the
child to project_ the dy~amics of his/her surrounding and environment to
under st and d~minant dnv:s, emoti?ns, sentiments, complexes and conflicts
of a p_erson~l,ty. Personality questionnaires such as Children's Personality
~uesth,?ldnna1re are administered to explore the personality type and traits of
e C I .

5. Educational Assessment

One of the key processes of

that is indispensable for dia nosfssessm~nt at the Child Guidance Cent~e
Informal Educational A g s of children with learning problems is
. ssessment Th· II
children with presenting • • is assessment is conducted for a
1
focuses on ascertaining thcomp_aint of learning problems. The assessment
basic academic skills f e opt~mal level of functioning of the child in the
o reading ·• b
components (Box 88) Th b ' writing and arithmetic and their su
· e road ob·Ject1ves· of this assessment are to:
i)
Ascertain the grade lev I . .
of academic skills· e at which the child is functioning in each
I

88
Box 88 : Maior Components of Educational Assessment
Writing Skills
Reading
Spelling
Word reading
Writteri Expression
Oral Reading
Handwritin g

Comprehen sion
Arithmetic

Reading comprehens ion Concepts

Listening Comprehen sion Operations
Computatio n
Application

ii) Establish the gap between the child's expected level of functioning
and his/her present level of achievemen t.

iii) Identify specific reasons for the gap in academic functioning and;

iv) Determine the strategies that will enable the child to actualise his/her
potential for academic learning.

Components of Informal Educational Assessment Since no standardise d battery

or test is available for Indian children. therefore a battery of tasks across all the
dimensions of academic skills has been compiled. The battery includes tasks for
English language borrowed from standardised tests; tasks developed by the Centre
for arithmetic skills along the Minimum Learning Level (developed by NCERT);
and tasks developed for Hindi language based on the general graded curricular
demands. The tasks are graded keeping in view the developmen tal progression
in learning (see Appendix V and VI for the battery used for education a I
assessment).

The assessment procedure for each of the academic skills and their sub-
components is as follows.

i) Reading Skills

a) Word Reading: The purpose of this assessment is to ascertain th h • h st

grade level at which the child can accurately r d h e •g e
with a graded list of words. ea ' w en presented

b) Oral Reading: The purpose of this assessmen . .

grade level at which the child can flu ti t~s to ascertain the highest
graded selection of passage. en y an accurately read a given

English reading skills are assessed

Comprehensive Inventory of Basic Skills H through Brigance Diagnostic
are ~ssessed through graded word d
owever, the reading skills in H' d '
derived ba d in '
curricular books. s an passages
' se on graded

89
 .
ii) Com Prehension pose of the assessment ts to ascerta in
. h ion : TI1e pur . I ,,
a) Readmg Compre ens h. h the ch ild ,s c1 ble to compre 1end passages
the highest grade l~vel at w ,c d The child 's reading comprehens ion is
that he/she was given ~o real · t evaluate the chi Id's understandi ng of
h quest10ns t 1a cause-effec t re Iat,ons . h'
assessed tI,roug f event, 1p, vocabulary
the basic facts , sequence o
and main idea of the passage
. . For children with very low levels of reading
. • Comprehension • h • '
b) Llstenmg . k. 11 re measured throug a 1ternat,ve task of
ehens1on s. I ' s a this task the passage .1s rea d a Ioud to the
the compr . . f .
· g comprehens ion . 1n '
I.1stenin . b t he/she answers similar type o questions as
h'ld by the examiner, u tasks · The comprehen ston · k f
c I h . tas s o English
in reading compre ens1on . . h . I
h Brigance Diagnostic Compre ens1on nventory
are measure d th roug d h h d d
of Basic Skills. For Hindi language it is assesse t roug gra e passage
derived from graded curriculum books.

iii) Writing Skills

a) Spellings: The assessment aims at ascertaining the hi_ghest grade level
at which the child is able to correctly spell a graded list of words when
dictated orally. The assessment of spelling skills in Eng~ish_ is carried
out through Schonell Graded Spelling Test. However, for Hind, language,
assessment is undertaken through a graded list developed from the graded
curriculum books.
b) Written Expression : Written expression skills are evaluated to assess
the child's ability to express thoughts and ideas in written form. The
child is presented with the task of Sentence Making or Paragraph Writing
along a theme. The sample so obtained is evaluated on content, grammar
and organisation of ideas.

