The Problem of Instrumental Combination in the Middle Ages

Author(s): G. S. Bedbrook
Source: Revue belge de Musicologie / Belgisch Tijdschrift voor Muziekwetenschap , 1971,
Vol. 25, No. 1/4 (1971), pp. 53-67
Published by: Societe Belge de Musicologie

Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/3686179

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THE PROBLEM OF INSTRUMENTAL COMBINATION
IN THE MIDDLE AGES

G.S. BEDBROOK
Lisbon

Even when we do feel we have a reliable notation of medieval vocal

music, its performance is difficult enough. When the aspect of instrumen
usage is taken into consideration, the obstacles are enormous, remindin
of the disappointments once experienced in Greek Music. Miniatures
sculptures show obvious instruments, yet to find out how or even what t
played is another matter. Yet this same evidence has induced more p
to try a hand at recreating it, than any attempt to interpret the choral m
of that period. In the first place, the constructing of instruments from pi
and sculptures, is like trying to perform Indian Music from prints and te
books, without once having heard it. Hints might be derived from list
to folk survivals; but the results would be dismal. Let us first briefly con
medieval vocal music.

VOCAL

At such a date in time, we have no idea of the degree of accent and rhythm
required at that period (a weakness common to all notations), theorists
probably confusing us with our preconceived notions. Neither can the actual
tone quality of the voice or voices be attained, and it is no good inventing
pseudo dialects attempting it. Voices were probably considered more or less
equal in range up to about i350, voices being either barytone or tenor; treble
and bass only emerging towards the end of that century. Pitch again (de-
pending on the type and sex of voice) was probably about a third or minor
third below ours from the I2th to the early i5th centruy - thus avoiding a
female voice for the upper parts in modern interpretations. Thus the In Secu-
lum marked << viellatoris >, even if it were instrumental, can be made to suit
three alto viols in this range; thus fitting it more within the pattern of the times.
Now for what we know of the instrument side of Medieval Music, of which
this article is mostly concerned.

INSTRUMENTAL

The almost complete symbolism of instruments during the Middle Ages

has made their presence in sculpture, pictures and miniatures so unreliable,
that no information can be gained about their styles of performance, or even
their combinations; only that these instruments actually existed in those

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times. This symbolism again, seams to have so invaded the organising of the
musical side of the medieval Mystery Play and Procession, that nothing
can be assumed as to how or even if they played. Other accounts only confuse
us. Had we no keyboard tablatures of the I4th century, for instance, our
guesses at the style of performance would have been as feeble as they would
have been futile. Some hopes might be achieved by examining contemporary,
or even later Oriental instrumentations; as certain near-by and related en-
sembles have a close resemblance to those of our own depicted at that time.
In fact, Oriental instrumental grouping as a whole, might well be collated
into its respective type and style, if only for comparison with those similar
developments in Europe.

EARLY MIDDLE AGES, I2TH AND I3TH CENTURIES

The early minstrel appears to have accompanied a song < solo ?, accom-
paniment probably being above or about the voice in a conventional ornament-
ed style, as in much of the East. Tinctoris at the erd of the I5th century even
speaks of < accompanying or decorating > a certain song. Accompaniment
in the Middle Ages was probably more to keep the voice (or tune) in pitch,
mark the mode or melody, or given rest to the singer in or between the verses;
as in the East again. Instruments were normally forbidden in the Church,
though usually employed for Court or Royal functions. Harp and Viele seems
to have been the general instruments to accompany songs either solo, or in
possible combination. The Estampie and its variants were expectedly instru-
mental, though the verse structures, the Ballade, Virelais etc., were often
played either as adaptions or accompanied as above; but nothing is known
of the styles performed. The same applies to the polyphonic Chanson, and
secular Motet. The account in < Messe de Oiseaux >> (1225) where four vieles
were said to play estampies is unusual; but did they all play at once, or did
each play his piece - because the average reference implies < solo >>?
The Church Organum and Conductus are and look so very vocal, that
no instrument seems necessary. The semi secular Conductus, however, espe-
cially the ones with the long textless beginnings and ends (cum caudis), have
created a feeling that they could have been instrumental, further encouraged
by Grocheo's remark (c. I300) that ? the neuma is a sort of coda or end-piece
following the antiphon in the manner of the viele after the Cantum Corana-
tum, or the tail-piece of a stantipe which the viele players perform. >> (1)
The first term probably refers to the monodic conductus; but it does show
that the finales of both pieces were usually performed instrumentally - though
the term < viele players > could easily refer to them singly or in combination.
These textless incipits of the polyphonic Conducti, often have an initial uncial

(1) L. ELLINWOOD. The Conductus. MQ. April. I94I. p. 18i.

