COMPUTER NETWORKS

(Network devices: Modem, RJ45 connector, Ethernet Card, Router, Switch, Gateway)
Network devices:
Modem: Modem is short for "Modulator-Demodulator." It is a hardware component that allows a
computer or another device, such as a router or switch, to connect to the Internet.
It converts or "modulates" an analog signal from a telephone or cable wire to digital data (1s and 0s)
that a computer can recognize. Similarly, it converts digital data from a computer or other device into
an analog signal that can be sent over standard telephone lines.

RJ45 connector : RJ45 is a type of connector commonly used

for Ethernet networking. Since Ethernet cables have an RJ45 connector on each end,
Ethernet cables are sometimes also called RJ45 cables. The "RJ" in RJ45 stands for
"registered jack," In "45" , 4 represents 4 pairs of wire and 5 represents five twist per
inch to decrease capacitance effect. Each RJ45 connector has eight pins, which
means an RJ45 cable contains eight separate wires

Ethernet Card: An Ethernet card is one kind of network adapter. These

adapters support the Ethernet standard for high-speed network connections
using cable connections. Its also called network interface cards.

Router: The router is a hardware network device that allows communication between your local
home network—like your personal computers and other connected devices—and the internet.
OR
A router is a networking device that forwards data
packets between computer networks.

Switch: A network switch connects devices (such

as computers, printers, wireless access points) in a
network to each other

Gateway: A gateway is a piece of networking

hardware used for telecommunications networks that allows data to flow from one discrete network
to another.
OR
A gateway is a hardware device that acts as a "gate" between two networks. It may be
a router, firewall, server, or other device that enables traffic to flow in and out of the network.

Python for XII--notes by Rakshit Mehtolia (PGT)/ ‘A’ level /MSC /MCA/ORACLE DBA 1
In previous image one router and two switches are fulfilling the definition of Gateway.

(Network Topologies and types: Bus, Star, Tree, PAN, LAN, MAN , WAN )

Network: Interconnection of autonomous computer is called Netwok. A computer is said to be

autonomous if it can not be controlled by another computer of the network.

Purpose of Computer Network: A computer network facilitates

i. Sharing of resources ( hardware, softeare)
ii. Cost cutting
iii. Data security
iv. Data availability
v. Enhanced Communication.

Components of a Computer Network: A computer network has following components.

i. Server
ii. Nodes
iii. Hardware/software
iv. Communication Channel
v. Network Services.

Nodes

Internet
Communication
Hardware
Channel
Server

NetworkTopologies: Network Topology refers to the layout of a network and how different nodes in
a network are connected to each other and how they communicate. Topologies are either physical
(the physical layout of devices on a network) or logical (the way that the signals act on the network
media.

There are following types of network topologies.

Star Topology , Bus Topology , Ring Topology , Tree Topology , Mesh Topology

Python for XII--notes by Rakshit Mehtolia (PGT)/ ‘A’ level /MSC /MCA/ORACLE DBA 2
 Star Topology: In a star network devices are connected to a central computer, called a hub.
Nodes communicate across the network by passing data through the hub.

Main Advantage: In a star network, one malfunctioning node doesn't affect the rest of the network.
Main Disadvantage: If the central computer fails, the entire network becomes unusable.

Bus Topology: In networking a bus is the central cable -- the main wire -- that connects all
devices on a local-area network (LAN). It is also called the backbone. This is often used to describe
the main network connections composing the Internet. B Ethernet systems use a bus topology.
Main Advantage: It's easy to connect a computer or device and typically it requires less cable than
a star topology.
Bus networks are relatively inexpensive and easy to install for small networks.
Main Disadvantage: The entire network shuts down if there is a break in the main wire and it can be
difficult to identify the problem if the network shuts down.

Ring Topology: In this all of the nodes are connected in a closed loop. Messages travel
around the ring, with each node reading those messages addressed to it.
Main Advantage: One main advantage to a ring network is that it can span larger distances than
other types of networks, such as bus networks, because each node regenerates messages as they
pass through it.
Main Disadvantage: If any node collapses then entire network collapses.

Tree Topology: This is a "hybrid" topology that combines characteristics of linear bus and star
topologies. In a tree network, groups of star-configured networks are connected to a linear bus
backbone cable.