:he tas~ for ~ritten expression for both Hindi and English is developed
in keeping with the level of language proficiency expected at differ~nt
grade levels. The exercises of making sentences include a combination
of nouns, verbs and adjectives that are familiar to children . Similarly
for ~~ragraph writing, the t~emes selected for younger children incl~de
famil 1ar and concrete topics that are close to the child's immedi~te
world of experience. However, for older children themes are familiar
but relatively abstract and may not be within the realm of direct
experience of the child.

c) Ha nd writing Skills: Handwriting skills of the child are assessed in terrn~

of legibility, type of print and speed. The handwriting is assessed b?tg
th rough a sample of written work of the child obtained durink
· I wor·fie·
e d ucat1ona assessment and by perusal of the child's class
Whenever the child'~ handwriting is found to be very poor, .s~~CI) is
data related to the child's dexterity and shift of preferred han~ (if /ihe
ex~lored through parental interview. Furthermore observation °
child across a variety of finemotor activities is also undertaken.

90
b
11)
iv) Arithmetic Skills
of the child 's know ledg e
(:s Arith meti c skills of the child are evalu ated in terms
skills and appl icati on . Grad ed
ts of arithm etica l concepts, operations, comp utati onal
nsion s based on the Mini mil I
a, tasks are designed to measure each of the abov e dime
If\ Learning Levels outli ned by NCERT.

The Process of Educational Asse ssme nt

all child ren in· the samp le
'g. The educ ation al assessment was cond ucte d for
The read ing and writi ng skills
oi across all the doma ins of basic acad emic skills .
, for child ren who were eithe r
:he were assessed for both the languages. How ever
of func tioni ng in one of two
as studying in Hind i med ium school or their level
unde rtake n only for the bette r
ish languages was very limite d, the assessment was
was unde rtake n only in those
Orv of the two languages. Listening comp rehe nsion
there was a need to establish
cases where the reading comprehension was poor and
I

age
the task of writte n expression
the optimal comprehension level of the child. Similarly
reached that level of profi cienc y
could be executed only on those children who had
skills.
in term~ of vocabulary, verbal fluency and spelling
with each child and the
Educational Assessment is transacted indiv idua lly
~vel of tasks /activ ities pres ente d
examiner close ly observes the child over the range
hen gene rally deriv ed on the basis
to him/her. The take off point of the assessment is
ried Thou gh there are struc tured
of cues obtai ned from the play observation session.
age, emic skills , yet the proce ss is
and graded tasks along all the dimensions of acad
situa tion. (Box 89)
1ded conti nuall y adapted to the indiv idual child and the

Box 89 : Process of Assessment

;sess
The • Form a relationship with the child
eed down ward s.
·iting • Star~ fr_om the level_ the child is most comf ortab le, proc
proc eed upwa rds in
flfllclf If this 1s n~t the child 's r~al basal l~vel, other wise
level of func tioni ng
the gradation to determine the child 's optim al
rathe r obse rve
• Do not foc~s only on the outco me of the task given
oped how the child attempts the task
·erent but d O no t spoo n-
• Provide sheepfolds (prompts) to foster perfo rman ce
1atiOf'
feed
1i lar1
Y the
elude • Proceed at the pace child can cope with. Do not hurr. y assessment.
Encourage the child to revise and edit his/h er work
:>di ate .
.d b
·r,, i I'"' • Encourage interaction to understand child 's o wn I eas a out his/h er
academic diffic ulties .
direc t
. .
• Provide realistic feedback and encoura gement to main tain moti vatio n
for assessment.

Carefully note the errors the c h"ld .

•
h h d .
I commits and pr ompts ("f ' any) he/
s e a required. Also note the ch1"ld' b h .
s e av1our ove d "ff
. r I eren t tasks.
• Corroborate the findings with s scho ol re cor d s and
note books . parental inter view '

