GLT 111: TOPIC 3.

Understanding Radiation
3.1 Define Radiation
Radiation is the emission or transmission of energy in the form of waves or particles through space
or through a material medium. This includes:

 electromagnetic radiation, such as radio waves, microwaves, infrared, visible light,

ultraviolet, x-rays, and gamma radiation (γ)
 particle radiation, such as alpha radiation (α), beta radiation (β), and neutron radiation
(particles of non-zero rest energy)
 acoustic radiation, such as ultrasound, sound, and seismic waves (dependent on a physical
transmission medium)
 gravitational radiation, radiation that takes the form of gravitational waves, or ripples in the
curvature of spacetime.

Radiation is often categorized as either ionizing or non-ionizing depending on the energy of the
radiated particles.

Applications

o 5.1 Medicine
o 5.2 Communication
o 5.3 Science
 6 Possible damage to health and environment from certain types of radiation

Ionizing radiation

Ionizing radiation

Some kinds of ionizing radiation can be detected in a cloud chamber.

Radiation with sufficiently high energy can ionize atoms; that is to say it can knock electrons off
atoms, creating ions. Ionization occurs when an electron is stripped (or "knocked out") from an
electron shell of the atom, which leaves the atom with a net positive charge.

Ultraviolet radiation

Ultraviolet, of wavelengths from 10 nm to 125 nm, ionizes air molecules, causing it to be strongly
absorbed by air and by ozone (O3) in particular. Ionizing UV therefore does not penetrate Earth's
atmosphere to a significant degree, and is sometimes referred to as vacuum ultraviolet. Although
present in space, this part of the UV spectrum is not of biological importance, because it does not
reach living organisms on Earth.
Gamma radiation

Gamma radiation detected in an isopropanol cloud chamber.

Gamma radiation emission is a nuclear process that occurs to rid an unstable nucleus of excess energy
after most nuclear reactions. Both alpha and beta particles have an electric charge and mass, and thus
are quite likely to interact with other atoms in their path. Gamma radiation, however, is composed of
photons, which have neither mass nor electric charge and, as a result, penetrates much further through
matter than either alpha or beta radiation.

Alpha radiation

Alpha particle detected in an isopropanol cloud chamber

They interact with matter strongly due to their charges and combined mass, and at their usual
velocities only penetrate a few centimeters of air, or a few millimeters of low density material (such
as the thin mica material which is specially placed in some Geiger counter tubes to allow alpha
particles in). This means that alpha particles from ordinary alpha decay do not penetrate the outer
layers of dead skin cells and cause no damage to the live tissues below. Some very high energy alpha
particles compose about 10% of cosmic rays, and these are capable of penetrating the body and even
thin metal plates. However, they are of danger only to astronauts, since they are deflected by the
Earth's magnetic field and then stopped by its atmosphere.

Beta radiation

Electrons (beta radiation) detected in an isopropanol cloud chamber

Beta-minus (β−) radiation consists of an energetic electron. It is more penetrating than alpha radiation,
but less than gamma. Beta radiation from radioactive decay can be stopped with a few centimeters of
plastic or a few millimeters of metal. It occurs when a neutron decays into a proton in a nucleus,
releasing the beta particle and an antineutrino. Beta radiation from linac accelerators is far more
energetic and penetrating than natural beta radiation. It is sometimes used therapeutically in
radiotherapy to treat superficial tumors.

Neutron radiation

Neutrons are categorized according to their speed/energy. Neutron radiation consists of free neutrons.
These neutrons may be emitted during either spontaneous or induced nuclear fission. Neutrons are
rare radiation particles; they are produced in large numbers only where chain reaction fission or fusion
reactions are active; this happens for about 10 microseconds in a thermonuclear explosion, or
continuously inside an operating nuclear reactor; production of the neutrons stops almost immediately
in the reactor when it goes non-critical.

