Tanvi Singh Classification of Cohesive Soils

&
Soil as a three Phase Material

UBGMUQ-15-2 - Soil mechanics

 Overview of this session
1. Discussion and recap of previous session and Tutorial 1 (PSD curve)

2. Classification of fine grained soils (Cohesive Soils)

- Liquid limit

- Plastic limit

3. Soil as a three phase material

• Understand the main constituents of soils particles (solid skeleton), water,

air)

• Understand the relationships among the constituents

• Determine index properties of soils

When you complete this session you should be able to:

• Understand the main constituents of soils (particles (solid

skeleton), water, air)

• Understand the relationships among the constituents

• Determine index properties of soils

Recap

• Calculate the percentage of fines in soil from PSD

curve

• Calculate the fractions (%) of the various soil types

(e.g., sand, fine sand, coarse sand):

• Classify the soil (e.g., gravel – G) using Table 2 along

with information obtained from the PSD curve
 PSD Curve from Tutorial-1
PSD curve
100.0

90.0

80.0

70.0
% passed (or % finer)

60.0

50.0

40.0

30.0

20.0

10.0

0.0
0.01 0.10 1.00 10.00 100.00
grain size (mm)
 Classify the soil: STEP A
Obtain D10=0.168
100

90

80

70
% passed (or % finer)

60

50

40

30

20

10

0
0.01 0.1 1 10 100
grain size (mm)
 Classify the soil: STEP A
Obtain D60=1.118
100

90

80

70
% passed (or % finer)

60

50

40

30

20

10

0
0.01 0.1 1 10 100
grain size (mm)
 States of Cohesive Soils (Fine soils) &
Soil Classification

• Often, a quick assessment is required, or it might be necessary to characterise soil

extracted from many separate trial pits covering a wide region
• If the particle size distribution test has identified that a fine soil fraction is present
(clay, silt), Atterberg limit tests are usually carried out to aid further classification
• In the case of fine soils (e.g. CLAYS and SILTS), it is the shape of the particles
rather than their size that has the greater influence on engineering properties.

• Clay soils have flaky particles to which water adheres, thus imparting the property
of plasticity.
Consistency limits (or Atterberg Limits)

Albert Mauritz Atterberg

(March 19, 1846 – April 4, 1916)

Swedish Chemist & Agricultural Scientist

(Creator of Atterberg limits)

http://alchetron.com/Albert-Atterberg-1179336-W
Consistency of Soil
 Consistency limits and plasticity
Consistency of a soil
• The water contents at which the soil changes from one state to the other are called
consistency limits (or Atterberg limits).

• The consistency of a soil can range from

(dry) solid semi solid plastic liquid (wet).

Very soft (exudes between fingers), soft (easily mouldable), firm (strong finger pressure
required), stiff (can be indented with fingers, but not moulded) very stiff (indented by
sharp object), hard (difficult to indent)

Two of these are utilised in the classification of fine soils:

Liquid limit (wL) - change of consistency from plastic to liquid

Plastic limit (wP) - change of consistency from brittle/crumbly to plastic
Measures of liquid and plastic limit values can be obtained from laboratory tests.
 Soil States of Cohesive Soils
• The physical and mechanical behaviour of fine-grained soils is linked to four distinct
states: solid, semisolid, plastic, and liquid, in order of increasing water content.
• Let us consider a soil initially in a liquid state that is allowed to dry uniformly.
• If we plot a diagram of volume versus water content, where point Ais the original
liquid state as shown below
• As the soil dries, its water content reduces and, consequently, so does itsvolume

As the soil continues to dry, there is a range of water content at

which the soil can be moulded into any desired shape without
rupture. The soil at this state is said to exhibit plastic
behaviour—the ability to deform continuously without rupture.
But if drying is continued beyond the range of water content for
plastic behaviour, the soil becomes a semisolid. The soil cannot
be moulded now without visible cracks appearing. The water
content at which the soil changes from a plastic to a semisolid is
known as the plastic limit, denoted by PL or wL. As the soil
continues to dry, it comes to a final state called the solid state.
At this state, no further volume change occurs since nearly all
the water in the soil has been removed. The water content at
which the soil changes from a semisolid to a solid is called the
shrinkage limit. (Source: Budu)
 Soil States – cohesive soils