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syllable in some MSS while not in others; which tends to show that the initial
syllable was vocalised until the proper vocal beginning, like the Organum.
The same applies to the beginning and end of the Motet Maria assumptio -
huius chori, save that the texture is somewhat different to the vocal middle
section; though both are equally singable. In other words, a textless passage,
whether in a Tenor or section as above, does not necessarily mean its' instru-
mental .The Conductus being a comFo3ition in one meter (in unum metrum),
was written in << score > form, its words only being written in the tenor once
to save writing in the upper parts two or three times; thence their textlefs
nature. The Motet, on the other hand, was usually written on opposite sides
of the page (lateralis), the frequently textless Tenor at the bottom, save for
the initial words of the chant or song from which it was taken; but this could
either have been vocalised, or the words sung from memory.
Those sparse remarks like those of Ailred (I3th cent.), < why so many
(organs and) chime-bells ? > probably refers more to an instrument constructed
on a misinterpretation of a Hebrew word, than on an instrument of real need;
continued throughout the Middle Ages, used more in spite of than of necessity.
The same as Anonymous IV's (I3th cent.) statement that instruments had
been sanctioned in the Service on one occasion, -<< prout in cordis in flatu,
in cimbalis bene sonantibus > - probably with trumpets and vieles on a certain
important occasion. The Fathers of the Church looked upon instruments as
either pagan or symbolic; the stretched strings representing the mortified
flesh or the stretched sinews of Christ on the Cross, the io stringed psaltery
as the 10 Commandments, the trumpet as the mouthpiece of God, etc. The
Council of Milan (1287) affirmed that the organ was the only wind instrument
used in the Church. In such instances as the Christmas and Pentecost festivals
(II55) where instruments were present, they were probably played outside
the church like the processions and mystery plays of later times. (1) A I3th
century theorist suggested that a < viele >> was often better for a difficult Chant
than a poor voice; which when combined with Grocheo's further remark that
the 5-stringed viele could be used for < all songs and dance-forms (cantilena),
and all musical (secular?) forms in general ?, show at least that it was consid-
ered a suitable instrument for normal music. It is wiser then, not to look for
instrumental music in the Church, but rather to the festivals of the Court and
Town.

The miniatures and sculptures usually show figures playing << solo > (and
those mostly Angels), but there are groups that in our preconceived minds
might be taken as playing as < one >. Pictures are inclined to be deceptive,

(1) H.W. MCKINNON. Musical Instruments in Medieval Psalm Commentaries and Psalters. Jour. of the Amer
Mus. Soc. Spring, 1968. Also, The Meaning of the Patristic Polemic against Musical Instruments. Curren
Musicology i. 1965. E.A. BOWLES. Were Musical Instruments used in the Liturgical Service during the
Middle Ages Galpin Society Jour. May Ioth I957.
(2) See G. REESE. Music from the Middle Ages (I940) p. 222, for Grocheo's explanation of the word
'cantilena'.

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however, Angels being arranged from a point of view of balance or decoration.
Then the excessive symbolism stated. This symbolism is carried on in the pictu-
res of the later Middle-Ages, where whole groups of Angels are seen carrying
instruments around the throne of God or the Enthronement of the Virgin;
the Saints and Martrys holding nothing but their prayer books. This applies
when only a few Angels are doing homage to the Virgin or the Infant Christ.
Another deception is King David with his 4 traditional << chief musicians >>;
who by being placed in a section of a miniature, have been quoted as perform-
ing unitedly; the artist not thinking anyone would view it differently from
the normal practice. As it was known that instruments were used in the ancient
Hebrew Rituals, we often come across incongruous gatherings of performers
in illustrations of the early Temple. There are a few secular miniatures, how-
ever, showing everyday scenes, that might in spite of certain inaccuracies
and other symbolisms, give us something of what went on in those days.
Considering the consistency of the smaller groups (usually 2 or 3), it might
be possible to arrange them historically in their two basic styles, then compare
them with those of the Orient; as they seem to possess certain similarities in
structure.