Main Advantage: A Tree topology is a good choice for large computer networks as the tree topology
"divides" the whole network into parts that are more easily manageable.
Main Disadvantage: The entire network depends on a central hub and a failure of the central hub
can cripple the whole network.

Python for XII--notes by Rakshit Mehtolia (PGT)/ ‘A’ level /MSC /MCA/ORACLE DBA 3
Python for XII--notes by Rakshit Mehtolia (PGT)/ ‘A’ level /MSC /MCA/ORACLE DBA 4
Types of Networks: There are following types of network in which nodes can be connected to one
another.

PAN: A network with in a room like between laptop and mobile is personal area network.
LAN: A network with a block or building is called Local Area Network.
MAN: A network extended with a city is called Metro Area Network, (cable tv network)
WAN : A network extended beyond cities is called Wide Area Network. (Internet)

Types of Network Architecture: There are two types of network architecture.

i. Peer to peer : it’s a network with no dedicated server . ring topology is the example.
ii. Client Server : it’s a network with a dedicated server which is called master and
computer connected to the network are called nodes. All the topologies other than ring
are client server type.

Network Protocol: TCP/IP, File Transfer Protocol (FTP), PPP, HTTP, SMTP, POP3, Remote
Login (Telnet) and Internet, Wireless / Mobile Communication protocol such as GSM, GPRS
and WLL.

Network Protocol: A protocol is a set of rules that governs the communications between computers
on a network. There are following types of protocols.

TCP/IP:The Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol, is a suite of communication protocols

used to interconnect network devices on the internet.

TCP : Work of transfer control protocol is to break the message into packets at sending
machine and recollect them at receiving machine to make single message.

IP: IP identifies the address of receiving machine and each packet from sending machine has
the IP of receiving machine so that every packet reaches at receiving machine through this IP

FTP: File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is a standard Internet protocol for transmitting files between
computers on the Internet over TCP/IP connections. FTP is a client-server protocol where a client will
ask for a file, and a local or remote server will provide it.

PPP: Point - to - Point Protocol (PPP) is a communication protocol that is used to transmit
multiprotocol data between two directly connected (point-to-point) computers. It is a byte - oriented
protocol that is widely used in broadband communications having heavy loads and high speeds.

HTTP: Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) is used for transmitting hypertext documents, such as
HTML. It was designed for communication between web browsers and web servers.

(a document containing audio ,video , images is known as Hyper Text document)

Python for XII--notes by Rakshit Mehtolia (PGT)/ ‘A’ level /MSC /MCA/ORACLE DBA 5
SMTP: Email is emerging as one of the most valuable services on the internet today. Most of the
internet systems use SMTP as a method to transfer mail from one user to another. SMTP is a push
protocol and is used to send the mail whereas POP (post office protocol) or IMAP (internet
message access protocol) are used to retrieve those mails at the receiver’s side.
(POP3 can be used with or without SMTP )

Remote Login (Telnet): Telnet is a terminal emulation program for TCP/IP networks such as the
Internet. The Telnet program runs on user’s computer and connects the PC to a server on the
network. User can then enter commands through the Telnet program and they will be executed as if
user were entering them directly on the server console.
This enables user to control the server and communicate with other servers on the network.
To start a Telnet session, one must log in to a server by entering a valid username and password.
Telnet is a common way to remotely control Web servers.

Internet: Network of network spreading around the globe is INTERNET.

Below given link has some interesting information about internet. (copy paste in ur browser)
https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2018/oct/22/what-is-the-internet-13-key-questions-answered

GSM: GSM (Global System for Mobile communication) is a digital mobile network that is widely used
by mobile phone the world. GSM uses a variation of time division multiple access (TDMA) and is
the most widely used of the three digital wireless telephony technologies: TDMA, GSM and code-
division multiple access (CDMA). GSM digitizes and compresses data, then sends it down a
channel with two other streams of user data, each in its own time slot.

GPRS: General Packet Radio Services (GPRS) is a packet-based wireless communication service
that provides data rates from 56 up to 114 Kbps and continuous connection to the Internet for mobile
phone and computer users.

WLL: Wireless Local Loop is a circuit line from a subscriber’s phone to the local central office
(LCO). But the implementation of local loop of wires is risky for the operators, especially in rural
and remote areas due to less number of users and increased cost of installation. Hence, the
solution for it is the usage of wireless local loop (WLL) which uses wireless links rather than copper
wires to connect subscribers to the local central office.

