FORM 3 HOLIDAY ASSIGNMENT

RECEPTION, RESPONSE, AND

CO-ORDINATION
Introduction
Irritability is the ability to detect and respond to changes in the environment. It is also called sensitivity.
Stimulus is any change in the environment that produces any change in the activity of part or the whole
organism.
The response is the change in activity or an organism due to stimuli Receptors are parts of
the body that perceive stimuli.
Effectors are parts of the body that bring about a response.
Common external stimuli which bring about response include; PH, Humidity, temperature, mineral salts
concentration, etc.
Response to a variety of stimuli
Responses are grouped according to the type of stimuli that causes them.
Responses can involve the movement of the whole organism or part of the organism.
The movement towards the stimuli is referred to as a positive response while moving away from the stimulus is
referred to as a negative response.
Major responses are taxis and tropisms.
Taxis
Taxis(taxes) is the locomotory structures of a motile cell. Eg a gamete, or a whole organism in response to a
unidirectional stimulus.
Tactic responses are grouped according to the stimuli that cause them.
a) Phototaxis
This is the response to variation in light intensity and direction. Shown by euglena, spirogyra
and fruit flies that move towards the light.
b) Aerotaxis
Response to variation in oxygen concentration. Shown by the movement of amoeba from a
region of low concentration to a region of high oxygen concentration.
c) Osmotaxis
Response to variation in osmotic pressure. As shown by marine crabs. d) Rheotaxis
Response to variation in the direction of water of air currents. Butterflies and moths fly
against wind currents in order to detect the scent of flowers. e) Chemotaxis
 Response to the variation in chemical substances eg movement of male gametes toward the
female gamete for fusion.
f) Thermotaxis
Locomotory response to changes in temperature. Eg paramecium moves from a location of
lower temperature to one of moderate temperature.
Note: Taxis involve the movement of the whole organism.
Survival value of tactic responses
i. Enable organisms to escape from harmful stimuli eg predators and excess heat. ii.
Organisms are able to seek favorable habitats and acquire resources eg mates and nutrients.
iii. Chemotaxis enables fertilization to take place.
Reception, response and coordination in plants
Plants lack higher sensory organs like the nervous and sensory systems in animals
Responses in plants are brought about by responses of parts of the plants. The responses are referred to as
tropisms.
Tropisms.
Tropisms are growth movements in response to unidirectional external stimuli.
These growth responses are normally slow because the growth is controlled by plant growth hormones
(auxins).
They are named according to the stimulus that evokes them.
Types of tropism
a) Phototropism
This is the growth curvature in response to the direction and intensity of light. Shoots show
positive phototropism while roots show negative phototropism.

b) Chemotropism
 This is the growth curvature in response to a gradient of chemical concentration. Eg pollen tubes
grow towards chemicals secreted by the embryo sac.
c) Geotropism
Growth curvature in response to gravity. Roots are positively geotropic while shoots are
negatively geotropic.

d) Hydrotropism
Growth curvature in response to water or moisture. Plant roots are positively hydrotropic.
e) Thigmotropism
Also known as haptotropism, it is the growth curvature in response to contact with a solid
object. Shown by tendrils of climbing plants that twine around objects.

Survival value of tropic responses.

i. Phototropism exposes the leaves in position to maximize light absorption thereby enhancing
photosynthesis.
ii. Hytrotropism enables plant roots to seek water.
iii. Thigmotropism enables plants to obtain mechanical support, especially plants lacking woody stems.
iv. Geotropism enables plants roots to grow deep into the solids therefore offering support.
v. Chemotropism enables pollen tubes to grow towards the embryo sac thereby facilitating fertilization.

Differences between tropism and taxes.