King David (a) Harp, viele, horn (or cornett), organ and chime-bells. S
borg Lib. (I2th Cent.)
(b) Harp, viele, lyre, horn and panpipes. Bibl. Nat. Paris. L
I550. (1)
(c) Harp, viele and psaltery. Bibl. Nat. Paris. Lat. 11560 f 2
(i3th Cent.)

These groups have all the above defects. The harp was traditional with
as with Europe, and the << organa >, << cymbala >> and ancient panpipes w
probably considered appropriate to Hebrew worship. The following gro
seems more average.

Average Small Group

(a) Viele, horn or cornett. (c. 1225).
(b) Harp and psaltery. (c. 1250) Harl. 5102.
At table in Court

(c) Harp and viele. (c. 1230) Trinity Coll. Camb. MS. R.M
(d) Harp, viele, psaltery and organistrum. (c. 1275). Bib
Moralise. Brit. Mus. Facs. I69.

These may have been pictorial, but there is a consistency of style as with
others. If real, they probably played from memory in an improvised orna-
mental discant, since no player in these or any other depictings ever had music in
front of him until the late 15th century, and then that mostly for singers; play-

(1) Seen in Kinsky's History of Music in Pictures. pp. 44-6.

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ers looking over the singers' shoulders. Beforehand, it was the Angels that
mostly held those rather rare < scrolls >> in their hands. In the Church, a
small group of choristers gathered round a single lectern. At this point it
could be emphasised that before the end of the Middle Ages, there were
probably two types of Minstrels; those that could read and those that could not.
Medieval vocal Music being basically a polyphonic decoration above or about
a pre-existing song or chant, instrumentalists probably followed suit (as we
can see from their keyboard tablatures). So that the idea of an instrument to
a part was probably a new convention, not to be thought of until the end of
the I4th century; no real pitch levels being conceived much before that time.
It could be a mistake then to trace Renaissance instrumentation backwards,
to a style so entirely different as that of the Middle Ages. Arab ornamentation
of fiddle or psaltery might give us a clue; but the medieval methods are ob-
viously lost. Considering that the chief stringed instruments were mostly
plucked, i.e. harp, psaltery, citole and gittern, it can be seen by their nature
that they were never intended for part-writing or for harmony (save perhaps
the harp); one of the reasons perhaps, why the viele and later lute were
adhered to for that purpose.
An important aspect of oriental instrumentation, and perhaps that of
medieval Europe, was that of alternation - that is various verses being taken
over by instruments, as interludes between the verses, or merely to give rest
to the singer (or instrument). This may also have taken place as a sort of
prelude or coda. The early Organ Mass adopted this alternative method,
and we read in the poem < I1 Solazzo > (I4th cent.) .how < the little organ in-
stead of accompanying (decorating?) the voices, alternates with them. >>
The instrumental alternation of the I5th and I6th century Intermedii may
even have been a continuation of that tradition.

Beyond the horn, nothing was known of the trumpet and oboe (shawm)
bands until the Normans contacted the Sacrens in Sicily and other places
during the Crusades. Then we hear of < trumpae, tubae et tympana > -
<< souner (oboe type) et timbres et tabors > (Guillaume de Palerme, c. i 8o) -
<< nacraires, tabours et cors sarazinois (sacren horns or << S > shaped trumpets) >
(Conte de Jaffa, c. 1250). (1) The Hungarian Court possessed < buccinatores >>
by 1257, but that may also have been from a Turko-Arabic source. In Europe,
the wind and drum band was used exclusively for military, royal, court or
festive purposes - < as do the drum and trumpet in feasts, jousts and tournays >
(Grocheo again), (2) more or less similar to the Eastern prototypes.
There is evidence then, even at that date, of the two specific types of
ensembles in early Europe; (a) Outdoor, trumpet, shawm and drum bands,
and (b) Indoor, of stringed (bowed and plucked) with the intrusive flute (for

(1) H.G. FARMER. Crusading Martial Music. M. & L. July 1949.

(2) G. REESE. Ibid., p. 327.

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decoration perhaps). If the string groups really played together as imagined,
it was probably more as a merging or blending of melodie decorations above or
about the theme, rather than a standing out of contrasting sonorities, as some
historians used to think.