Soil Volume D

C
IP
(V)

B
Clay A
sample

Water content
𝑤= 0 𝒘 (w)
(dry soil) 𝒘𝒔 𝒘𝑷 𝒘𝑳
+ 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 + 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 + 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟

Ws = Shrinkage Limit IP = WL –WP = Plasticity Index

WP= Plastic Limit
WL= Liquid Limit IL = (WN –WP )/(WL –WP ) = Liquidity Index
 Liquid limit test
• Testing steps (full details in BS1377)

1. Prepare a soil sample to a particular

water content
2. Place soil sample into testing cup
3. Arrange cone penetrometer such that
the cone apex is immediately above the
surface of the soil sample
4. Allow the cone to fall under its self-
weight
5. Record the depth of penetration
6. Repeat steps 1-5 with a new sample
prepared to a different water content
cone penetrometer (Smith’s Elements
7. Establish by interpolation the water of Soil Mechanics, 2001)

content needed to obtain a penetration

of 20mm. This is the liquid limit.
 Plastic limit test
• Testing steps (full details in BS1377)

1. Form the sample into a 6mm diameter thread

2. Roll the sample by hand so that the diameter reduces to 3mm
3. Check, by visual inspection, if any splits or cracks appear in the thread
4. If not, repeat steps 1-3; otherwise determine the water content using
the oven-drying method
 Plastic and liquid limit tests
Plastic limit Fall Cone Test-Liquid limit
 Essential points:
1. Fine-grained soils can exist in one of four states: solid, semisolid, plastic,
liquid

2. Adding or removing water is responsible for changing the states in soils

3. Three (3) limits are defined based on the water content that causes
changes of states: liquid limit (𝑳𝑳),plastic limit (𝑷𝑳),shrinkage limit (𝑺𝑳)
4. The plasticity index (𝑃𝐼or 𝐼𝑝)defines the range of water content for which the
soil behaves as a plastic material

5. The liquidity index (𝐿𝐼or 𝐼𝐿) is a qualitative measure of strength. It is the

ratio of the difference in water content between the natural or in situ water
content of a soil and its plastic limit to its plasticity index

6. The soil strength is lowest at the liquid state and highest at the solid state
7. A soil containing high water content can flow like a liquid, offers no shearing
resistance and no resistance to shear deformation
 Plasticity chart and classification
• In the BSCS fine soils are divided into ten classes based on
their measured plasticity index and liquid limit values: CLAYS
are distinguished from SILTS, and five divisions of plasticity are
defined:
Table 3.
 Plasticity chart
A plasticity chart is provided to aid classification.
 Atterberg Limits & Classification
Example 1

Categorize a soil:
LL = 60 %

Ip = 40 %

𝑪𝑯
Atterberg Limits & Classification
Typical values for the Atterberg limits for soils
• Typical values for the Atterberg limits for soils are shown in Table 4.
• The Atterberg limits depend on the type of predominant mineral in the soil. If
montmorillonite is the predominant mineral, the liquid limit can exceed 100% because
the bond between the layers in montmorillonite is weak and large amounts of water
can easily infiltrate the spaces between the layers.
• In the case of kaolinite, the layers are held relatively tightly and water cannot easily
infiltrate between the layers in comparison with montmorillonite.
• Therefore, you can expect the Atterberg limits for kaolinite to be, in general, much
lower than those for either montmorillonite or illite.