Tropisms Taxes

These are; These are;

i. Growth responses and are i. Locomotory responses
therefore more permanent. therefore temporary.
ii. Reponses are slow ii. Responses are fast.
iii. Tropisms are brought about by iii. Taxes are not influenced by
growth hormones. growth hormones.
Nastic responses
These are non-directional movements of parts of plants in response to stimuli.
Such responses include folding leaves, the opening of flowers in response to light intensity, or folding of leaves
of Mimosa pudica when touched.
The movements are bought about by loss in the togour pressure of the leaves or specific plant parts. At the base
of such leaves are pressure-sensitive swellings referred to as Pulvini which loose or gain turgidity and bring
about nastic movements.
Nastic responses are grouped according to stimulus that evokes them.
a) Nyctinasty
This are changes in response to differences in light intensity and temperature changes between
day and night. In response to light, when flowers close or open depending on light intensity,
they are referred to as Photonasty. In response to temperature changes, it is called
thermonasty.
b) Haptonasty
This is the response to touch as shown in Mimosa pudica and the Venus fly trap. c)
Chemonasty
This is the response to the presence of specific chemical substances of nitrogenous compounds
such as urea and ammonium compounds. This is evident in insectivorous plants such as sundew,
where the presence of the insect in the tentacles triggers the release of digestive enzymes.
d) Hydronasty
This is response to changes in humidity. such response is seen in flowers of Dandelion that
close when the air is moist.
Survival value of nastism.
1. Protection of the inner delicate parts of the flowers.
2. Reduction of transpiration. 3. Regulation of temperature.
4. A way of obtaining some limited mineral nutrients.

Coordination in plants
Plant growth responses are controlled by hormones such as auxins, gibberellins, cytokinins and florigens.
Tropisms are growth responses mostly influenced by the hormone auxin.
Role of auxins in tropisms.
Auxins are a group of plant growth hormones, the commonest auxins is indole-acetic acid (IAA).
Auxins are produced in apical meristems and move backward to the region of cell elongation, through
diffusion, where their effects are felt.
Roots are more sensitive to a smaller quantity of auxins compared to shoots. Therefore, a large number of
auxins is found in shoots compared to roots.
Auxins and phototropism
Under normal light distribution, auxins produced in the shoots are evenly distributed down the shoot, leading to
equal elongation and growth of the shoot.
However, when the shoot is exposed to unidirectional light, the shoot tip bends towards the light source. The
light causes unidirectional migration of auxins from the light side to the darker side.
A higher concentration on the darker side stimulates rapid cell elongation on this side hence a faster growth rate
on the side compared to the lit side.
The shoot eventually curves towards the light.

Auxins and geotropism

In plants, roots are positively geotropic while shoots are negatively geotropic.
Higher concentration of auxins I shoots accelerates growth while it slows growth in roots.
When a plant is placed horizontally, the shoot will curve upwards while the roots will curve downwards.
Gravity causes a higher concentration of auxins to migrate to the lower side of the plant, in shoots, such a high
concentration will accelerate higher growth on the lower side, making the shot curve upwards. In roots,
however, the higher concentration of auxins on the lower side inhibits growth, as a result, the top part grows
faster than the lower part making the root to curve downwards.
Auxins and thigmotropism
When a climbing plant comes into contact with a hard surface, the contact causes auxins to migrate to the
opposite side. The lateral migration causes a higher concentration on the outer side of the stem which then
grows at a faster rate compared to the inner side (the side in contact with the object).
The shoot continues to coil around the object.

Reception, response, and coordination in animals.

Irritability in animals is brought about by the nervous system. .in arthropods, the nervous system consists of
peripheral nerves and a ventral nerve cord, and cerebral ganglia in the head acting as a brain.
In higher animals, irritability is brought about by an elaborate nervous system and the endocrine system
(hormonal).
The nervous system in animals
In mammals, the nervous system consists of the central nervous system and the peripheral system.
The central nervous system (CNS) is made up of the brain and the spinal cord.
The peripheral system is made up of sensory nerves that transmit impulses from the receptors in sensory organs
to the central nervous system and motor nerve that transmits impulses from the central nervous system to
effector organs.
Structure and functions of the nerve cell.
The nerve cell (neuron) is the basic functional unit of the nervous system. It is a cell modified to transmit
impulses. The nerve cell consists of a cell body and extensions called dendrites.
Dendrites can be elongated to form an axon, which is enclosed by a fatty sheath called the myelin or
medullated sheath.
The myelin sheath is surrounded by the neurilemma which is the membrane of the Schwann cell but lies in
intimate contact with the axon.
The myelin sheath is broken at about one-millimeter intervals called node dos Ranvier.
Types of neurons
There are 3 types of neurons grouped according to the direction of the impulse conduction.
i. Sensory neurons (afferent)
ii. Motor neurons (efferent)
iii. Relay neurons (connector, intermediate or associative).

