PROJECT REPORT ON DIFFERENTIAL

EQUATION AND LINEAR ALGEBRA

A PROJECT REPORT
Submitted by

SWAPNAJIT SAHOO
in partial fulfilment for the award of the
degree of
BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
in
COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING

SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

BHUBANESWAR CAMPUS
CENTURION UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT
ODISHA
DECEMBER 2023
 DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
BHUBANESWAR CAMPUS

BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

Certified that this project report “DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION

AND LINEAR ALGEBRA” is the bonafide work of
“SWAPNAJIT SAHOO” who carried out the
project work under my supervision. This is to further certify to
the best of my knowledge, that this project has not been carried
out earlier in this institute and the university.

SIGNATURE OF SUPERVISOR
(Prof. Sasibhusana padhi)

Certified that the above-mentioned project has been duly carried out as per
the norms of the college and statutes of the university.

SIGNATURE
(RAJ KUMAR MOHANTA)
HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT / DEAN OF THE SCHOOL
Professor of Computer Science and Engg
DEPARTMENT SEAL
 DECLARATION

I hereby declare that the project entitled

“Differential Equation and Linear Algebra
“submitted for the of 1th semester B. Tech in
Computer Science and Engineering is my
original work and the project has not formed
the basis for the award of any Degree /
Diploma or any other similar titles in any
other University / Institute.

Name of the Student: SWAPNAJIT SAHOO

Signature of the Student:
Registration No: 230301120179
Place: Bhubaneswar
Date:…………………………
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I wish to express my profound and sincere gratitude to Prof.
Sasibhusana padhi, Department of Computer Science and
Engineering, SoET, Bhubaneswar Campus, who guided me into the
intricacies of this project nonchalantly with matchless magnanimity.

I thank Raj Kumar Mohanta, Head of the Dept. of Department

of Computer Science and Engineering, SoET, Bhubaneswar Campus
and Dr. Sujata Chakravarty, Dean, School of Engineering and
Technology, Bhubaneswar Campus for extending their support during
Course of this investigation.
I would be failing in my duty if I don’t acknowledge the
cooperation rendered during various stages of image interpretation by
Prof. Sasibhusana padhi
I am highly grateful to Prof. Sasibhusana padhi who evinced
keen interest and invaluable support in the progress and successful
completion of my project work.
I am indebted to my parents for their constant encouragement, co-
operation and help. Words of gratitude are not enough to describe the
accommodation and fortitude which they have shown throughout my
endeavour.

Name of the Student: Swapnajit Sahoo

Signature of the Student:
Registration No: 230301120179
Place: Bhubaneswar
Date: …………………..
CONTENT
CHAPTER 1:- Some applications of differential
equations in RL-RC electrical circuit problems.

CHAPTER 2: - RLC Circuit.

CHAPTER 3: - Simple mass-spring system.

CHAPTER 4: - Report on finding the traffic flow in

the net of one-way streets.

CHAPTER 5: - (i)Find the limit states of the Markov

process model.
(ii)Find the growth rate in the Leslie model.

CHAPTER 6: - To make a report to show that the

product of two orthogonal matrices is orthogonal, and
so is the inverse of an orthogonal matrix. What does this
mean in terms of rotations?
CHAPTER 1: - Some applications of differential
equations in RL-RC electrical circuit problems.

DEFINITION: - RL CIRCUIT
A resistor-inductor circuit (RL) or RL filter and RL circuit(network), is an
electric circuit composed of resistors and inductors driven by a voltage or
current source.
A first-order RL circuit is composed of one resistor and one inductor, either in
series driven by a voltage source or in parallel driven by a current source. It is
one of the simplest analogue infinite impulse response electronic filters.
A LR series circuit contain basically of an inductor of inductance connected in
series with a resistor of resistance.

DEFINITION: - RC CIRCUITS
A resistor-capacitor circuit (RC circuit), or RC filter or RC network, is an
electric circuit composed of resistors and Capacitor driven by a voltage or
current source.
A first-order RC circuit is composed of one resistor and one capacitor, either in
series driven by a current source. It is one of the simplest analogue infinite
impulse response electronic filters.
A CR Series Circuit consists basically of a capacitor of capacitance, C
connected in series with a resistor of resistance, R.
 DIAGRAM OF RL AND RC CIRCUIT AND ITS
EXPLANITION: -

An RL circuit with a switch

to turn current on and off. A graph of current decay
A graph of current
When in position 1, the growth versus time when the switch is
battery, resistor, and when the switch is moved to position 2.
inductor are in series and a moved to position 1.
current is established.