91
 . d i ·b rately made an enabling and h'ld an interactiv e p
sment is e , e . h race
The asses .. h t promote performa nce in t e c I • Therefore , dunn . ss
the cond1t1ons t a . . h k
to uneart h h h'ld encounte rs a d1ff1cu .
1ty t e war er may mot· g
. 1vat
t when t e c 1
the ass_essmen , r his/her specific difficultie s or she may improvise the t e
the child to verba ,seb at,·on of the child's problem. She tries to watch ask
b · of her o serv . . out
on t h e asis • that of low motivatio n or the task itself 1s too difficult f
1
wheth~r the pro~i~~ '\he supportiv e cues are provided to the child to help hi or
the child . Accor . g tyhe difficulty. When the task is found to be too difficult frn/
her for surmounting d d h or
,
·ons from the task are mo erate or t e task itself .1s
h hild t h e expec t at .
t e c d 'F mple in a mathema tical problem, supportiv e cues could be .in
change . or exa h h ' ld' d. .
. g out the problem to counter t e c. .I s rea ing difficulty or
the form of rea d 1n
. the problem for the child in his/her familiar language to promote
I
trans atmg h' ld h d . II h h I
understanding of the problem . Similarly, a c 1 ":'"' o esp1te a t e e p cannot
logically decide the operation required for_ sol~ing the statemen t _problem may
be facilitated for the same and the expectati on 1s then reduced to JUSt executing
the 'operation '. These enabling processes minimise the child:s chances of
experiencing failure and at the same time lends valuable observati ons about the
specific difficulties of the child.

Many a times the child is also enabled to perform to his/her optimum best
by allowing sufficient time to execute the task or by conductin g the assessment
at the pace the child can cope with. The child is strategica lly given opportunities
to revise and edit his/her work. This helps in eliminatin g the mistakes he/she
would have made incidental ly, and also maintain his/her motivatio n.

Through the assessment, the worker, on one hand tries to arrive at the
optimum grade level at which the child is functionin g in each of the skill areas.
On the other hand she tries to discern the specific reasons of non-performance
by analysing the types of errors the child makes and the kind of facilitation and
modification that is required for him/her to perform optimally . The error analysis
may reveal one of the four possible hypothesis towards understan ding the child's
difficulty:

i. The ~hild'_s _basic l~a.rning or foundatio n is inadequa te or he/she has

~ad msuff~c,_ent training or practice to master the task. This may also
~n clude_ difficultie s encounte red in compreh ending the medium of
instruction. ·

ii. The. chi_ld has the requisite skills but he does not have the requ ired
mot1vat1on to perform in academ·ICS.

iii. !he child is able to attempt simple tasks but is unable to generalise
ecause of lack of abstraction.

iv. ihe ~hild is unable to perform the task because of deficits in basic
earning processes that are characteri stic of learning disability.

92
 In cases where it is noted that there are deficits in the underlying learning
processes they are extensively explored during the educati~nal assessment.
for example a child who demonstrates severe spelling d1ff1cult1es ,s particularly
assessed for her/his auditory perception and ability to decode the sound pattern

in the word.
Apart from being diagnostic in nature, educational assessment also provides
useful revelations about the child's preferred mode of learning i.e. auditory,
visual etc. that wil I be useful to plan intervention (see Box B 10).

Box 810 : Outcomes of Educational Assessment

• Highest grade level at which the child functions in each

of the skill areas

• The discrepancy between the present grade level and level

a~ which the child can optimally function in the context of
his/her cognitive abilities

• :he. nature of deficit in academic learning viz. global or

in circumscribed areas

• Unde_rly~ng reasons of non-performance i.e. under

funct1o~ing,_ l?w motivation and poor abstraction or
processing difficulties

• The relative strengths and limitations of the child

• The
the level'f at which the remediation can be .in,·t·1ated and
spec, ,c strategies that may benefit the child.

6• Social Investigations

. . The exploration of the environm I .

ISraison d'etre to the assessment roi;ta contexts_ on which the child is rowin
~ettmgs that are studied are th/ Fam~i' at t~e ~hold Guidance Centre. ~he tw g
influence on the child's development. y an t e School, to understand the~

Assessment of the Family Functioning

The family functionin Of

structure and .. g the child is expl d
iii) life style~oa~~o;:t•o.~, ii) fa".'ily dynamics an~r~nt:~ understand i) family
v)_ expectations from~~~ ~~~:~ne, iv) socialisation i~~sonal rel_ationships,
e v11) resources and support net'
wor kand
. vi) stressors/conflicpta~enting styles,
s in the family,