i. Sensory neurons
These are neurons that link the sense organs to the nervous system.
Sense organs include; the ears, nose, skin, eye, and tongue.
The cell body is located off the axon and outside the central nervous system. Its function is to transmit nerve
impulses from the sense organs to the central nervous system.
 ii. Motor
neurons
This nerve cell links the central nervous system with the effectors such as muscle fibers and glands.
Its cell body is located at one end of the axon in the central nervous system.
Its motor endplates terminate in a muscle or gland.
It transmits nerve impulses from the central nervous system to the effectors.

iii. Relay neurons

This neuron links the sensory neuron to the motor neuron through small gaps or neural junctions called
synapses.
It is therefore bipolar or multipolar neuron and is entirely located within the CNS.
Relay neurons are non-myelinated and their main function is to relay nerve impulses between sensory and
motor neurons.
Central nervous system
The CNS is composed of the brain, spinal cord, and their associated nerves.
The brain
The brain is a delicate organ located enclosed in the skull or the cranium. It is enveloped by a system of
protective membranes called meninges.
The meninges consist of the dura, pia, and arachnoid.
i. The dura matter is a tough membrane covering the brain and spinal cord of vertebrates.
ii. Pia matter is the innermost membrane covering the brain and the spinal cord, it possesses many
blood capillaries and lymph vessels.
iii. Arachnoid layer is a narrow space between the dura and the pia matter. it is filled with the
cerebrospinal fluid from which oxygen and nutrients diffuse into the brain cells.
The cerebrospinal fluid provides nourishment to the brain tissue and serves as a shock absorber to
protect the brain from mechanical damage.

Functions of major parts of the brain

The human brain is divided into three major regions;
i. The forebrain ii. Midbrain iii.
Hindbrain

i. The forebrain
This consists of the cerebrum, the thalamus, hypothalamus, and pituitary gland.
The cerebrum is a highly developed part consisting of the left and the right cerebral hemisphere.
It is important for the integration of sensory impulses such as hearing, vision, and taste.
This part of the brain s responsible for learning, memory and personality.
The thalamus is an important relay center that contains receptors for pain and pleasure.
The hypothalamus is located below the thalamus and has receptors for hemostatic functions such as
thermoregulation and osmoregulation.
It also controls appetite and sleep
The pituitary gland (master endocrine) is also located in this region. ii. Midbrain
The midbrain is the connecting stalk between the fore and hindbrain. It relays impulses from the spinal cord
and the forebrain.

iii. Hindbrain
The major parts of the hindbrain are the cerebellum and medulla oblongata.
The main function of the cerebellum is the maintenance of body posture and balance through coordinating
muscle movements.
The medulla oblongata controls involuntary activities such as breathing, swallowing, salivation, and vomiting.
It also controls blood pressure by controlling the dilation and constriction of blood vessels.
Cranial nerves
These nerves arise from m the brain and form part of the peripheral nervous system associated with receptors
and effectors in the head.
Spinal cord

This is the posterior extension of the brain to the tail.

It is enclosed in meninges and protected by the vertebral column.
It is made up of grey matter and white matter.
The grey matter relays information between the sensory and motor neurons. It consists of cell bodies and
dendrites of motor and relay neurons.
The white matter consists of the axons of the sensory and motor neurons.
In association with the cranial nerves, the spinal nerves control activities of the body organs below the head.