In position 2, the battery

is removed and the current
eventually stops because
of energy loss in the
resistor.

An RC circuit with a switch A graph of charge growth A graph of charge growth versus
to turn current on and off. versus time when the switch is time when the switch is moved to
When in position 1. moved to position 1. position 2.

1. when the switch is

closed, a circuit is formed
with a battery, a resistor,
and a capacitor in series.
Current flows, charging
the capacitor over time.

2. the battery is removed

and the voltage eventually
stops because of energy
loss in the resistor
APPLICATION OF DE IN A RL AND RC CIRCUIT: -

 The (variable) voltage across the resistor: VR=iRVR=iR

 The (variable) voltage across the inductor: VL=Ldi/dt
 Kirchhoff's voltage law: Ri+L di/dt=V

 Variable voltage across the resistor (R): VR =iR

 Variable voltage across the capacitor (C): VC=1/C ∫idt
 Kirchhoff's voltage law for an RC circuit: VR+VC=V
The formation of differential equation of an electric
circuit depends upon the following laws.
i=dq/dt
Voltage drops across resistance(R)=RI
Voltage drops across inductance(L)=L di/dt
voltage drop across capacitance (C)=q/c

Kirchoff's law: - The algebraic sum of the voltage drops around any
closed circuit is equal to resultant emf in the circuit
CURRENT LAW: - At a junction current coming is equal to current
going

EXAMPLE: -
An RL circuit has an emf of 5V, A resistance of 50ohm an inductance of 1H, and
no initial current. Find the current in the circuit at any time. Distinguish
between the transient and steady state current.
SOLN: -
Ri+L di/dt=v
di/dt+50i=5
1st order DE: Y’ + P(x)y = Q(x)
IF:e∧∫[(p(x))]= e∧∫50dt
Therefore:ie∧∫50dt=∫5 e∧∫50dt)dt
ie∧50t=∫5e∧50t dt
ie∧50t=1/10e∧50t+c
CHAPTER 2: - RLC CIRCUIT

DEFINITION: -
An RLC circuit is a fundamental component in the realm of electrical engineering, providing
a versatile framework for understanding the behaviour of electrical circuits. The term "RLC"
refers to the three essential components within these circuits: resistors (R), inductors (L), and
capacitors (C). Each element contributes unique characteristics to the circuit, and their
interplay results in a wide array of applications across various electronic systems.

COMPONENTS OF A RLC CIRCUIT: -

 Resistor (R): The resistor, denoted by the symbol R, is a passive
component that resists the flow of electric current. It plays a crucial role
in controlling the current within a circuit and is characterized by its
resistance, measured in ohms.
 Inductor (L): The inductor, symbolized by L, stores energy in a magnetic
field when current flows through it. Comprising a coil of wire, the
inductor is characterized by its inductance, measured in henrys.
 Capacitor (C): The capacitor, represented by C, stores energy in an
electric field when voltage is applied across its terminals. It consists of
two conductive plates separated by an insulating material, with its
capacitance measured in farads.

CONFIGURATIONS OF RLC CIRCUITS: -

 Series RLC Circuit: Components in a series RLC circuit are connected
sequentially, allowing current to flow through each element
consecutively.
 Parallel RLC Circuit: In a parallel RLC circuit, components share the
same voltage across their terminals, contributing to a parallel pathway for
the electric current.
RESONANCE IN RLC CIRCUIT: -
Resonance in RLC circuits is a phenomenon that occurs when the inductive and
capacitive reactance’s in the circuit balance each other out, resulting in
condition where the impedance is minimized. This specific frequency at which
resonance occurs is known as the resonant frequency. Resonance can occur in
both series and parallel RLC circuits.

