BIO 11 | Animal Form and Function (3)

Topic 15

Thyroxine, Stimulate metabolism

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM triiodothyronine
Hormones of the Endocrine System Calcitonin Reduces blood Ca2+ levels
● Class of signaling molecules that control and
Parathyroid
regulate many body processes
● Binds to intracellular hormone receptors Parathyroid Increases blood Ca2+ levels
(of target cells) hormone
○ Each receptor is hormone-specific Adrenal (cortex)
○ Up-regulation Aldosterone Increases blood Na+ levels
■ Increase in number of
Cortisol, Increase blood glucose levels
receptors → increased cell corticosterone,
activity cortisone
○ Down-regulation
Adrenal (medulla)
■ Decrease in number of
receptors → reduced cell Epinephrine, Stimulates fight-or-flight
norepinephrine response
activity
● Released by endocrine glands and organs to Pancreas
body fluids (e.g. blood) Insulin Decreases blood glucose levels
Glucagon Increases blood glucose levels
💡Endocrine System vs Exocrine System
The secretions of the two body systems differ in the 💡Implication of Calcium levels in the blood
● Calcium is has a role in bone strengthening,
manner and effects of their propagation. Secretions
by the endocrine system are released to fluids in as well as in the action potential of the
vessels and as a result, the effects of the hormones nerves
are systemic. On the other hand, the secretions of
the exocrine system are released to the body’s Pineal gland
external environment and the effects of this are
● Regulates circadian rhythm → conveys
local.
melatonin secretion
○ Obtain signals from the environment
Glands/Organs of the Endocrine System (e.g. solar radiation)
Pituitary (anterior)
Growth hormone Promotes growth of body Thymus
tissues ● Production of thymosins
Prolactin Promotes milk production ○ For infant immune response
○ Replaced by fat during early adulthood
Thyroid-stimulatin Stimulates thyroid hormone
g hormone release
Adipose tissues
Adrenocorticotropi Stimulates hormone released ● Leptin - for satiety feelings
c hormone by adrenal cortex
Follicle-stimulating Stimulates gamete production Gonads (testis and ovaries)
hormone ● Steroid hormones
Luteinizing Stimulates androgen ○ Testosterone, estrogen, progesterone
hormone production by gonads in males;
stimulates ovulation and
production of estrogen and Thyroid Problems
progesterone in females
Pituitary (posterior) Hypothyroidism
● Most common type of thyroid disorder
Antidiuretic Stimulates water reabsorption
hormone by kidneys ● Thyroid gland is not active enough
● Common cause is autoimmunity
Oxytocin Stimulates uterine contraction
● Affects use of energy
during childbirth
○ Symptoms: tiredness, weight again
Thyroid
 ○ Contracts during labor
● Site of pregnancy, labor and delivery
Hyperthyroidism
● Has an important role in menstruation
● Overactive thyroid
○ Lined by endometrium
● Affects energy use and heartbeat
■ Rich in blood vessels
○ Speeds up body functions
and mucus glands
○ Symptoms: weight loss despite
■ Thickens during
increased appetite, sweating,
fertilization
nervousness
■ Slough off during
menstruation
Goiter
5.) Cervix
● Enlargement of the thyroid, could be due to
● Junction between vagina and uterus
hypo or hyperthyroidism
● Important in reproductive health

REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM 6.) Vagina

Female Reproductive System ● Opening, birth canal
1.) Ovaries
● Gonads in females, produces follicles
○ 1-2 million follicles, ~100 will
mature during reproductive
years
○ Will develop into eggs;
nourished by surrounding
cells
● Produce the sex hormone estrogen
● Ovulation
○ Release of immature egg every
28 days
○ Continue to pregnancy or
menstrual cycle
2.) Corpus luteum
○ Release of estrogen and
progesterone
○ For maintenance of uterus
during pregnancy