WLL components:
1. PSTN:
It is Public Switched Telephone Network which is a circuit switched network.
2. Switch Function:
Switch Function switches the PSTN among various WANUs.
3. WANU:
It is short for Wireless Access Network Unit. It is present at the local exchange office.

Python for XII--notes by Rakshit Mehtolia (PGT)/ ‘A’ level /MSC /MCA/ORACLE DBA 6
Mobile Telecommunication Technologies: 1G, 2G, 3G, 4G and 5G. Mobile processors.
Electronic mail protocols such as SMTP, POP3, Protocols for Chat and Video Conferencing:
VoIP, Wireless technologies such as Wi-Fi and WiMax.

1G, 2G, 3G, 4G and 5G:

1G
1G stands for the first generation of mobile networks which were built to provide basic voice services
to customers. 1G networks started in the 1980s and were introduced in different parts of the world
through various analogue technologies.

2G
2G stands for the second generation of mobile networks which replaced the earlier 1G networks.
These networks enabled highly secure voice and text messaging services as well as limited data
services. 2G networks started in the 1990s and were introduced in different parts of the world through
various digital technologies. These technologies included GSM (Global System for Mobile
Communications),

3G
3G in mobile communications refers to the third generation of mobile networks and based on the
CDMA technology.

4G
4G stands for the fourth generation of mobile networks. 4G was enabled by a new technology called
LTE which stands for Long Term Evolution (of mobile networks).

5G
5G stands for the fifth generation of mobile networks and it uses a technology called New Radio or
NR. 5G is fundamentally different from the earlier mobile technologies.

Mobile processors:

VoIP: Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP), is a technology that allows you to make voice calls using
a broadband Internet connection instead of a regular (or analog) phone line.

VoIP services convert your voice into a digital signal that travels over the Internet. If you are calling a
regular phone number, the signal is converted to a regular telephone signal before it reaches the
destination. VoIP can allow you to make a call directly from a computer, a special VoIP phone, or a
traditional phone connected to a special adapter.

Wi-Fi and WiMax: Wifi stands for Wireless Fidelity. WiMax stands for Wireless Inter-operability for
Microwave Access.
Wifi and WiMax are used to create wireless network connections. Wifi is used to create small networks
and used to connect printers, conmputers, gaming consoles. WiMax uses spectrum to deliver
connection to network and used to provide internet services such as Mobile Data and hotspots.

Network Security Concepts:

Python for XII--notes by Rakshit Mehtolia (PGT)/ ‘A’ level /MSC /MCA/ORACLE DBA 7
Threats and prevention from Viruses, Worms, Trojan horse, Spams. Use of Cookies,
Protection using Firewall. India IT Act, Cyber Law, Cyber Crimes, IPR issues, hacking.

Network security is the process of taking preventative measures to protect the underlying networking
infrastructure from unauthorized access, misuse, malfunction, modification, destruction or improper
disclosure.

A network attack can be defined as any method, process, or means used to maliciously attempt to
compromise network security and access a terminal directly (Active) or indirectly (Passive).

ACTIVE ATTACK PASSIVE ATTACK

Virus: A computer virus is designed to spread from host to host and has the ability to replicate itself.
Computer viruses cannot reproduce and spread without programming such as a file or document.
In more technical terms, a computer virus is a type of malicious code or program written to alter the
way a computer operates and is designed to spread from one computer to another.
===========================================================================
(FOR INFORMATION ONLY)
Different types of computer viruses
1. Boot sector virus
This type of virus can take control when you start — or boot — your computer. One way it can spread
is by plugging an infected USB drive into your computer.

2. Web scripting virus

This type of virus exploits the code of web browsers and web pages. If you access such a web page,
the virus can infect your computer.

3. Browser hijacker
This type of virus “hijacks” certain web browser functions, and you may be automatically directed to
an unintended website.

4. Resident virus
This is a general term for any virus that inserts itself in a computer system’s memory. A resident virus
can execute anytime when an operating system loads.

5. Direct action virus

This type of virus comes into action when you execute a file containing a virus. Otherwise, it remains
dormant.

Python for XII--notes by Rakshit Mehtolia (PGT)/ ‘A’ level /MSC /MCA/ORACLE DBA 8
6. Polymorphic virus
A polymorphic virus changes its code each time an infected file is executed. It does this to evade
antivirus programs.