APPLICATION: -

These RLC circuits used in tunning circuits in the radio communications voltage
multipliers, oscillators, filters, low pass filters, high pass filters, band pass filters
and band stop filters and as well as these circuits are used in pulse digit circuits.
EXAMPLE: -

A 240 V, 50 Hz AC supply is applied a coil of 0.08 H inductance and

4 Ω resistance connected in series with a capacitor of 8 μF

Here,
XL=ωL=2πfL=2π×50×0.08=25.12Ω
XC=1ωC=12πfL=12π×50×8×10−6=398.09Ω

thus,
Impedance of the circuit
Z=√(R)2+(XL−XC)2=√(4)2+(25.12−398.09)2=372.99Ω
Circuit current
I=VZ=240372.99=0.643A
Phase angle between voltage and current
Φ=tan−1(XL−XCR)=tan−1(25.12−398.094)=−89.38°
The negative sing of phase angle shows that current is leading the voltage.
Power Factor
cosϕ=RZ=4372.99=0.01072(leading)
Power consumed
P=VIcosΦ=240×0.643×0.01072=1.654W
Q-factor of circuit at series resonance
Q0−factor=1R√LC=1R√0.088×10−6=25
CHAPTER 3: - Simple mass-spring system

DEFINITION: -
A mass-spring system is a classical mechanical system that serves as a
fundamental model for understanding oscillatory behavior in various physical
phenomena. Comprising a mass connected to a spring, this system exhibits
simple harmonic motion, a type of repetitive, back-and-forth motion commonly
observed in nature and engineering applications.

COMPONENTS OF MASS SPRING SYSTEM: -

 Mass (mm): The mass represents the object undergoing motion in the
system. Its inertia interacts with the restoring force from the spring,
influencing the nature of the resulting oscillations.
 Spring (kk): The spring provides the restoring force necessary for the
system's oscillatory behaviour. Hooke's Law governs this force, stating
that the force exerted by the spring is directly proportional to the
displacement of the mass from its equilibrium position.
 Equilibrium Position: The equilibrium position is where the system is at
rest, and the net force acting on the mass is zero. In this position, the
spring force and any other relevant forces (such as gravity) balance each
other.

HOOKIE’S LAW: -
Hooke's Law is a fundamental principle in physics that describes the
relationship between the force exerted by a spring and the displacement of the
spring from its equilibrium or rest position. The law is named after the 17th-
century English scientist Robert Hooke, who first formulated it. Mathematical
Formulation of Hooke's Law: Hooke's Law is typically expressed
mathematically as: F=−kxF=−kx
EQUATION OF MOTION: -
The equation of motion for a mass-spring system is a Second-order linear
differential equation that describes the behaviour of the system over time. The
equation is derived based on Newton's second law of motion, which states that
the force acting on an object is equal to the mass of the object multiplied by its
acceleration. For a mass-spring system, the restoring force from Hooke's Law is
considered. The general form of the equation of motion for a mass- spring
system is: md2xdt2+kx=0mdt2d2x+kx=0

PERIOD AND FREQUENCY: -

Period (T):In the context of a mass-spring system, the period (T) is the time it
takes for the mass to return to its initial position after being displaced and
released. The period is typically measured in seconds (s).
Mathematical Relationship: The period (T) is inversely proportional to the
frequency (ff) and is related by the equation: T=1fT=f1

Frequency (f): In the context of a mass-spring system, the frequency (f) is

the number of oscillations the mass undergoes per unit time. Frequency is
measured in hertz (Hz), where 1 Hz equals one oscillation per second.
Mathematical Relationship: The frequency (f) is the reciprocal of the period (T):
f=1Tf=T1