Reflex action
A reflex is a rapid automatic response to a certain stimulus.
There are two types of reflexes; the simple reflex action and the conditional reflex action.
a) Simple reflex action
In a simple reflex action, there is a specific single and automatic response to a particular stimulus. It does not
depend on learning.
Examples include withdrawal of a finger from a hot flame, blinking of the eye when an object passes close to it.
The structural basis of these reflexes is the reflex arc.
For example, when a finger is pricked, the pain receptors in the skin are stimulated. nerve impulses are
triggered off and transmitted via the sensory neuron to the grey matter of the spinal cord. Thee impulse is then
transmitted to the relay neuron then to the motor neuron and to the biceps of the upper arm through the ventral
root. The biceps contract and the forearm is withdrawn or raised.

b) Conditional reflex action

A conditioned reflex action is an automatic response that can be evoked from an animal by an unrelated
stimulus substituted for the one which normally elicits the response.
This reflex action is formed from past experience and involves modification of behavior through learning.
For example, a dog normally salivates just before food is presented to it. If a bell is rung just before the food is
presented to the dg and the action is repeated severally, the dog will learn to associate the bell ringing with
food. Therefore, it will salivate as soon as it hears the sound of the bell whether food is presented or not.
The conditioned reflex usually weakens over time and needs to be reinforced by the repeated stimulus.
Conditioned learning forms a basis for learned behavior such as walking, playing, cycling, and writing.
Differences between simple and conditioned reflex action.
Simple reflex action Conditioned reflex action
 i. Single stimulus to bring about a
ii. response.
iii. Simplest form of behavior and is
independent of experience.
Sensory and motor components
are the same at all times.
i. Repeated stimulus to bring about a
ii. response.
iii. Involves modification of behavior
and is dependent on experience.
Primary sensory component is
replaced by a secondary
component but the motor
component remains unchanged.

Transmission of nerve impulse Resting potential

A nerve impulse is an electrical charge or wave of electrical disturbance arising from changes in ionic
concentration across the surface membrane of a nerve fiber.
The ions involved in impulse transmission are sodium ions (Na+) and potassium ions(K+).

A non-conducting nerve fiber is said to be in resting potential. In this state, there are more Na + ions on the
outside of the axon than inside. the concentration of K+ is higher in the exoplasm. there are also relatively more
anions within the axoplasm.
The result of this unequal distribution is that there is a positive charge outside the axoplasm and a negative
charge inside the axoplasm, such that the membrane is said to be polarized.
During resting potential Na+ are actively pumped out during a mechanism called the sodium pump.
Meanwhile, K+ freely diffuses in and out of the axoplasm.
Action potential
An action potential is a localized change in electrical potential between the iron inside and outside of the nerve
fiber when stimulated. the inside becomes positively charged while the outside becomes negatively charged.
this is called depolarization.
The membrane becomes more permeable because the sodium pump temporarily ceases causing an influx by
diffusion of Na+ ions within the exoplasm relative to the outside causing the K+ ions to diffuse out.
This localized charge stimulates the depolarization of the membrane adjacent to it, thus propagating the
depolarization process.
This is immediately followed by a recovery to the polarized state, the movement of this action potential along a
nerve fiber constitutes a nerve impulse.
The endocrine system
This is a system of coordination in addition to the nervous system.
The system comprises endocrine glands that are ductless and secrete hormones. Interaction between these
hormones forms a communication network in the body.
Organs of the body that respond to hormones are referred to as target organs.
The production of these hormones is either directly or indirectly influenced by the nervous system.
The pituitary gland is the master endocrine gland that controls all the activities of all other glands.
Its action is however controlled by the hypothalamus through nervous communication.
The hypothalamus influences activities of the pituitary glands by monitoring the level of hormones and
chemicals of the blood passing through it.
Hormones control their reactions through a mechanism called the negative feedback mechanism.
Several of the hormones have been discussed in reproduction, homeostasis, and digestion. We will discuss
adrenaline and thyroxine.
 • Thyroxine
The hormone thyroxine is produced by the thyroid gland located in the neck region. It is a component of iodine.
Functions of thyroxine
Thyroxine controls basal metabolic activity by increasing glucose oxidation.
It also enhances the effect of growth hormone somatrophin, ensuring normal growth and mental development.
Thyroxine works in conjunction with adrenaline to enhance involuntary activities such as increases circulatory
rates.
Effects of under secretion of thyroxine (Hypothyridism)
Under secretion of thyroxine may be due to insufficient iodine in the diet (iodine is a component of thyroxine)
or defective animatic reactions concerned with its formation.
Hypothyroidism leads to cretinism in children and myxedema in adults.
Cretin children have deformed legs. Dry leathery skin, large tongue and general body sluggishness.
Myxoedema in adults is the swelling of the thyroid gland, a condition called goiter. This happens due to
overworking of the thyroid gland in an attempt to synthesize more thyroxine.
Individuals with low thyroxine selection have low metabolic rate, are mentally and physically sluggish.
Effects of overproduction of thyroxine (hyperthyroidism)
Increased metabolic rate leading to increased heartbeat, breathing rate and high temperature.
Individuals shoe nervousness, restlessness and are easily irritable.
Can also cause goiter, weight loss, thinning of skin and brittle hair.
Extreme hyperthyroidism leads to heart failure, a condition known as thyrotoxicosis.