jC

93
 . b h • ,d the asses sment is that the child and fanfl
The underl_ying assump~io~ t ~h~y influence each other bi-directionally. T~y
intera ct in a unique wa ~ an t ad stand the perspective of the family and th _e
f h · sment Is to un er h e,r
goa l o t . e ass,e~ h . Id and to identify the i r strengt s and resource
expectations trom the c I s.
(see Box 811 )
. t' in Looking at the Family Context
Box B11 : Basic Assump ions
•d d I ment and family change are bidirectionally
• Chtl eve op . fl h'I ,
· t as family has potent 111 uence on c I d ,s
re Iate d - JUS . . h ·
development, the family 1s influenced by t e child s
behaviour and problems.
Children and families are also embedded in a set ecology.
• Therefore , the developmental potentia Iity of the setting
whether family or school depends upon how they are
supported by larger contexts (workplace, community,
polices etc) in their endeavour of interaction with the child

• Families vary in fundamental ways and have their unique

needs
• Interventions should be planned keeping in view the
family's needs, strengths and resources .

The assessment is carried out by conducting parental interviews at the Centre

and a home visit to the child 's family, wherever deemed necessary. The data
revealed that parental interviews for soc ial investigation were conducted in 90
percent of the cases. In about 70 percent of these cases, besides the case history
one more interview was sufficient to provide the necessary information. However, d,
in another one third of the cases more than one session for Social Investigation C<
was required. In addition home visits were carried out for about four percent of th
the cases in the entire sample . (see Table 61) th
fa
Table 61 : Distribution of Types of Investigation Measures Used th
Type f• (n = 195) Percentage Be

1. Parental Interviews 89.7

175
2. Only through Case-history 10.2
20
3. Home visits 4.0
7
4. School visits 26
*Multiple responses

·t·v1tY•
. rne
·
The pare
. ·
t I · ·
n a interviews are conducted with utmost sensi •
h
1
p1st.
wnile
interviewer tak th I of a empathetic listener enabler and at era faniilY
a St ructured fo es e· roe
f 1 ' • f the
rmat is o lowed to explore the various dimensions 0

94
 1
end ix VII end Box 612 ) u~u1 1lly tt,f, l r,fM l/t'1 ✓/ ,,, 1 ,1 µ~ l''r l !4Jrf l (J1,11 -1) 1
(See App
hy th,- , ,,,,,ft,r t ltJ ;, I 1A fr , • ¥11f"fff~1 tf,
1
The flow uf the Inte r vie w Is tfet NN tlnetl
t t,1fd Mif f,.,, , f,m, dy d ; r;n; rn1
f..- ' ,-;.011H11 ~,,,. 1.
intrlct1cles of the problem t1' th1:1 1 It , tf ..-
thN , th'J O-' ,,,,.. "'" '' / ;r1 ' '$.A , ,tr..-
1
1h~ , hut
the par ent s are lnte rvle wt!d
rule. Parents and family ,ne rnbNc;
tvge
11,~
lr,t~rvlAWN l ~,,,.,,,1,d /
Jlt1•Tr, ,;>1ru 11 ,1Mt,;,..,
1

ent or thm e is ,rr, ove rt dl~u ,,d 1,1 rt,1:1 f,.., mly m, 11/1 ,1 ,r~1 r/r1" n f./,
are too div erg
l,i tumt of b ;,( f1 nM Af ,ur
not feel at eas e to voi te their opl r,iu r1
l~
Bmc 12 : Content of Pilrental lnt erv