ARS NOVA INSTRUMENTATION. I4TH OR EARLY I5TH CEN TURIES

The textless Tenor (as well as the Contratenor) still persist; though that
does not mean that they were necessarily intended or even written as instrumen-
tal parts. 40% of the tenors of Machaut's Ballades are textless. He even men-
tioned that those compositions could be played on a cornemeuse (single reed ty-
pe) or small organ; probably as substitutes. It seems strange, on the other hand,
why instrumentalists should have been asked to play those rather uninteresting
Tenors and Contratenors, when their styles were so entirely unsuited to them.
The average stringed instrument as stated was more plucked than bowed,
and not at all fitted for << part >> work. If used at all, an instrumentalist must
have obliged in those << parts >>, adapting his style to them, than having his
<< part >> written for him. In any case, no two < parts >> could be read as ? one >> to
form an harmonic background, since all < parts >> were written separately
on opposite sides of the page, as stated; though the Tenor might have been
used as a sort of< continuo >>. (1) Besides, only the harp, lute and viele perhaps,
were capable of harmony; if indeed it was ever necessary. Not much could
be added, on the other hand, to the already ornamented polyphony of a
Landini or Machaut work; which probably shows what was normal - unless
an instrumental <alternative >> was included. In a case of a Landini ballata,
for instance, the upper must have been sung, the lower parts played or in-ented
perhaps; unless his own organetto took over all parts as an interlude, though
his instrument was high pitched. Those exceptional German examples show-
ing the simple use of a bombard underneath (Munch's Nachthorn, etc.), are
not of the normal European pattern, and may in the writer's opinion be from
a much earlier stock; though that instrument was normal for those parts
towards the end of the I5th century.
Long vocalisations on a syllable still continue, especially in Italian exam-
ples, though not always indicated in different manuscripts; thus showing that
they never were initially intended for instruments. The Saltarelli of Add
29987 are often quoted and performed, because they fit more easily into our
rhythmic sense; though it should be mentioned that somewhat similar < belly
dances >> have been found in I9th century Algeria, thus illustrating their pos-
sible origin. (2)
By the middle of the century, the Minstrels were being divided into (a),
the liveried retinues of the Court and Chapels, and (b), those following more

(1) THURSTON DART. TIhe Interpretation of Music. (I95I) p. I52-5.

(2) LAVIGNAC. Encyclopedie de la Musique. I913-3I. Theorie, 2e Partie p. 2834.

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or less itinerant ways. The larger towns frequently employed them for public
or civic functions, or for regularly watching over the City and calling out the
hours (even meal and washing times in some monasteries), and sometimes
from high towers (much resembling the similar < wind bands > of India and
Arabia). They played at Mystery Plays and Pageants, including processions
through the Town. Every Guild had its trumpets, who occasionally played at
(before or after?) Mass in Royal Receptions. The rather rare allusions to the
< shawm > type being used in Church, are generally those occasions when a
King's (softer) < bombard > was included, perhaps as a point of honour. At
later times, the trombone or trumpet and cornett were the normal instru-
ments for ecclesiastical settings; the shawm being used for outdoor and large
halls. The later 'bass' variety, the pommer, or those with enclosed reeds,
however, were much softer and often included in chamber groupings. John
Gower (1393) speaks of << bombarde and of clarion with cornemuse and shal-
mele >>; the grouping which is well affirmed. Stringed or chamber groups,
however, are unfortunately less referred to; making one doubtful of their
composition.
Phillipe de Mezieres (I375) stated that trumpets and < sweet sounding
instruments >> could be used on occasions in the Church Service; though he
also affirms that the < positive >> was preferable for minor festivals, the larger
organ for solemn days. Trumpets were used to announce meals at Court as
in former days, though probably only as calls or fanfares. Trumpet or trom-
bone with alto and discant shawm seems to have been the average Court
dance band; the more rustic ones being 2 shawms and a bagpipe. While
miniatures of interiors still show (a) harp and viele, or (b) the now popular
lute and viele, as the normal chamber combinations (that is if used as such).
The music at the Mystery Plays and Processions through the Town, of
this and the next half century, illustrate the same increditable symbolism
mentioned, rather than a clue to the methods of performance. Conventionally,
the music of these Plays etc., ran as follows: (1)
(a) Trumpet and drum (fanfares) at the beginning, played outside the Church.
(b) Then (all) would sing a hymn like Veni Creator Spiritus.
(c) Later, minstrels would play rondeaux, ballades and virelais, at various
intervals and speeches; though whether monodic or polyphonic is not
clear.