Table 4.Typical Atterberg limits for soils

(Source: Budu)
 Activity (A)
For soils with a particular mineralogy, the plasticity index is linearly related to the amount
of the clay fraction. Skempton (1953) coined a term called activity (A) to describe the
importance of the clay fractions on the plasticity index. The equation for A is

Table 5. Activity of clay-rich soils

Recall that the clay fraction is the amount of particles less than 0.002 mm, and activity is
one of the factors used in identifying expansive or swelling soils. (Source: Budhu)
Class Activity

1. Define the following key terms

a) Liquid limit 𝐿or 𝑤𝐿[%]

b)Plastic limit 𝑃𝐿or 𝑤𝑃 [%]

c)Shrinkage limit 𝑆𝐿or 𝑤𝑠[%]

d)Plasticity Index 𝑃𝐼or 𝐼𝑝[%]

2. Explain where you can apply the knowledge gained from Soil

Classification in real life?

Q2. Answer.
Soil classification and particle size distribution are very important in understanding the
behaviour of soils due to the varying range of particle sizes in soils. The knowledge from
particle size analysis can be applied in determining the permeability of soils using the
Hazen equation. Do a research on the Hazen’s permeability equation and use the
equation to calculate the permeability of the soil in work Tutorial 1.
• You can explain the practical implication of water seeping into soils of high liquid limit
and rich in montmorillonite founded under concrete foundations. You now know that
the water will cause the soil to expand (montmorillonite is an expansive soil). Because
the water content in montmorillonite will not increase uniformly under the foundation,
the expansion will not be uniform. More expansion will occur at the edge of the slab
because the water content will be greater there. Consequently, the concrete
foundation will curl upward at the edge and most likely crack due to expansion of the
soil beneath. Construction on expansive soils requires special attention to water
management issues such as drainage and landscape. Generally, plants and lawns
should be at least 3 m away from the edge of the foundation and the land should be
sculpted to drain water away from the foundation, (M. Budhu 2010).
• What will I be able to do now from the knowledge on this topic?
You are now able to understand and classify both coarse grained and fine grained soils
using particle size distribution curve and Atterberg limits to make engineering
judgements.
 Soil as a 3-phase Material
• Soil is an assembly of particles, separated by water and air in its voids.
• If all the voids are filled by water, the soil is saturated otherwise, the soil is
unsaturated.
• The physical properties of a soil depend on the relative proportion of these
constituents in a given mass.

• If all the voids are filled with air, the soil is said to be dry.

• The soil water is called pore water and plays a very important role in the behaviour of
soils under load.

Soil
 Phase relationships
Soil: an assembly of particles, separated by water and air in its voids

(a) soil (b) idealized soil

Total volume of a soil: Total weight of a soil:
V = Vs + Vw + Va = Vs + Vv W = Ws + W w + W a = Ws + W w
𝑉 = total volume
𝑉𝑠 = volume of soil solids 𝑊 = total weight
Vv = volume of voids 𝑊𝑠 = weight of soil solids
𝑉𝑤 = volume of water 𝑊𝑤 = weight of water
𝑉𝑎 = volume of air 𝑊𝑎 = weight of air (= 0)
 Definitions of key terms
1.Water content (w) is the ratio of the weight of water to the weight of
solids.
2.Void ratio (e) is the ratio of the volume of void space to the volume of
solids.
3.Porosity (n) is the ratio of the volume of void to the total volume of soil.
4.Degree of saturation (S) is the ratio of the volume of water to the volume
of void.
5.Bulk unit weight (𝜸) is the weight density, that is, the weight of a soil per
unit volume.
6.Saturated unit weight (𝜸𝒔𝒂𝒕) is the weight of a saturated soil per unit
volume.
7.Dry unit weight (𝜸𝒅𝒓𝒚) is the weight of a dry soil per unit volume.
8.Effective unit weight (𝜸′) is the weight of soil solids in a submerged soil
per unit volume.
9.Relative density (Dr) is an index that quantifies the degree of packing
between the loosest and densest state of coarse-grained soils.
10. Specific gravity (Gs) is the ratio of the weight of the soil solids to the
weight of water of equal volume:
 Key terms and units