• (1' the < t,lld

Des crip tion of the prohlf? m
, <,( ht:IJ11r1i tfw f MJrl 11 r,1I th'."
• Efforts of the fornlly In the dlr et tlt,r
out com e
kP,r<,w ul
• Family stru cture, status ;mcJ cuhur tt l t:,;,(
• The daily routine of th(! child
• Par ent ing and dlstlpllnlng styl es
Lifestyle of the family, r11arlt,1I relaticm sMp
J,mJ u ,m, t,11r1 ir ,-,,11 ,, , (,M tl-!ff l
•
Any family dl&ruptlons, psy,J,opath(1l
bP,Y, Ulr•t ~e. ,,, rAh cr t tn: ~{, f~ r,r,
•
the chi ld and tho family
The ma jor areas of con ct?rns of tho p:,r
o,,t s relt1t,1rJ lu th1: <,hi ld :md t fo:
•
family
1tre
• Support network avall;iblc to the family
ata
90 c,r,d tn,d iti,m al dt:m ,,w :,phi r a t1rJ
The con ten t of the intc rvi~ w is boy p fl Mlt ,
:ory
des crip tive informiltion. The par ent
t Mv t,n<:CJurngvd to ~h tt H• lh~ir pt: f< 1:
ver1 lt? to the,,, t,, rtt:1m;~1; the r,m ,n~ <A
blc
con cer ns and nee ds and support availab ahr,ut
tion
the chi ld. The out com e of the auc
um ~nt is to dcri vfJ ;,,1 w1dt•rMandin~
,,r,J c:r t1;
it of the life style, disciplining pattern
s and exp ctt:.tlunt. o( th<: pM ,; flf t. irl
list k gM,ls ,Htd pl,1r1 ir1tc rv,.:- r1tit,m. '"'
facilitate the family to work towards rt!iJ
the chi ld (Box B 13).
t of fam lly Functioning
Box 813 : Outcome of A11e11men
-
u,r, <m tk d h t,dv,u,1,,w· ,,f ,1,,.
• life styles, living conditions and ~ut l<H:
family (If any)
• Ma jor strc sso rs on the fomlly ;md
lh imp,H t ,,,. th,, < t.ild :rnd f,lmily
mem ber s
• Family'~ beliefs rt?garding the chi
ld'~ prc,blc rm,, d,·~1rc d ifllf.: rvi ·nt, o,,
and exp ~ct ed out com e,
f)M f•nf !i ,.,,, t th, ,ir < UJ, ir•u
., Strenhgth s ancJ th e lim itat ion s of tht• 'r1
mcc an 1srru,
The support avt1ilable to the hm ily tmd th
•
ntio n '- ' '' rt· ,,,n,r< <· t. ,, v,tiL,l,1, - (()r
inte rve
Assessment of Scho ol Functioning
~nderstand i) scho
Th e sc hoo l fun ction ing of th e_ ch!!d is ex p~ored to
- id th ei r impa' ct on th.e. .chil d; ,r) teac her s perce ption of child's ab·1·1tieol
. _ . f h h' 1
proce sse s .1r r1vio ur an d rr) in terac tion patte rn o t e c 1ld with te h s
,J _ . beh 1
• f' b ac er
<1nu c 1as~ room <
l of asses smen t rs to prom ote a it etwee n the ch·1 s
. . 1·11 E' br·oad goa ) 1 d's
Lrn d peers . "
dema nds (Bo x B 14 .
charac terist ics and th e sc hool
ers, about th
Tl r1sses sment is carri ed out throu gh inter view ing the teach
s of the child 's probl em pe e
'Id' ,de ' to d r1 y activ ities .and her perce ption
d h h'ld b . , rusal
c I,r s ay- - , ts an t e c a o_ut their perceptions
of sc hool recor d s, interv iewin g the paren
I
funct ionin g ad
i th e sc hool and also the prob lems relat ed to acad emic
o?s are chosen dependi~g
~bserva tions ot th e child in the classroom. A mix of meth
from the school to
0 11
the prob lem of the child and type of supp ort requ ired
cre ate an enab ling envir onme nt for the child .
ent
Box Bl 4 : Dimensions of Assessment of School Environm
child
• Teachers ratings of the beha viour and learn ing of the

• M ajor areas of conc erns of the scho ol

• Inter actio n patterns of teachers and peers with the child
viz. classroom
• Scho ol proce sses and its impa ct on the child
on patterns,
orga nisat ion, teach er- learn ing proce sses , exam inati
extra curri cular activ ities
• Efforts made by the scho ol to help the child
ork regarding
• Ident ificat ion of persons/structures with whom to netw
the child 's prob lem

the parents. The

The scho ol visit is usua lly fixed in cons ultat ion with
g to the class teachers,
explo ratio n of scho ol funct ionin g is usua lly made by talkin
is one) . If naturalistic
subje ct teach ers and the scho ol coun sello r (if there
his/h er peer is required,
observations of the child in his/h er classroom and/ or with
the same are worked out.
a request is made in adva nce and the moda lities of
supp ort by sending th_eir
Many a time the schools are also willin g to exten d
to discuss issues relating
counsellors or teachers to the Child Guid ance Cent re
to the child .

Box 815 : O~tcomes of Understanding School Functions

ol to the 0th er
• Integ rating patte rns of child 's beha viour in the scho
assessment results
th e
child and
• Mat~~ing_ scho ol proce sses to the prob lem of the
modi ficati ons or provi sions he/she may requ ire to cope
main 5t rearn/
• ?ecis ions rega rding plac eme nt of the child in the
integrated special set ups.