Cosmic radiation

There are two sources of high energy particles entering the Earth's atmosphere from outer space: the
sun and deep space. The sun continuously emits particles, primarily free protons, in the solar wind,
and occasionally augments the flow hugely with coronal mass ejections (CME).

Non-ionizing radiation

The electromagnetic spectrum

The electromagnetic spectrum is the range of all possible electromagnetic radiation frequencies. [4] The
electromagnetic spectrum (usually just spectrum) of an object is the characteristic distribution of
electromagnetic radiation emitted by, or absorbed by, that particular object.

Ultraviolet light

As noted above, the lower part of the spectrum of ultraviolet, called soft UV, from 3 eV to about 10
eV, is non-ionizing. However, the effects of non-ionizing ultraviolet on chemistry and the damage to
biological systems exposed to it (including oxidation, mutation, and cancer) are such that even this
part of ultraviolet is often compared with ionizing radiation.

Visible light

Light, or visible light, is a very narrow range of electromagnetic radiation of a wavelength that is
visible to the human eye, or 380–750 nm which equates to a frequency range of 790 to 400 THz
respectively.[4] More broadly, physicists use the term "light" to mean electromagnetic radiation of all
wavelengths, whether visible or not.

Infrared

Infrared (IR) light is electromagnetic radiation with a wavelength between 0.7 and 300 micrometers,
which corresponds to a frequency range between 430 and 1 THz respectively.
Microwave

Microwaves are electromagnetic waves with wavelengths ranging from as short as one millimeter to
as long as one meter, which equates to a frequency range of 300 MHz to 300 GHz. This broad
definition includes both UHF and EHF (millimeter waves), but various sources use different other
limits.[4] In all cases, microwaves include the entire super high frequency band (3 to 30 GHz, or 10 to
1 cm) at minimum, with RF engineering often putting the lower boundary at 1 GHz (30 cm), and the
upper around 100 GHz (3mm).

Radio waves

Radio waves are a type of electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths in the electromagnetic
spectrum longer than infrared light. Like all other electromagnetic waves, they travel at the speed of
light. Naturally occurring radio waves are made by lightning, or by certain astronomical objects.

Thermal radiation (heat)

Thermal radiation is a common synonym for infrared radiation emitted by objects at temperatures
often encountered on Earth. Thermal radiation refers not only to the radiation itself, but also the
process by which the surface of an object radiates its thermal energy in the form of black body
radiation. Infrared or red radiation from a common household radiator or electric heater is an example
of thermal radiation, as is the heat emitted by an operating incandescent light bulb.

Black-body radiation

Black-body radiation is an idealized spectrum of radiation emitted by a body that is at a uniform

temperature. The shape of the spectrum and the total amount of energy emitted by the body is a
function of the absolute temperature of that body. A black-body with a temperature at or below room
temperature would thus appear absolutely black, as it would not reflect any incident light nor would it
emit enough radiation at visible wavelengths for our eyes to detect. Theoretically, a black-body emits
electromagnetic radiation over the entire spectrum from very low frequency radio waves to x-rays,
creating a continuum of radiation.

Applications

Medicine

Radiation and radioactive substances are used for diagnosis, treatment, and research. X-rays, for
example, pass through muscles and other soft tissue but are stopped by dense materials. This property
of X-rays enables doctors to find broken bones and to locate cancers that might be growing in the
body. Doctors also find certain diseases by injecting a radioactive substance and monitoring the
radiation given off as the substance moves through the body. Radiation used for cancer treatment is
called ionizing radiation because it forms ions in the cells of the tissues it passes through as it
dislodges electrons from atoms. This can kill cells or change genes so the cells cannot grow. Other
forms of radiation such as radio waves, microwaves, and light waves are called non-ionizing. They
don't have as much energy so they are not able to ionize cells.