1. Water content, 𝒘 [%]:

2. Void ratio, 𝒆 [%]

3. Porosity, 𝒏 [%]

4. Degree of saturation, 𝑺 or 𝑺𝒓 [%]

5. Bulk unit weight, 𝜸 [𝐾𝑁/𝑚3]

6. Saturated unit weight, 𝜸𝒔𝒂𝒕 [𝐾𝑁/𝑚3]

7. Dry unit weight, 𝜸𝒅𝒓𝒚 [𝐾𝑁/𝑚3]

8. Unit weight of water, 𝜸𝒘 [𝐾𝑁/𝑚3] (= 9.81 or ≈ 10)

9. Effective unit weight, 𝜸′ = 𝜸𝒔𝒂𝒕 − 𝜸𝒘 [𝐾𝑁/𝑚3]

10.Relative density, 𝑫𝒓 [%]

 Volume relationships
• Water content (w):

• Void ratio (e):

• Porosity (n):

• Degree of saturation (S):

Porosity and void ratio are related by the expression:

Let us prove this equation:

• Specific gravity of solid (G):

 Weight relationships
Bulk unit weight (𝜸 𝒐𝒓 𝜸𝒃):

Saturated unit weight (𝜸𝒔𝒂𝒕), S = 1:

Dry unit weight (𝜸𝒅𝒓𝒚), S = 0:

Effective unit weight (𝜸′):

Typical values of unit weight of soils are given

 Relative Density 𝐷𝑟 𝑜𝑟 density index 𝐼𝐷
• Relative density Dr describes the field ‘denseness’ or ‘looseness; of
granular soil. It is expressed in %, and varies from 0 – 100%
•It is an index that quantifies the degree of packing between the loosest and
densest possible state of coarse-grained soils as determined by experiments

−e Description of Coarse-Grained Soils Based on Dr

D r =  max
e and Porosity

e max − e min
Dr = relative density of the soil (%)
e = in situ void ratio
emax = void ratio of the soil in its
loosest state
emin = void ratio of the soil in its
densest state

• The relative density in terms of unit weights or density:

 d −d (min) d (max)   d −d(min) d (max) 

Dr =   Dr =   
 −   
 d (max) −  
d (min)    
 d(max) d (min)  d  d
Table for volume-weight relationships
 Solve @
Example 1 class !!!

▪ A specimen of wet soil has a mass, M1 = 462 𝑔.

It was placed in a dish of mass M2 = 39 𝑔 during oven
drying and after drying in an oven at 110 ℃ overnight,
the sample and dish have a mass M3 = 364 𝑔.
➢ Calculate the water content 𝑤 of the soil
 Example 2 Solve @
class !!!

1. Prove the following relationships from first principles

 Solution

a.
 Example 3 Solve @
class !!!

1. The void space in a sand taken near a river consists of 80% air and 20%
water. The dry unit weight is γd = 16kN/𝑚3 and Gs = 2.7. Determine the water
content.
 Example 4 Solve @
class !!!

A sample of clay and its container weight is 580g. The clay in its container was placed
in an oven for 24 hours at 105°C. The weight reduced to a constant value of 489g.
The weight of the container is 81g. If Gs = 2.7, S = 1, determine the
(a) water content, (b) void ratio, (c) bulk unit weight,
(d) dry unit weight, and (e) effective unit weight.
Class Activity
1. The void space in a sand taken near a river consists of 80% air and 20%
water. The dry unit weight is γd = 16kN/𝑚3 and Gs = 2.7. Determine the water
content.

2.A sample of saturated clay and its container weight is 590g. The clay in its
container was placed in an oven for 24 hours at 105°C. The weight reduced to
a constant value of 499g. The weight of the container is 91g. If Gs = 2.7,
determine the
(a) water content, (b) void ratio, (c) bulk unit weight,
(d) dry unit weight, and (e) effective unit weight.

3. For a given soil, 𝑤 = 25 % and

𝛾 = 18.5 𝑘𝑁/𝑚3 are measured
Determine the:
i. void ratio e
ii.degree of saturation S
(assume Gs = 2.70.)
Questions ??