Basics of COA

BASICS OF COA
BY: MILKIYAS DUGUMA
 1. Digital Systems
Basic Concept
Logic Gates
Closing
Boolean Algebra
Summary
Combination Circuit
Questions and Answers
Sequential Circuits
2. Data Representation
Content Bit, Byte and Words

3. Digital component
4. Register Transfer
5. Micro Operation
  A system designed to store, process, and communicate
information in digital form.
 Its range of application - process control, communication
Introduction systems, digital instruments, and consumer products
 The typical example of Digital System is Digital computer.

Here are The Basic Blocks of Computer

  Logic Gates are a block of hardware that produces signals of binary
1 or 0 when input logic requirements are satisfied.
 Each gate has a distinct graphic symbol, and its operation can be
described by means of algebraic expressions.
 The seven basic logic gates includes: AND, OR, XOR, NOT, NAND,
NOR, and XNOR

Logic Gates i. AND

The AND gate is an electronic circuit which gives a high output only if all its inputs
are high. The AND operation is represented by a dot (.) sign
 NOT Gate
NOT gate is also known as Inverter.
It has one input A and one output Y

NAND GATE
The NOT-AND (NAND) gate which is equal to an AND gate followed by
a NOT gate. The NAND gate gives a high output if any of the inputs are
low.
NOR GATE
The NOT-OR (NOR) gate which is equal to an OR gate followed
by a NOT gate. The NOR gate gives a low output if any of the
inputs are high
 Exclusive-OR/ XOR GATE:
The 'Exclusive-OR' gate is a circuit which will
give a high output if one of its inputs is high
but not both of them.

EXCLUSIVE-NOR/Equivalence GATE:
The 'Exclusive-NOR' gate is a circuit that does the inverse
operation to the XOR gate. It will give a low output if one of its
inputs is high but not both of them.
  Boolean algebra
 Boolean algebra can be considered as an algebra that deals with binary
variables and logic operations. Boolean algebraic variables are
designated by letters such as A, B, x, and y. The basic operations
performed are AND, OR, and complement

Boolean Rule in Boolean Algebra

Variable used can have only two values. Binary 1 for HIGH and Binary 0 for
Algebra LOW.

Complement of a variable is represented by an overbar (-).

ORing of the variables is represented by a plus (+) sign between them. For
example ORing of A, B, C is represented as A + B + C.

Logical ANDing of the two or more variable is represented by writing a dot

between them such as A.B.C. Sometime the dot may be omitted like AB
Diagrammatical Representation of Boolean Algebra

1. F1 = xyz' Truth Table for F1 and F2

2. F2 = x + y'z

Note: To represent a function in a truth table, we need a list of the 2^n combinations of n binary variables.
Diagrammatical Representation of Boolean Algebra

3. F4 = x'y'z + x'yz + xy'

Combinational Circuit
 A combinational circuit comprises of logic gates whose outputs at any time are determined
directly from the present combination of inputs without any regard to previous inputs

 The output of combinational circuit at any instant of time, depends only on the levels present at input
terminals.
 The combinational circuit do not use any memory.

Example. The combinational circuit that performs the addition of two bits is called a half adder and the one
that performs the addition of three bits is a full adder
Cont’d
 Half Adder
 The half adder circuit is designed to add two single bit binary number x and y. It is the basic
building block for addition of two single bit numbers. This circuit has two outputs carry and sum.

'x' and 'y' are the two inputs, and S (Sum) and C (Carry) are the two outputs.
The Carry output is '0' unless both the inputs are 1.
'S' represents the least significant bit of the sum.

The simplified sum of products (SOP) expressions is:

S = x'y+xy', C = xy
Sequential Circuit
 A sequential logic circuit is a circuit where the output depends on the combination of present
input state and past input or previous input values. The previous output values are stored in the
memory elements.