AMPLITUDE AND PHASE: -

the amplitude is a fundamental parameter that describes the extent of the
oscillation in a periodic wave, such as the back-and-forth motion of a mass-
spring system in simple harmonic motion. It quantifies how far the system
moves from its resting position. In a sinusoidal function describing simple
harmonic motion, the displacement (xx) as a function of time (tt) is often
expressed as x(t)=Acos(ωt+ϕ)x(t)=Acos(ωt+ϕ).
the phase in simple harmonic motion provides information about the timing and
location of an oscillating object within its cycle. It is a crucial parameter for
understanding and predicting the behavior of oscillatory systems like mass-
spring systems. In the equation x(t)=Acos(ωt+ϕ)x(t)=Acos(ωt+ϕ), ϕϕ is the
phase angle.
DAMPING IN SPRING SYSTEM: -
Damping in spring systems refers to the presence of forces or mechanisms that
dissipate the energy of an oscillating system over time, resulting in a gradual
decrease in amplitude. Damping is an important factor in real-world spring
systems and affects how quickly oscillations diminish. There are three main
types of damping: underdamping, overdamping, and critical damping.
The damping effect in a mass-spring system can be mathematically represented
using a damping coefficient (γ). The equation of motion for a damped harmonic
oscillator is given by: md2xdt2+γdxdt+kx=0mdt2d2x+γdtdx+kx=0

APPLICATION: -
Mass-spring systems and the principles of simple harmonic motion find
applications in various fields due to their fundamental nature and ability to
model a wide range of physical phenomena. Here are
Mechanical Vibrations
Pendulum Clocks
Seismic Analysis
Musical Instruments
Vehicle Suspension Systems
Electrical Oscillations
Heartbeat Modelling
Wave Phenomena
Optical Systems
Biomechanics
CHAPTER 4: - Report on finding the traffic flow in the
net of one-way streets

WHAT IS TRAFFIC FLOW: -

Traffic flow refers to the movement of vehicles on a transportation network,
such as roads, highways, or streets. It involves the interaction and coordination
of various vehicles, including cars, trucks, bicycles, and pedestrians, as they
navigate through the transportation system. Traffic flow is a dynamic and
complex phenomenon influenced by factors such as vehicle speed, density, and
the overall design of the road network.

OBJECTIVE: -
1. Determine Peak Traffic Hours:
- This objective implies that one of the goals of your analysis is to identify the
specific times during the day when traffic in the one-way street network reaches
its maximum volume. Knowing peak traffic hours is crucial for understanding
when the traffic load is heaviest.
2. Identify Bottlenecks and Congestion Points:
- This objective suggests that you aim to locate areas within the one-way street
network where traffic flow is obstructed or slowed down. Bottlenecks and
congestion points can be significant challenges in urban traffic management.
3. Propose Solutions for Optimizing Traffic Flow:
- This objective involves providing practical recommendations to address the
challenges identified in the analysis. It implies that your study not only
identifies problems but also aims to contribute actionable solutions to improve
the overall traffic flow in the network.

DATA COLLECTION METHODS: -

Traffic Cameras:
Utilized traffic cameras strategically placed within the one-way street network
to capture real-time video footage of traffic patterns. This visual data can be
instrumental in understanding the movement of vehicles, identifying congestion
points, and determining peak hours.
Sensors and Detectors:
Deployed traffic sensors and detectors along key points of the one- way streets.
These devices can collect quantitative data, such as vehicle count, speed, and
occupancy, providing a more granular understanding of traffic flow dynamics.
GIS (Geographic Information System):
Integrated GIS technology to map and analyze spatial data related to the one-
way street network. GIS helps visualize the layout of streets, Intersections, and
other relevant features, contributing to a comprehensive understanding of the
urban environment.
Mobile Apps and GPS Data:
Leveraged data from mobile apps and GPS devices to track the movement of
vehicles. This data source can offer insights into travel patterns, route choices,
and travel times, contributing to a holistic understanding of the traffic flow.

MATHEMATICAL MODEL: -

A system of linear equations was used to analyze the flow of traffic for a
network of four one-way streets.
The variables x, y, z, and w represent the flow of the traffic between the four
intersections in the network.
The data was obtained by counting the number of vehicles that travelled around
the four one-way streets.
The arrows in the diagram indicate the direction of flow of traffic in and out of
the network that is measured in terms of number of vehicles per hour (vph).
We then used the Gauss-Jordan elimination method to solve the system of
equations. The augmented matrix and reduced row-echelon form of the above
system are as follows:
CHAPTER 5: - Find the limit states of the Markov process
model and find the growth rate in the Leslie model

INTRODUCTION OF MARKOV MODEL: -

A Markov chain or Markov process is a stochastic model describing a sequence
of possible events in which the probability of each event depends only on the
state attained in the previous event.