(d) Shepherds were < represented >> by pipes and bagpipes (perhaps not al-
ways playing).
(e) Heavenly Choirs (of Angels) usually ? carried >> little organs, vieles, lutes,
psalteries and gitterns (obviously in representation of pictorial groups).
There was even a belief that instruments in Heaven sounded without
being touched. All of course with no written music.

(1) E.A. BOWLES. The Role of Musical Instruments in the Medieval Sacred Drama. M.Q.Jan. I959.

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(f) Organs stood for the Voice of God; perhaps the reason why the Angels
often << carried >> them.

(g) Christ was frequently represented by harps, vieles and psalteries (as in
the paintings again).
(h) While demons were < accompanied >> by singing out of tune, slurring
the notes, loud trumpets and drums (as in the Florentine Opera scenes).
(i) 24 old men (Elders) frequently <<carried >> different instruments, but
presumably not playing them.
(j) A Te Deum was usually sung at the end, accompanied often by bells
(Church bells ?).
Not a lot of playing as a whole.

The Civic Processions went through the Town to the Church doors, but
apparently not beyond. It should be emphasised that instruments were mainly
<< carried >. At Malines in 1368, singers were < accompanied > (?) by stringed
instruments, the usual drum and trumpet fanfares preceding. The next day
there was said to be a hundred musicians (but surely not all playing together).
A procession in 4I4 << carried > 24 trumpets, 55 pipes (?) and I20 stringed
instruments (but obviously not playing). At Louvain, 4 musicians < played >?
2 vieles, lute, and harp (which seems normal). Other processions follow the
pattern - 24 old men (Elders) < carrying > different instruments (but pre-
sumable not playing), Angels << carrying >> organs, with the convential Te
Deum sung at the end. At the reception of Philip the Good at Bruges (I440),
it was said that there were < so many musical instruments that the whole
town resounded >> (what with the noise of the various Guild trumpets, drums
and mass singing, perhaps?); or in Rome (I462), where << no instrument was
missing >> (perhaps not - but the betting is that none or only a few carried
music, quite apart from playing it). (1) Poems like Lydgatt's << Reason and
Sensuallyte >, where long lists of instruments are mentioned together, and
others where it is said they all played << one great melody >> - was probably
only spoken of as an << assembly of musicians >, that < each >> played his part
in the gathering, or merely that < everyone was present >> in the combined
homage or adoration. Even the picture showing whole groups of musicians
<< tuning up >> on each side of the Church steps, their patron King David being
portayed in the background, was obviously conceived of in this sense of a
general gathering.
What is the summary of the above Plays and Processions? Choirs and
solo singing with possible organ accompaniment (alternate?), the conven-
tional trumpet fanfares perhaps, a doubtful group of bowed and plucked
instruments, with a reasonable ensemble of 4 players, and imaginably others
not mentioned. We're left then with no knowledge of the actual styles of music

(1) E. BOWLES. Instruments in the Civic Processions during the Middle Ages. Acta Musicologica. I961.

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performed. Disappointing to say the least! If those Ballads etc., were played
as a group, they were probably improvised upon in a traditional manner, with
methods not unlike our recent jazz groups.

BURGUNDIAN AND EARLY RENAISSANCE

Pictures and miniatures of the day give us a fair view of the normal wind
bands:

Court dance (Florence, 1420)... (a) trombone and 2 shawms.