Example

Flip flop is a sequential circuit which generally samples its inputs

and changes its outputs only at particular instants of time and not
continuously. For example S R flip flop
Wrap Up
&
Questions
2. Data Representation
NUMBER SYSTEM
BIT, BYTE AND WORDS
Number system
THE FOUR CATEGORIES

 Binary number system consists of only two

values, either 0 or 1
 Octal number system represents values in 8
digits.
 Decimal number system represents values in
10 digits.
 Hexadecimal number system represents values
in 16 digits
  Bits − A bit is a smallest possible unit of data
that a computer can recognize or use.
 Bytes − group of eight bits is called a byte. Half
a byte is called a nibble

Bit and
Bytes
Cont’d
BINARY NUMBER SYSTEM

 Characteristics
 Uses two digits, 0 and 1.
 Also called base 2 number system
 Last position in a binary number represents an
x power of the base (2). Example: 2x where x
represents the last position - 1
 Cont’d
OCTAL NUMBER SYSTEM
 Uses eight digits, 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7.
 Also called base 8 number system
 Each position in an octal number represents a 0 power of the base (8). Example: 8 0
 Last position in an octal number represents an x power of the base (8). Example: 8 x where x represents the last
position - 1.
 HEXADECIMAL NUMBER SYSTEM
 Uses 10 digits and 6 letters, 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,A,B,C,D,E,F.
 Letters represents numbers starting from 10. A = 10, B = 11, C = 12, D = 13, E = 14, F = 15.
 Also called base 16 number system.
 Each position in a hexadecimal number represents a 0 power of the base (16). Example 16 0.
 Last position in a hexadecimal number represents an x power of the base (16). Example 16 x where x
represents the last position - 1
 CONVERTING FROM ONE BASE TO ANOTHER
i. Conversion from Decimal to Base m
 Step 1: Divide the given decimal number by m (the desired base). The result will have a quotient
and a remainder.
 Step 2: Divide the quotient by m. Still you get a quotient and a remainder.
 Step 3: Repeat step 2 until the quotient becomes 0. You should note that we are conducting
integer division. In integer division n/m, the quotient is 0 whenever n < m.
 Step 4: Collect and arrange the remainders in such a way that the first remainder is the least
significant digit and the last remainder is the most significant digit (i.e., RnRn-1 … R2R1).
 Example: Convert 47 to binary
CONT’D
Quotient Remainder

47 ÷ 2 23 1

23 ÷ 2 11 1

11 ÷ 2 5 1

5÷2 2 1

2÷2 1 0

1÷2 0 1

In order to convert the given decimal numbers into binary (base 2), they are divided by 2.

Since the quotient becomes 0 at the last division, the division has to stop and we should
collect the remainders starting from the last one. Hence the result is 1011112
 II. CONVERSION FROM BASE M TO DECIMAL

 Step 1: Multiply each digit by its positional value.

 Step 2: Calculate the sum of the products you get in step 1.
 The resulting sum you get is the decimal equivalent for the given number in base m.

 Example 1: Convert the hexadecimal number D1 into decimal.

 D116 = (13 × 161) + (1 × 160); you should be aware that the calculations are in decimal thus the
 hex digit D must first be converted into its decimal equivalent (13).
 = (13 × 16) + (1 × 1)
 = 208 + 1
 = 209

 Therefore, D116 = 209
 Example 2: Convert the binary number 110001 into decimal.

 1100012 = (1 × 25) + (1 × 24) + (0 × 23) + (0 × 22) + (0 × 21) + (1 × 20)

 = (1 × 32) + (1 × 16) + (0 × 8) + (0 × 4) + (0 × 2) + (1 × 1)
 = 32 + 16 + 0 + 0 + 0 + 1
 = 49

 Therefore, 1100012 = 49
 Example 2: Convert the hexadecimal number D1 into decimal.

 D116 = (13 × 161) + (1 × 160); you should be aware that the calculations are in decimal thus the hex
digit D must first be converted into its decimal equivalent (13).
 = (13 × 16) + (1 × 1)
 = 208 + 1
 = 209

 Therefore, D116 = 209

 iii. Conversion from Binary to Octal

 It is possible to use decimal number system as an intermediate base to convert from any base to
any other base. However, for conversion from binary to octal or vice versa, there is a very simple
method.
 Step 1: Group the binary digits (bits) starting from the rightmost digit. Each group should contain
3 bits. If the remaining bits at the leftmost position are fewer than 3, add 0s at the front.
 Step 2: For each 3-bit binary string, find the corresponding octal number
 Example 1101111 to Octal
 001 101 111
 1 5 7
 Since we are left with a single bit at the leftmost position, two 0s are added at the front to make
create a three-bit group. The result shows that 11011112 = 1578.
 iv. Conversion from Binary to Hexadecimal