• Adrenaline
Adrenaline is produced by the adrenal glands which are attached to the abdominal cavity, one above each
kidney.
Each adrenal gland is made up of two distance regions, the outer adrenal cortex and an inner adrenal medulla.
Adrenaline prepares the body for flight or flight. It causes an increase in heartbeat therefore increasing
circulation and metabolism.
Over secretion of adrenaline can be brought about by the growth of a tumor in the medulla of the adrenal
glands. This can leads to aging of major body organs such as kidney, heart and liver.
similarities between endocrine and nervous systems.
i. Both provide means of communication within the body of an organism.
 ii. Both involve transmission of a message triggered by a stimulus and a response. iii. The target
organs of hormones are like the effector organs. iv. Both involve chemical transmission. v.
Both bring about survival response.

Differences between endocrine and nervous system.

Endocrine system Nervous system
i. Chemical substances to evoke a i. Nerve impulses to evoke a
response. response.
ii. Chemical transmitted through ii. Impulses are transmitted through
blood. the nerve fiber.
iii. Responses slow but affect several iii. Response quick, specific and
parts of the body. Effects are localized.
iv. long lasting. Response takes iv. Effects ore rapid and short lived.
v. place involuntarily. v. Response takes place voluntarily
and involuntarily.

Effects of drug abuse on human health.

A drug is any chemical substance which when taken into the body has psychological and physiological effects.
Indiscriminate use of drugs with no regards to their side effects is called drug abuse.
Commonly abused drugs include, khat, nicotine, Cannabis sativa and alcohol.
Prolonged use of drugs can lead to drug addiction.
Effects of drug abuse
• Poor feeding habits leading to emaciation.
• Interference with absorption of vital vitamins such as K and E.
• Lowered nervous coordination leading to loss of posture and balance.
• Irritation of the lungs and respiratory track leading to frequent coughs and infections.
• May lead to cancer of the lungs, throat and urinary bladder.
• May cause stomach ulcers.
• Damage many tissues of the heart or liver leading to heart attacks and liver cirrhosis.
• Interference of temperature regulation leading to excessive heat loss.
• Poor festal development and pregnancy complications in women.
• Impaired judgement predisposing people to HIV/AIDS or accidents.
Sense organs
Sensory cells in higher animals have been associated together to form sense organs with accessory structures.
The main sense organs in mammals are the eye for sight, the ears for hearing, the skin for touch and pressure,
the tongue for taste.
The eye

The eye is a complex sensory organ whose function is to receive light by which the animal perceives and
distinguishes objects in its surrounding.
The eye is located in a socket in the skull called an orbit.
In the socket, the eye is suspended by a set of muscles; the lateral rectus muscles move the eye left and right.
The superior and inferior rectus muscles move the eye up and down.
The oblique muscles steady the eye in its up and down movements.