Communication

All modern communication systems use forms of electromagnetic radiation. Variations in the
intensity of the radiation represent changes in the sound, pictures, or other information being
transmitted. For example, a human voice can be sent as a radio wave or microwave by making the
wave vary to corresponding variations in the voice. Musicians have also experimented with gamma
rays sonification, or using nuclear radiation, to produce sound and music.

Science

Researchers use radioactive atoms to determine the age of materials that were once part of a living
organism. The age of such materials can be estimated by measuring the amount of radioactive carbon
they contain in a process called radiocarbon dating.

Possible damage to health and environment from certain types of radiation

: Electromagnetic radiation and health

Ionizing radiation in certain conditions can cause damage to living organisms, causing cancer or
genetic damage.

Non-ionizing radiation in certain conditions also can cause damage to living organisms, such as burns.
In 2011, the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) of the World Health Organization
(WHO) released a statement adding radio frequency electromagnetic fields (including microwave and
millimeter waves) to their list of things which are possibly carcinogenic to humans.

3.3 Enumerate various types of radioactive sources e.g. uranium, thorium.

Types and sources of radiation

Radiation occurs when energy is emitted by a source, then travels through a medium, such as air, until
it is absorbed by matter. Radiation can be described as being one of two basic types: non ionizing and
ionizing.

 Non-ionizing radiation
 Ionizing radiation
o Sources of ionizing radiation
 Natural background radiation
 Cosmic radiation
 Terrestrial radiation
 Inhalation
 Ingestion
 Artificial sources of radiation
 Atmospheric testing
 Medical sources
 Industrial sources
 Nuclear fuel cycle
  Non-ionizing radiation

People use and are exposed to non-ionizing radiation sources every day. This form of radiation does
not carry enough energy to ionize atoms or molecules.

Microwave ovens, global positioning systems, cellular telephones, television stations, FM and AM
radio, baby monitors, cordless phones, garage-door openers and ham radios all use non-ionizing
radiation. Other forms include the earth’s magnetic field and magnetic field exposure from proximity
to transmission lines, household wiring and electrical appliances. These are defined as extremely low
frequency (ELF) waves.

3.4 Explain and identify sealed and unsealed radioactive sources

Sealed sources

Many radioactive sources are sealed, meaning they are permanently either completely contained in a
capsule or firmly bonded solid to a surface. Capsules are usually made of stainless steel, titanium,
platinum or another inert metal. The use of sealed sources removes almost all risk of dispersion of
radioactive material into the environment due to mishandling, but the container is not intended to
attenuate radiation, so further shielding is required for radiation protection. Sealed sources are used in
almost all applications where the source does not need to be chemically or physically included in a
liquid or gas.

Categorisation of sealed sources[8]

Sealed sources are categorised by the IAEA according to their activity in relation to a minimum
dangerous source (where a dangerous source is one that could cause significant injury to humans).
The ratio used is A/D, where A is the activity of the source and D is the minimum dangerous activity.
Unsealed sources

Unsealed sources are sources that are not in a permanently sealed container, and are used extensively
for medical purposes.[10] They are used when the source needs to be dissolved in a liquid for injection
into a patient or ingestion by the patient. Unsealed sources are also used in industry in a similar
manner for leak detection as a Radioactive tracer.

Disposal

Disposal of expired radioactive sources presents similar challenges to the disposal of other nuclear
waste, although to a lesser degree. Spent low level sources will sometimes be sufficiently inactive that
they are suitable for disposal via normal waste disposal methods — usually landfill. Other disposal
methods are similar to those for higher-level radioactive waste, using various depths of borehole
depending on the activity of the waste.[5]

A notorious incident of neglect in disposing of a high level source was the Goiânia accident, which
resulted in several fatalities

3.5 Define basic radiation terms such as radiation absorbed dose maximum permissible level
etc.

Absolute risk: the proportion of a population expected to get a disease over a specified time period.
See also risk, relative risk.