7. File infector virus

This common virus inserts malicious code into executable files — files used to perform certain
functions or operations on a system.

8. Multipartite virus
This kind of virus infects and spreads in multiple ways. It can infect both program files and system
sectors.

9. Macro virus
Macro viruses are written in the same macro language used for software applications. Such viruses
spread when you open an infected document, often through email attachments.
===========================================================================

Worms: Worms are malware computer program that replicates itself in order to spread to other
computers. Unlike a virus, they don’t need a host program to execute , self-replicate and propagate.
Once a worm has made its way onto a system, usually via a network connection or as a downloaded
file, it can then make multiple copies of itself and spread via the network or internet connection
infecting any inadequately-protected computers.

Spams: Spams are unsolicited message to large numbers of recipients for the purpose of commercial
advertising. Unsolicited bulk email are known as Email spam.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zLih-WQwBSc

Trojan horse: Trojan horse, or Trojan, is a type of malicious code or software that looks legitimate
but can take control of your computer. A Trojan is designed to damage, disrupt, steal, or in general
inflict some other harmful action on your data or network. A Trojan acts like a bona fide application or
file to trick you.

(Trojan horse, huge hollow wooden horse constructed by the Greeks to gain entrance into Troy during
the Trojan War).

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Td1uPq9K--E

Cookies: Cookies are text files with small pieces of data — like a username and password. A
computer cookie consists of information. When someone visits a website, the website sends the
cookie to the computer. Computer stores it in a file located inside web browser to help user to find it,
this file is often called “Cookies.”)

Use of Cookies: It helps the website to remember information like user id , password , about our
visit, like our preferred language and other settings. That can make our next visit easier and the site
more useful to us.

Python for XII--notes by Rakshit Mehtolia (PGT)/ ‘A’ level /MSC /MCA/ORACLE DBA 9
Firewall: In computing, a firewall is a network security system that monitors and controls incoming
and outgoing network traffic based on predetermined security rules. A firewall typically establishes a
barrier between a trusted internal network and untrusted external network, such as the Internet.

Protection using Firewall: (for information only)

Hardware firewalls are built into network devices such as routers and can protect every single
machine on a network and require little configuration to work effectively. They use packet filtering
techniques to examine the header of a packet, determining his source and destination and then,
comparing the data to a set of predefined rules, they decide whether to drop the packet or forward it
to the next step or to its destination.

Software firewalls are the most popular network protection method for home users. They usually
come as stand-alone applications or as part of a complete anti virus protection software, such as the
one BullGuard provides. Besides providing protection for inbound and outbound traffic, a software
firewall can also protect against Trojan or Worm applications and allows various options of control
over its functions and features.

India IT Act : The Information Technology Act, 2000 (also known as ITA-2000, or the IT Act) is an
Act of the Indian Parliament notified on 17 October 2000. It is the primary law in India dealing with
cybercrime and electronic commerce.

Cyber Law: Cyber law is the part of the overall legal system that deals with the Internet, cyberspace,
and their respective legal issues.

Cyber Crimes: Cybercrime is any criminal activity that involves a computer, networked device or a
network. While most cybercrimes are carried out in order to generate profit for the cybercriminals,
some cybercrimes are carried out against computers or devices directly to damage or disable them,
while others use computers or networks to spread malware, illegal information, images or other
materials.

IPR: Intellectual property rights (IPR) are the rights given to persons over the creations of their minds:
inventions, literary and artistic works, and symbols, names and images used in commerce. They
usually give the creator an exclusive right over the use of his/her creation for a certain period of time.

Need of IPR
Encourages innovation:.
Economic growth:
Safeguard the rights of creators:
It promotes innovation and creativity and ensures ease of doing business:
It facilitates the transfer of technology in the form of foreign direct investment, joint ventures and
licensing.

Hacking: Hacking is an attempt to exploit a computer system or a private network inside a computer.
Simply put, it is the unauthorized access to or control over computer network security systems for
some illicit purpose.

Python for XII--notes by Rakshit Mehtolia (PGT)/ ‘A’ level /MSC /MCA/ORACLE DBA 10
Introduction To Web services: WWW, Hyper Text Markup Language (HTML), Extensible
Markup Language (XML); Hyper Text Transfer Protocol (HTTP); Domain Names; URL; Website,
Web browser, Web Servers; Web Hosting.