96
 - ntlo111h1 ... r ~--litliiOlelll ' '
Y . -
v rious factors con 1ribu1ing to the child~
I hll IIIH 11\ll pl• H P1t,b nt i\~Sdss1nont I ~f t team members Towards the end
•
,11 ,1.l1~1Hh 1111,1 111111.i,11 , '
1 \ u ,~nl',1tHI l>y I' inter
I
'' ero n
linkil~Cs amongst· the co ntri·b u t o ry
Ill 11\P q\11,h 11h ~,11r1 ,,r 11\u t~ut1~1:;~~'.\1lilHnosttc wo,kup of the child.
1i11 hll l\ ,11,: \ ' 1\1 \11\ll\ tll l ,, , ,111 ,, 1\ ' '

. lw vario ui, c or1t1 ibutory fMtors I· \ s t u d'i<:~d to

'"''
1,,11 I 1\,1 ,,il,1111,"11 IHp lwtwou n I I I
11
111 1,h1111t,\11d l\i \\.\' IIW ti •l l r .tqi~
10
r t the iH -,demic. functioning of the
~~: ~~; •;:~::~al ,H;s~ci:1 ,c. J<clationship betwee_ n
'Ii\~ 1
'111hl ,,nd \.\ hh II ,11 l\l tJ~tl ,~ th~ ~~ff . \ dimensions of his/her environment ,s
~""
h11 11
11 111
11\, i ' \11h h i I\,,, ,11_ ltJ I ,~1,,
b dlH _ . I _

,11\1\ lyia,,d 11, hlunlll y th o ' oncl1t1om in wt"~

e,_en t . h the child ca n perform optimally.
, be worked upon 10 break the
I h, ~ h11lh'3 1 luf\d'- 11 , 111~11tllyinR fac(\~rs tB,;6)Gu d lack of positive reinforcement
1\1)1\1\ll\t tl ll rlll\
I n, IH I" p tj tflHff\i\n Ce ox . rlJ1 •
hll \IW , 111111.
thl\ 111 ._ 1 Outu)m~11i or the Synthesis of Assessment
• l ,,h~lb thal l)est desc ribe the child's problem.
• l)y1h\mln nt the child 's problems.
• I"" ~,r ~nu1hs oi 1he child and his/her environment.
m
• 1ho llrnllali On?\ oi the child and his/her environment .
• lyp~~ oi lnt t1 rvt3 ntion child may require in the context of his/ her
p,)t~n1iali1y M'ld learning.
• 1ht, type ni ~nvlronment in which the child would fit the be.st.
• fypu of monitoring required for differential diagnosis.
t tw 1n10, llnkln~ oi assessment process is inherent in the functioning of the
I, 11\t t. hlld Guld,rn ce Contl'e. The formal and informal communication amongst the
1 h~ 1• 1 '"'"" me111hers constantly takes place over each case. Every child has a separate
"11~11, , ,11 ~ wheu1 illl tho records of different assessments conducted by the team
" 111 "

\liitPll, mtjmhcH" "' " pli\c~d. This niakes the information accessible to everyone in the
.d .,,11 , tu,uH , In Mtdltlon, It provides Important leads to the team members to undertake

1twll '' "-~uuwnh In their spec ific domains. Another formal process that promotes
n,mmunl, ~\lion ,\lnOnRst the team members is the case conference that is
~1~1lt'" 1 q11th1t·1e<l al th ~ e nci of the nssessment process. Furthermore, the social worker
1111h,, tt',, m rooi din.llt~s with all the ot,h~r team_ members and monitors the process
01 00011,m\'I\I In context of the prov1s1onal diagnosis.

Intervention• for helping children with Scholastic Backwardness

l11w1\ 1<111 tlw ,~net o{ tho ns.sessment process th
,, 1 1 IMrt-d with p.uent, through n parental counsellin e sout~ome of th.e assessment
.,, tht< par ~nt,,I < ounsolllng session is to prom Sd css1on .. The prime objective
p1 ohltrn1 ii. nd tlw iypt- ot interventio h ot~_un erstandmg about the child's
,,, Ml~ml< pt-' t h)tn1 ,Hlrt' and restoring ::1; ;o~t~~~~ay require for promoting
most all the parents of the
97