Absorbed dose: (Animation) the amount of energy deposited by ionizing radiation in a unit mass of
tissue. It is expressed in units of joule per kilogram (J/kg), and called “ Gray” (Gy). For more
information, see “Primer on Radiation Measurement” from CDC.

Actinides: elements in the periodic table with atomic numbers from 90 to 103 (thorium to
lawrencium); i.e., elements with a higher atomic number than actinium, which has an atomic
number of 89. These are also called "rare earth metals." They include most of the well-known
elements found in nuclear reactions. Actinides with atomic numbers higher than 92 do not occur
naturally but are produced artificially by bombarding other elements with particles. Some of the
actinides include plutonium, curium, and californium.

Activity (radioactivity): the property of certain nuclides of emitting radiation by spontaneous

transformation of their nuclei.

Acute exposure: an exposure to radiation that occurred in a matter of minutes rather than in longer,
continuing exposure over a period of time. See also chronic exposure, exposure, fractionated
exposure.

Acute Radiation Syndrome (ARS): The Acute Radiation Syndrome (ARS) is also known as
Radiation Sickness. A person exposed to radiation will develop ARS only if the radiation dose was
high, penetrating (e.g., x-rays or gamma rays), encompassed most or all of the body, and was
received in a short period of time. Clinical severity of the four subsyndromes of ARS
(hematopoietic, cutaneous, gastrointestinal, and neurovascular) will vary with dose and host factors
(e.g., young or old age, immunosuppression, and medical co-morbidity--especially extensive trauma
and burns).
Air burst: a nuclear weapon explosion that is high enough in the air to keep the fireball from
touching the ground. Because the fireball does not reach the ground and does not pick up any
surface material, the radioactivity in the fallout from an air burst is relatively insignificant compared
with a surface burst. For more information, see Chapter 2 of CDC’s fallout report.

Air kerma: the initial kinetic energy of the primary ionizing particles (photoelectrons, Compton
electrons, positron/negatron pairs from photon radiation, and scattered nuclei from fast neutrons)
produced by the interaction of the incident uncharged radiation in a small volume of air, when it is
irradiated by an x-ray beam. Unit of measure is Gray. See also kerma.

ALARA: acronym for "As Low As Reasonably Achievable," means making every reasonable effort
to maintain exposures to ionizing radiation as far below the dose limits as practical. This is a key
principle in radiation protection and safety.

Alpha particle: (Animation) the nucleus of a helium atom, made up of two neutrons and two
protons with a charge of +2. Certain radioactive nuclei emit alpha particles. Alpha particles
generally carry more energy than gamma rays or beta particles, and deposit that energy very quickly
while passing through tissue. Alpha particles can be stopped by a thin layer of light material, such as
a sheet of paper, and cannot penetrate the outer, dead layer of skin (Illustration). Therefore, they do
not damage living tissue when outside the body. When alpha-emitting atoms are inhaled or
swallowed, however, they are especially damaging because they transfer relatively large amounts of
ionizing energy to living cells. See also beta particles, gamma rays, neutron, x-ray.

Ambient air: the air that surrounds us.

Americium (Am): a silvery metal; it is a man-made element whose isotopes Am-237 through Am-
246 are radioactive. Am-241 is formed spontaneously by the beta decay of plutonium-241. Trace
quantities of americium are widely used in smoke detectors and as neutron sources in neutron
moisture gauges.

Assigned Protection Factor: Assigned Protection Factor (APF) means the workplace level of
respiratory protection that a respirator or class of respirators is expected to provide to employees
enrolled in a continuing, effective respiratory protection program.

Atom: the smallest particle of an element that can enter into a chemical reaction.

Atomic number: the total number of protons in the nucleus of an atom.

Atomic mass unit (amu): 1 amu is equal to one twelfth of the mass of a carbon-12 atom.

Atomic mass number: the total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom.

Atomic weight: the mass of an atom, expressed in atomic mass units. For example, the atomic
number of helium-4 is 2, the atomic mass is 4, and the atomic weight is 4.00026.