 One possible way to convert a binary number to hexadecimal, is first to convert the binary
number to decimal and then from decimal to hex. Nevertheless, the simple way to convert binary
numbers to hex is by grouping as used in conversion to octal. Here a single group has 4 bits.
 Step 1: Starting from the rightmost bit, group the bits in 4. If the remaining bits at the leftmost
position are fewer than 4, add 0s at the front.

Step 2: For each 4-bit group, find the corresponding hexadecimal number. You can use Table 3-1
to find conversion equivalents.
 Example: Convert the binary numbers 1110110001 to hexadecimal.

 Soloution: first we group the bits in 4

 0011 1011 0001
 2 B 1

 Therefore, 11101100012 = 2B116
V. Octal to Hexadecimal and vice versa
Step 1: Convert the given number into binary.
Step 2: Convert the binary number you got in step 1 into the required base.
Example : Convert the octal number 647 to hexadecimal.
Convert 6478 to binary

6 4 7
110 100 111

Convert 1101001112 to hexadecimal

0001 1010 0111
1 A 7
Therefore, 6478 = 1A716
Signed and twos-complement representations
In digital work, two types of complements of a binary number are used for complemental subtraction:

One’s complement
The one’s complement of binary number is obtained by changing its each 0 into a 1 and each 1 into a 0. It is
also called radix-minus-one complement. For Example, one’s complement of 1002 is 0112 and of 11102 is
00012.

Two’s complement
The two’s complement of binary number is obtained by adding 1 to its 1’s complement.
2’s complement=1’s complement+1.

It is also known as true complement. Suppose we asked to find 2’s complement of 1011 2. Its 1’s complement
is 01002. Next add 1 to get 01012. Hence 2’s complement of 10112 is 01012
1’s complement subtraction

In this method instead of subtracting a number, we add its 1’s complement to the minuend. The last carry
(whether 0 or 1) is added to get the final answer.
RULES
- Compute the ones complement of the subtrahend by changing all its 1s to 0s and all its 0s to 1s.
- Add its complement to the minuend
- Perform the end-around carry of the last 1 or 0
- If there is no end-around carry (i.e. 0 carry), then the answer must be re-complemented and a negative
sign attached to it.
- If the end-around carry is 1, no re-complement is necessary.
Example 1. Suppose we want to subtract 1012 from 1112. The procedure is under:
Ex.
2’s Complement
Subtraction
3. Digital Components
IC, DECODER, ENCODER, REGISTER
 Cont’d
DECODERS
 A decoder is a combinational circuit that converts binary information from n coded inputs to 2^n
outputs.
 Commercial decoders include one or more enable (E) inputs to control the operation of circuit.
 Cont’d
ENCODER
 An encoder is a digital circuit that performs the inverse operation of
a decoder.
 An encoder has 2^n input lines and n output lines. It converts octal
input to binary digits.
 Types of Encoders
 Priority encoders.
 Decimal to BCD encoder.
 Octal to binary encoder.
 Hexadecimal to binary encoder
 Cont’d
MULTIPLEXER
 A multiplexer is a combinational circuit that receives binary
information from one of the 2^n input lines and directs it to a single
output line.

 Note: A 2^n-to-1 multiplexer has 2^n input data lines and n input
selection lines whose bit combinations determine which input data
are selected for the output
 Cont’d