Besseler. Mlusik des Mittelalters (193I) pl. 97.
Dance in the open (I420)... (b) 2 long trumpets and 2 shawms.
(ibid. pl. 96).
Dance musicians in gallery... (c) trumpet and 2 shawms.
D. Hartley Elliot. Life and Work of the People of England. Vol. 3. pl. 5b.
(I93I).
Band outside Church... (d) bombard, shawm and tabor pipe. ibid. pl. 32.
Groups inside buildings are less consistent and sometimes confusing, as
in wedding bands in Church etc., there perhaps from a point of view of honour;
but generally the groups lie within normal limits.
Virgin surrounded by Angels (1450)... (e) 2 or 3 singers facing lute, viol and
recorder. (normal symbolism but probably conventional) Besseler. pl. 13.
Group in small room... (f) harp, lute and recorder. Hartley and Elliot. pl. io a.
One group of women inside building (I477)... (g) positive, psaltery, harp
and recorder. Estoire de Tristan. Bibl. Nat. Vienna. MS. 2542.
Court scene of Maximillian I... (h) 4 singers (one with music) (1497) facing
harp, lute, viol and recorder. Besseler. pi. Iio.
It must be remembered that the Miniature still had that medieval hang-
over with its stylised conventions, and not strictly true with reference to what
we do know about late i5th century instrumentation. This symbolism was
carried on in the Italian paintings of the I5th century, though not so much
in Northern Europe. (1) With the exception of group (h) above, no musician
had music in front of him. We could safely guess that the trombone or long trum-
pet took the tenor part, the two shawms the upper parts of a 3-part dance in
(a) and (c), in the manner of those late I5th century specimens, with the
possible flourish at the end of sentences. (2) If groups (e), (g) and (h) are not
merely symbolic, then improvisation and adaption must be excepted.
At the consecration of the Duomo of Florence (1436) << tubae, fides et
tibiae > (trombones or trumpets, viols and cornetts?) were carried through
the streets to the Church (like the above Processions), where it was stated

(1) E. WINTERNITZ. On Angel Concerts in the 15th century. MQ.Jan. 1959.

(2) I. HORSLEY. New Light on Early Wind and Stringed Instruments. Acta Musicologica. April-Dec. I961.

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that they combined with the voices in Dufay's << Nuper Rosarum >; but that
was an exceptional event there. By now, however, Renaissance tendencies
were taking shape, new methods being adopted in Royal Chapels etc., bring-
ing it in line with practices of I6th century Venice and other places. As late
as I475, the Statutes of Beauvais forbade all stringed instruments in Church
festivals; and as there appears to be no edict before that date in that city, it
is considered to be exceptional (1). By this time, however, we know much
more about Church and Chamber instrumentation, where Motets and Chan-
sons were frequently played instrumentally. The professional Minstrel was
expected to read at least, << part-music > being the norm, performers being
expected to adapt their styles to their own << pitch >> levels; plucked strings
like the psaltery and gittern falling out of place, not being suited to part-
polyphony. In the early years of the century, we find textless introductions
to Motets like Johannes Franchose's Ave Virgo, marked << Trompetta Introi-
tus >. The << trumpet-like >> tenor and contratenor of Dufay's Et in terra (in-
scribed << ad modum tubae >>) might even have been written to sing << in the
manner of trumpets >, save that there are others earlier in date, and that
method became traditional.

As a whole, instrumental grouping seems to have been simple, if we are

to judge by the accounts of that truly lavish feast at the Court of Burgundy
(I454); the musical items of which were: a model Church with organ, from
whence 3 boys and a tenor sung a motet, followed by organ solos. The main
feature, however, seems to have been an immense artificial << pie >>, from
which 28 musicians came out < sweating >>, who nevertheless << played and
sung>> roughly in this order:
(a) a bagpipe played (cornemuse?),
(b) a German cornet; which they thought << very strange >,
(c) a piece for lute, dulcan and another instrument,
(d) 2 voices accompanied by a lute,
(e) a piece for four recorders,
(f) a girl singer with 2 viols,
(g) beggars playing 2 hurdy-gurdies,
(h) a lady-in-waiting accompanied by lute,
(i) pipes and, tabor (3 players).

There was also an item of a girl of I2 seated on a man dressed as a stag,

who both sung a chanson of Dufay. Fanfares preceded from 2 and 4 trumpets,
finishing up with a procession of drums and torches. (2)

(1) E.A. BOWLES. Were Musical Instruments used in the Liturgical Service during the Middle-Ages. Galpin
Soc. Jour. May I957. Also MQ.Jan. I959.
(2) E.A. BOWLES. Instruments at the Court of Burgundy (1365-I467). Galpin Soc. Jour. July 1958; also
THURSTON DART, ibid.