WWW: The World Wide Web (WWW), commonly known as the Web, is an information system where
documents and other web resources are identified by Uniform Resource Locators (URLs, such as
https://example.com/), which may be interlinked by hypertext, and are accessible over the Internet.
The resources of the Web are transferred via the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) and may be
accessed by users by a software application called a web browser.

XML: …………………write by yourself…………..

Domain Name: A domain name is website’s name. A domain name is the address where Internet
users can access a website. A domain name is used for finding and identifying computers on the
Internet. Computers use IP addresses, which are a series of number. However, it is difficult for
humans to remember strings of numbers , so domain name concept was coined and used to identify
entities on the Internet rather than using IP addresses.

A domain name is converted to its corresponding IP address by the web browser and this process
of converting domain name to IP add is called Domain Name Resolution.

URL: URL stands for Uniform Resource Locator. A URL is the address of a given unique resource
on the Web or we say address of a website.

Parts of a URL

Domain Name Path to file Anchor

http://www.example.com:80/path/to/my file.html?key1=value1&key2=value2#SomewhereInTheDocument

protocol Port Parameters

Web Hosting: Publishing a website over the Internet is called webhosting. Collection of web pages
is called website. A website is stored in a special computer called webserver. The application
through a website is accessed is called web browser.

Python for XII--notes by Rakshit Mehtolia (PGT)/ ‘A’ level /MSC /MCA/ORACLE DBA 11
Q: Intelligent Hub India is a knowledge community aimed to uplift the standard of skills and knowledge
in the society. It is planning to setup its training centres in multiple towns and villages pan India with
its head offices in the nearest cities. They have created a model of their network with a city, a town
and 3 villages as given in picture.

As a network consultant, you have to suggest the best network related solution for their issues /
problems raised in (i) to (iv) keeping in mind the distance between various locations and given
parameters.

In Villages, there are community centres, in which one room has been given as training center to
this organiza¬tion to install computers.
• The organization has got financial support from the government and top IT companies.

 Suggest the most appropriate location of the SERVER in the YHUB (out of the 4 locations),
to get the best and effective connectivity. Justify your answer.
 Suggest the best wired medium and draw the cable layout (location to location) to efficiently
connect vari¬ous locations within the YHUB.
 Which hardware device will you suggest to connect all the computers within each location of
YHUB?
 Which server/protocol will be most helpful to conduct live interaction of Experts from Head
office and people at YHUB locations?

Dear Students one such question will be asked of 4 marks. And answer I am writing below.

For this question-> • Suggest the most appropriate location of the SERVER in the YHUB (out
of the 4 locations), to get the best and effective connectivity. Justify your answer

Server is placed where largest number of computers are these . so it will be in YTOWN as
maximum traffic must be handled by the server.

For this question- • Suggest the best wired medium and draw the cable layout (location to
location) to efficiently connect various locations within the YHUB.

First we find where is the server and it in YTOWN. So we will extend wires from YTOWN
Now find the nearest wing from YTOWN and its village 2 so draw a line from YTOWN to village2.

Python for XII--notes by Rakshit Mehtolia (PGT)/ ‘A’ level /MSC /MCA/ORACLE DBA 12
Now find the distance of village1 from YTOWN and Village 2 and its less from YTOWN so draw a
line from YTOWN to village 1. And same we apply for village 3. And we find that village3 is near to
YTOWN again so draw a line from YTOWN to village3. And it’s a STAR TOPOLOGY.

For This question-> • Which hardware device will you suggest to connect all the computers
within each location of YHUB?

We will suggest a switch to connect all the computer in each location inside YHUB.

For This question-> Which server/protocol will be most helpful to conduct live interaction of
Experts from Head office and people at YHUB locations?

As they need to interact live so VOIP ( voice over internet protocol) can be used.

NOTE: and to connect CITY OFFICE to YHUB company can use either OPTICAL FIBRE Or
COAXIAL CABLE ( depend on their requirement of speed and financial condition)

If head office location is 100 km or more where physical connection is not feasible then company
can connect its location to head office either by Satellite or by broadband ( depend on speed
requirement and financial condition of the company)

Python for XII--notes by Rakshit Mehtolia (PGT)/ ‘A’ level /MSC /MCA/ORACLE DBA 13