REGISTER
 A Register is a fast memory used to accept, store, and transfer data and instructions that are being used
immediately by the CPU.
 A Register can also be considered as a group of flip-flops with each flip-flop capable of storing one bit of
information.
 A register with n flip-flops is capable of storing binary information of n-bits.
 The flip-flops contain the binary information whereas the gates control the flow of information, i.e. when
and how the information?s are transferred into a register.
4. Register Transfer
& Micro Operation
R E G I S T E R T R A N S F E R A N D R E G I S T E R T R A N S F E R L A N G UA G E
BUS AND MEMORY TRANFERS
M I C R O O P E R AT I O N
 Cont’d
REGISTER TRANSFER LANGUAGE
 A digital computer system exhibits an interconnection of digital modules such as registers, decoders,
arithmetic elements, and Control logic.
 These digital modules are interconnected with some common data and control paths to form a complete
digital system.
 Digital modules are best defined by the registers and the operations that are performed on the data stored
in them.
 The operations performed on the data stored in registers are called Micro-operations.
 The internal hardware organization of a digital system is best defined by specifying:
 The set of registers and the flow of data between them.
 The sequence of micro-operations performed on the data which are stored in the registers.
 The control paths that initiates the sequence of micro-operation
 CONT’D
The Register Transfer Language is the symbolic representation of notations used to specify the sequence of
micro-operations

 Data transfer takes place between processor registers and memory and between processor
registers and input-output systems. These data transfer can be represented by standard
notations given below:
 Notations R0, R1, R2..., and so on represent processor registers.
 The addresses of memory locations are represented by names such as LOC, PLACE, MEM, etc.
 Input-output registers are represented by names such as DATA IN, DATA OUT and so on.
 The content of register or memory location is denoted by placing square brackets around the name of the
register or memory location.
CONT’D

REGISTER TRANSFER
 Register Transfer- refers to the availability of hardware logic circuits that can
perform a given micro-operation and transfer the result of the operation to the
same or another register.
 The memory address register is designated by MAR.
 Program Counter PC holds the next instruction's address.
 Instruction Register IR holds the instruction being executed.
 R1 (Processor Register).

 Data Transfer from one register to another register is represented in symbolic form by means of
replacement operator. For instance, the following statement denotes a transfer of the data of
register R1 into register R2.
 R2 ← R1
CONT’D

 It is more convenient to specify a control function (P) by separating the control

variables from the register transfer operation. For instance, the following
statement defines the data transfer operation under a specific control function
(P).
 P: R2 ← R1
CONT’D

BUS AND MEMORY TRANSFERS

 A bus structure, is more efficient for transferring information between registers in
a multi-register configuration system.
 A bus consists of a set of common lines, one for each bit of register, through
which binary information is transferred one at a time. Control signals determine
which register is selected by the bus during a particular register transfer.
 Why BUS
 A digital system composed of many registers, and paths must be provided to transfer
information from one register to another. The number of wires connecting all of the
registers will be excessive if separate lines are used between each register and all other
registers in the system.
CONT’D

BUS constracted with 4 * 1 Multiplexers each having four data inputs

CONT’D

MEMORY TRANSFER
 Most of the standard notations used for specifying operations on memory
transfer are:
 The transfer of information from a memory unit to the user end is called
a Read operation.
 The transfer of new information to be stored in the memory is called a Write operation.
 A memory word is designated by the letter M.
 We must specify the address of memory word while writing the memory transfer
operations.
 The address register is designated by AR and the data register by DR.
 Thus, a read operation can be stated as:
CONT’D

ARTHIMETIC MICRO OPERATIONS

CONT’D

BINARY ADDER
 The Add micro-operation requires registers that can hold the data and the digital components
that can perform the arithmetic addition.
 A Binary Adder is a digital circuit that performs the arithmetic sum of two binary numbers
provided with any length.
 A Binary Adder is constructed using full-adder circuits connected in series, with the output carry
from one full-adder connected to the input carry of the next full-adder.
CONT’D

 The augend bits (A) and the addend bits (B) are designated by subscript numbers from right to
left, with subscript '0' denoting the low-order bit.
 The carry inputs starts from C0 to C3 connected in a chain through the full-adders. C4 is the
resultant output carry generated by the last full-adder circuit.
 The output carry from each full-adder is connected to the input carry of the next-high-order full-
adder.
 The sum outputs (S0 to S3) generates the required arithmetic sum of augend and addend bits.
 The n data bits for the A and B inputs come from different source registers. For instance, data bits
for A input comes from source register R1 and data bits for B input comes from source register
R2.
 The arithmetic sum of the data inputs of A and B can be transferred to a third register or to one
of the source registers (R1 or R2).
5. Basic computer design
& Organization