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 What do we gather from these groupings? A Church representing eccle-
siastical, a <<pie>> representing secular music; i.e. 2 solo instruments, solo
singing etc., accompanied by a lute, then 2 viols, 3 rustic scenes of bagpipes
etc., a 4-part work for recorders, and a three-part piece for lute, dulcan and
another instrument. All within normal limits, yet not really impressive as
large ensembles.
A generally summary of the Middle Ages shows that instruments usually
played in small groups, and most often << solo >; the arts of which are now
completely lost. We can perhaps divide these groups into their two types,
specified in their time as < high >> & < low >> (that is < loud and soft >> in tone
quality), namely:
(a) Wind... trumpet or trombone, shawm or cornett, with the occasional
flute or tabor pipe, drums (for outdoor or large halls), and
(b) Stringed (bowed and plucked)... viols, harps, lutes and the occasional
recorder (for indoor and chamber purposes);

all of which agrees with the next century; as well, curiously enough, as we
shall now see, with certain types in the nearby East.

THE ORIENTAL ENSEMBLE

From the writer's experience it has been found quite consistent as well
as convenient to divide the Music of the Orient into two main sections:

N. and South East... basic or derivative 5-note scales - melody typed, regula
rhythms (that is divisive), traces of harmony, with occa-
sional large functional orchestras, including chamber or
theatrical ensembles - as in Japan, China and Indo-
nesia.

South and S. West... 7 or more toned scales - melodic patterns, additive or

phrase rhythms, no harmony save drones, obsolete
functional wind bands, with small accompanying
groups - as in the Indian, Persian and Arabian worlds.

First the instrumentation most remote from Europe; equivalent terms

being used to avoid oriental nomenclature.
China influenced Japan from the 4th cent, leaving traces of its immense
Court orchestras as far as Korea and Annam. China and Japan both used thea-
tre and chamber ensembles. In recent times the Chinese fiddle (Erh and Hu-
Hu) followed the melody in lively rhythms, gongs and wood-blocks etc., mark-
ing the verse-ends and accents, the flute following the voice. The Japanese Sha-
misen (3 stringed guitar) is mainly melodic, though often marking the verse-
ends or phrases as above. the flute being decorative and melodic. Instruments
again give relief to the singer between the verses - a feature common to the

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Orient, as perhaps in early Europe. In the more appealing dulcimer and xylo-
phone orchestras of Bali and Java, the functions of the instruments could be
divided into:

(a) decoration .............. flute and fiddle (rabab)

(b) main melody (long sounding) ...... gong-chimes (fiddle).
(short sounding). ... . . dulcimers (with resonat
(c) accompaniment ............ dulcimers (metal bars).
(melody into smaller note values) . ... and xylophones.
(d) punctuation ............. gongs.
(e) rhythm .............. drums.
The orchestras serve various social functions, dram
the total ensemble (tutti) often alternating with
progressively rhythmic sections.
The Arabic and Indian groups have a much grea
only because the Arabs may have influenced south
and Italy, but because they have a common conn
contacts in I Ith cent. India. Firstly, the wind and dr
India; the Nauba and Nahabet.
Arabia

Sultan Babar .. . 20 trumpets, 14 reed pipes, 4 dubal drums and 4 kettle

c 1525 drums.
Lesser Nobles. . . . (i) long trumpet (buq.), k
(Middle Ages) (ii) mizmar (oboe type) an
Military band . . . 3 wind (oboe type) 3 pair
(1846) large drums, 2 cymbals (Salvador Daniel). (1)
India

(16th cent.)
Rejoicing at the birth
of Prince Salim .. 2 long trumpets, < S >> shaped trumpet, oboe (type),
2 pairs of drums and cymbals.
Rejoicing at the birth
of Prince Murad . . long trumpet, S >> shaped trumpets, oboe (type),
2 pairs of drums.
c. i80o

Wrestling match . long trumpet, 2 oboe types, 4 curved horns (conch),

2 pairs of drums.
Devi enthroned . .long trumpet, oboe (type), pair of drums. (2)

(1) H.G. FARMER. A History of Arabian Music. I929.

(2) Prints from Indian Exhibition. London, I947.

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These now obsolete Indian bands, formerly of noble possession, played at
functions as seen, at certain hours of the day and night, from high balconies
of palaces and city walls (rather like our waits). Similar types existed in the
Persian and Ottoman worlds; all of which might have come from Central
Asia. The Arab bands served the same royal functions.
Now for the indoor or chamber groups (stringed); for convenience India
first. The ensembles coming from more indigenous roots than the above, are
simply stringed accompaniments for voice (or instrument) with tambura
drone and drum rhythms.
India

i6th cent. Dancing scene ....... sitar, flute and drum.