Female hormones

Estrogen
● Released by developing follicles and corpus
luteum (later)
● Responsible for female characteristics during
puberty
3.) Oviduct
Progesterone
● Funnel-like with projections which
● Released by corpus luteum
touches the ovary ● Cause regrowth of uterine lining
○ Cilia sweep the egg cell during ● Inhibits FSH and luteinizing hormone
ovulation
● If sperm is present → fertilization
Hormones in both males and females
4.) Uterus Follicle stimulating hormone
● ~3 inches muscular, pear-shaped ● Released by pituitary gland (anterior)
organ ● Mediates follicular growth and control
 estrogen synthesis ○ Leaves epididymis during
● Stimulates Sertoli cells to synthesize and ejaculation
secrete components for spermatogenesis ■ Expulsion of sperm
4.) Vas deferens
Luteinizing hormone ● A duct that connects to the urethra
● Inhibited by estrogen and testosterone
● Contributes to maturation of primordial germ
cells 5.) Semen
● Causes Leydig cells of testes to produce ● Glandular secretions + sperm
testosterone
● Triggers creation of steroid hormones from 6.) Glands
ovaries
Seminal ● Secretes thick fluid
vesicle containing mucus
Pregnancy and testing and fructose
○ Energy for
Human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) sperm
● Chemical created by trophoblast tissue Prostate ● Secretes thin, milk
○ Found in early embryos and then fluid for further
becomes part of placenta nourishment
○ Formed 4-12 weeks after fertilization ○ Ensures
● Rise exponentially in the first trimester, peak semen is
at 10th week of gestation forced to
● Pregnancy strips urethra
○ Use of antibodies during
○ False negative if large amount of fluid ejaculation
was drank previously
Bulbourethral ● Secretes alkaline
gland mucus
Male Reproductive System ○ Secreted
before
1.) Testis ejaculation
● Male gonads and may
● Housed by a scrotum carry
sperm
● Testicle
○ Testis + scrotum
○ Descended to be <2 degrees 7.) Penis
Celsius than body temp ● Cylinders of erectile tissue
■ Ideal temperature for ● Main copulatory organ
sperms
Male infertility
2.) Seminiferous tubules
Impotence
○ Where sperms are produced
● Erectile dysfunction or inability to achieve
and housed erection
○ Where meiosis occurs ● Factors
○ Age, alcohol, drug use
Leydig cells ● Has many cholesterol-lipid ○ Psychological
droplets
● Make and secrete Low sperm count
testosterone ● <15 million sperm
○ For spermatozoa ○ Normal sperm count is 15-20 million
production sperms per ejaculation
○ Male secondary ● ~30% of infertility cases
characteristics ● Caused by many factors
● Stimulated by? Luteinizing ○ Hormone, medication
hormone
Sertoli cells ● Provide support and NERVOUS SYSTEM
nourishment ● More complex, specialized, and centralized in
vertebrates
3.) Epididymis ● Two anatomical divisions
● Where sperm continues to develop ○ Central Nervous System (CNS)
■ Brain and spinal cord
 ○ Peripheral Nervous System Serotonin Intestinal movement,
(PNS) mood regulation, sleep,
■ Peripheral nerves appetite
● Sensory and motor Dopamine Cognition, reward
functions pathways
Norepinephrine Fight or flight response
CELLS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM ● Increase heart
Neurons/Nerve cells rate, increase
● Receive and transmit electrical signals glucose, increase
oxygenation
Sensory neurons Convey signals from sensory
receptors to CNS Glial cells
● Produce myelin sheath
Motor neurons Convey signals from CNS to
○ Schwann cells
effector cells
● Motor system ○ Provides insulation
● Autonomic nervous ○ Prevents electrical signal from
system dissipating
Interneurons Integrate data and relay ○ Fast conduction of nerve impulse
appropriate signals to other ● Nodes of Ranvier
interneurons or to motor ○ Gaps between Schwann cells
neurons ○ Only point where signals will be
regenerated
● Organelles: axon and dendrite
CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
Axon Cerebrospinal fluid
● Propagate signals from soma to axon terminals ● Formed from filtration of arterial blood
○ Ultrafiltrate - 400-600 mL per day
Dendrites ● Fills ventricles (spaces of brain) and spinal
● Specialized structures that receive signals from cord
other neurons at synapses ● For nourishment, waste removal, protection of
brain (shock absorption)

Synapse
● Points of contact between neurons Anatomy of the Brain
● Could have 1-100 synapses per neuron 1.) Cerebrum
○ Presynaptic terminal ● Initiate and coordinate movement,
■ Where electrical signal is temperature regulation, speech,
converted into chemical judgment, thinking and reasoning,
signals (neurotransmitters) problem-solving
○ Postsynaptic terminal
■ Receive signals, has specific Frontal lobe ● Largest lobe
receptors ● Involved in personality
characteristics,
decision-making, and
Neurotransmitters
movement
Acetylcholine For muscle control, ● Contains Broca’s area
memory formation which is associated with
 speech ability
Parietal lobe ● Helps a person identify
objects and understand
spatial relationships
● Involved in interpreting
pain and touch in the
body
● Houses Wernicke’s area
which helps the brain
understand spoken
language
Occipital lobe ● Involved with vision
Temporal lobe ● Involved in short-term
memory, speech, musical
rhythm, and some degree
of smell recognition
2.) Cerebellum
● Voluntary muscle movement, posture,
equilibrium balance
3.) Brain stem
● Hearing, calculating responses and
environmental changes, focusing
vision, facial expression, balance
Spinal cord
● Send motor commands from brain to body
● Send sensory information from body to the
brain
● Coordinate reflexes
○ Ability to respond to sensory
information without waiting for input
from the brain
○ Governed by? Motor system of the
peripheral nervous system
production in
liver
Sympathetic ● Prepares body of
energy-intense
activities e.g. fighting,
fleeing (fight or flight)
Enteric ● Controls digestive tract,
pancreas, gallbladder
Alzheimer’s disease
● Most common type of dementia
● Progressive, usually starts with mild memory
loss
○ Changes can occur even before first
symptoms occur
○ Usually affects people that are 65
years or older
○ Plaques and tangles found on brain
of patients
○ Damage initially takes place in parts
of the brain involved in memory
including the entorhinal cortex and
hippocampus. It later affects areas in
the cerebral cortex, such as those
responsible for language, reasoning,
and social behavior
○ Some may lead to death
■ 3-10 years after initial
diagnosis

Vertebral column
● Provides structural support

PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

Motor system
● Coordination of signals from CNS to skeletal
muscles

Autonomic Nervous System

● Regulates internal environment of the body
○ Mainly on smooth muscles, cardiac
muscles, organs

Parasympathetic ● Controls activities that

gain and conserve
energy of the body (rest
and digest)
○ Stimulation of
digestive
organs
○ Glycogen