It is named after the Russian mathematician Andrey Markov

A countably infinite sequence, in which the chain moves state at discrete time
steps, gives a discrete-time Markov chain. A continuous time process is called a
continuous-time Markov chain.

BASIC TYPRS OF MARKOV PROCESS: -

Thus, there are four basic types of Markov processes
 Discrete-time Markov chain (or discrete-time discrete-state Markov
process)
 Continuous-time Markov chain (or continuous-time discrete-state Markov
process)
 Discrete-time Markov process (or discrete-time continuous-state Markov
process)
 Continuous-time Markov process (or continuous- time continuous-state
Markov process).

EXAMPLE: -
How do we find the limit of a Markov chain
The trick is to find a stationary distribution.
Here is the idea:
If π=[π1,π2,⋯] is a limiting distribution for a Markov chain, then we have
π=limn→∞π(n)=limn→∞[π(0)Pn].
Similarly, we can write
π=limn→∞π(n+1)=limn→∞[π(0)Pn+1]=limn→∞[π(0)PnP]=[limn→∞π(0)Pn]P
=πP.
DEFINITION OF LESLIE MODEL: -
This type of matrix population model is known as a Leslie matrix model. Leslie
matrices are used in mathematical ecology to determine how population are
affected characteristics such as survival and fertility rates.

THE LESLIE MATRIX FOR THE AMERICAN BISON IS GIVEN BY: -

The population is divided into calves, yearlings, and adults (ages two or more).
Thus, females who reach the age of 2 years survive an additional year with
probability 0.95 and reproduce with the same regularity.
If we start a herd with 100 adult females, what will the herd population structure
look like for the subsequent five years?

EXAMPLE: -
For example, suppose we have a population of children and adults and that this
population has reached a stable stage distribution and currently the population
vector is (25 10)^𝑇 then :
•Population size not changing; proportion children to adults: 2.5
•Population size is growing; proportion children to adults: 2.5
•Population size is decreasing; proportion children to adults: 2.5

We can write a system of equations to represent how this population changes

each year:

As before, we express this as a matrix equation:

Now, as in the previous, we are able to find how the population changes over
time.
CHAPTER 7: - To make a report to show that Product of two
orthogonal matrices is a orthogonal matrix and its inverse also

DEFINITION OF ORTHOGONAL MATRIX

An orthogonal matrix is a square matrix whose rows and columns are
orthonormal unit vectors. In simpler terms, the transpose of the matrix is equal
to its inverse.

KEY COMPONENTS: -
Square Matrix: A matrix is said to be square if it has an equal number of rows
and columns.
Orthonormal Vectors: The rows and columns of an orthogonal matrix are
composed of vectors that are orthonormal. This means that each vector has a
length of 1 (unit vector), and any two different vectors are orthogonal to each
other (their dot product is zero).
Transpose and Inverse: If a matrix AA is orthogonal, then ATAT (transpose of
AA) is also equal to A−1A−1 (inverse of AA).

PROPERTIES OF ORTHOGONAL MATRIX: -

 Every identity matrix is orthogonal matrix
 If A is orthogonal matrix its AT and A-1 are orthogonal matrix
 Value of determinant of orthogonal matrix = +1 or -1
 Product of two orthogonal matrices is also orthogonal matrix.
 All identity matrices are orthogonal matrices
EXAMPLE: -
To find if A is orthogonal, multiply the matrix by its transpose to get Identity
matrix.

SOLN: - Transpose of A,

Now multiply A and AT,

Since, we have got the identity matrix at the end, therefore the given matrix is
orthogonal.

 PRODUCT OF TWO ORTHOGONAL: -

Let

AQ=

[cosZ sinZ] [cosZ+0 sinZ+0]

[-sinZ cosZ] [0-sinZ 0+cosZ]
INVERSE OF A ORTHOGONAL MATRIX: -
A= -1 0 adj(A)= 1 0
01 0 -1

A-1 = adj(A) A-1 = adj(A)

|A| |A|

=1 0
|A|= -1 -0= -1
0 -1
a11= (-1)1+1(1) =1
-1
a12= (-1)1+2(0) =0
= -1 0
a21= (-1)2+1(0) =0
0 1
a22= (-1)2+2(-1) =-1