Early group ........ vina, fiddle and drum.
18th cent. Lady listening to music . sitar, tambura and drum.(l)
igth cent. Average high caste
entertainment ..... vina or sitar and drum.

In the Middle Ages, the chief instruments of the Arabs w

names were the al'ud (lute), tambur (lute type), quanun (canon
rabab (rabab or rebec), nai (flute), mizmar or zmar (shawm),
naqqera (nacaire), buq (bugle or trumpet) and with possibly s
bearer) to make saqa-buq (sacquebute or sackbut). The implic
that they brought their styles with them when they were in
Southern Europe from Spain, Sicily or the Near Eastern Europ
have similar nomenclatures.

Let us now examine the Arabian chamber, domestic, non military groups:
Arabian

i8th cent. (a) lute, kamandja, flute and tambourine-drum.

(b) lute, kamandja or rabab, psaltery and flute (Lane).
Early igth cent. (c) lute, kamandja or rabab, psaltery, flute, tambou-
rine-drum, drum and castanets. (2)
Arabian Jews
Early 20th cent. (d) lute, kamandja, tambourine-drum and drum. (3)
The somewhat similar groupings of the Hornbostel and other recordings
have even greater interest, as we can conveniently analyse their instrumental
functions:

Egyptian (a) (singer), lute, psaltery and flute.

(b) kamandja, psaltery and flute.
Tunisian (c) (voice), lute and fiddle.

(1) Indian Exhibition. 1947.

(2) SALVADOR DANIEL. The Music and Musical Instruments of the Arab. Ed. by A.G. FARMER
(3) P. THORNTON. The Voice of Atlas. I936.

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Arabian (d) lute, fiddle, tambourine and drum (Parlophone
< 78>> M.O. Iog9- ). (1)
(e) fiddle and psaltery (HMV. <<78>>. io". FXg3).
Persian (f) (singer), sitar and flute (HMV.: << 78>> AX679).

With the notable exception of the drums, there is a consistent paralle

with the European medieval groups; assuming, of course, that they still acted
as a < group >, though the instruments remained the same.
All the above groups were in unison with frequent ornamentation. In
group

(a) the vocal cadence is taken over by the psaltery with lute bourdon, the
second cadence by the voice without text, the third by the flute alone,
the fourth by the flute with psaltery bourdon;
(b) the psaltery takes the bourdon, the flute, fiddle, and psaltery playing the
melody alternatively;
(c) the voice alternates with the fiddle, the lute accompanying;
(e) the fiddle has an ostinato motive throughout, the psaltery playing the
ornamented melody above it (like a primitive motet);
(f) has an introductory elaboration of the theme, giving alternate rests to
the singer, with the assistance of the decorative flute, which also imitates
the voice (the sitar, of course, only accompanying in Persia).

Alternation, ostinato or drone, and ornamentation. Did early Europe

do the same? It is conceivable, as stated, that when the instruments came
into Europe, their < styles > came with them. Examine the medieval groups
again. The harp was already in Europe, remember, the viele and psaltery
coming in by the Ith century, the lute by the early I4th at the latest. It is
curious that the brass band was first heard of in Sicily, where the Arabs
dominated from the gth to the I3th century. Symbolism of wood and metal
etc., existed in the East, but not to such an extent as Christian Europe. Whe-
ther such groups existed, as our preconceived minds might have it, is difficult
to tell. Our analysis of the processions and pageants show such combinations
to be unreliable though their symbolic reputation. Yet the Oriental ones were
real. That is one of the problems medieval research has to face.

In the Orient the function of an instrument seems to have been mainly:

(a) to set the pitch of the melody pattern (or theme) for the singer,
(b) to keep the main features of that pattern or theme (for the benefit of a
singer or instrument),
(c) to add decoration or double the note values, etc.,

(1) c. 1930.

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(d) to give rest to the singer or alternate with another instrument,
(e) to provide rhythm and accent,
(f) and to maintain a drone.

Whether this happened in early Europe we don't know, but the I6th cen-
tury division of its instruments into foundation (harmonic and rhythmic per-
haps) and ornamentation (melody and decoration), shows some affinity.

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