Retina
The retina is the light-sensitive layer composed of three regions;
i. An outer pigmented region in contact with the choroid.
ii. A middle region of photoreceptors consisting of rods and cones.
iii. An innermost region of neurons, these neurons run over the surface of the retina and join to
form the optic nerve which transmits nerve impulses from the retina to the brain for
interpretation.
Cones and rods
The cones contain a chemical pigment called iodopsin which perceives light of high intensity.
A high concentration of cones is found in the fovea centralis or yellow spot of the retina which is the most used
part of the retina.
Cones have high visual acuity.
Visual acuity id the ability of the eye to distinguish objects clearly.
The cones have got three types of cones to perceive different wavelengths of light, red, blue and green in
different intensities thereby bringing about color perception.
Rods contain a photochemical pigment called Rhodopsin which perceives light of low intensity. The rods have
low visual acuity and therefore cannot highly distinguish fine details.
On the retina, there is an area where the optic nerves enter the eyeball, this area neither has rods nor cones. It is
therefore referred to as the blind spot.

PART FUNCTIONS AND ADAPTATIONS

Conjuctiva • Thin and transparent to allow light to pass through
• Produces mucus that lubricates the eye
Sclerotic layer • Made of tough tissues to maintain the shape of the eye ball
• Protect the eye
Cornea • Made of tough tissues to protect the eye
• Transparent to allow light to pass through
• Curved to refract light
Choroid • Has dark pigment to prevent internal reflection of light
• Contains blood vessels to supply nutrients and oxygen and
remove waste from the eye
retina • Has cones for bright light vision and rods for dim light vision
Yellow spot • Has high concentration of cones for accurate vision

Blind spot • Part of the retina that has no cones or rods

• The place where the optic nerve leaves or enters the eye
Optic nerve • Has [sensory] nerve fibres for the transmission of impulses to
the brain for interpretation
Lens • Is biconvex for refraction of light rays
• Transparent to allow light to pass through
• Made of elastic material that adjusts when the eye focuses
on far or near objects
Ciliary body • Made of muscle fibres which contract or relax to change
the curvature or shape of the lens.
• It is glandular and produces aqueous humour
Suspensory • Are inelastic and hold the lens in position and attaches it to the
ligaments ciliary body
Iris • It is the coloured part of the eye.
• Has circular and radial muscles which control the size of
the pupil.
• It has melanin that absorbs strong light to prevent blurred
vision
Pupil • Hole at the centre of the iris through which light passes into the
eye
Aqueous humour • Has fluid to maintain the shape of the eye ball and refract
light
• Contains oxygen and nutrients for the cornea and the lens
• It is transparent to allow light to pass through

Vitreous humour
Tear glands
[lacrimal glands]
• Fluid for maintaining the shape of the eye ball and pressure
within the eye
• The fluid refracts light rays and is transparent to allow light to
pass through
• Secrete tears that wash away irritating materials in the eye and
keeps the eye moist

Image formation and interpretation

Light from the object is refracted into the cornea, aqueous humor, and the lens through the vitreous humor and
focused onto the fovea centralis and the retina.
The image is recorded as real, inverted, and small.
The photoreceptor cells become stimulated and a nerve impulse is generated and transmitted by the optic nerve
to the cerebrum for interpretation.
In the brain, the impulses are interpreted and the objects appear real.
Binocular vision and stereoscopic vision.
Binocular vision is when the visual fields of both eyes overlap such that the fovea of both eyes is focused on
the same object.
Stereotypic vision depends upon the two eyes simultaneously producing slightly different images which the
brain resolves as a single image.
It has several advantages over monocular vision and these include a larger visual field. Damage for one eye is
compensated by the other.
Accommodation of the eye
Accommodation is the adjustment of the eye structures to bring an image from a near or far object into a sharp
focus on the retina.
The lens curvature is altered by the action of the ciliary muscles acting on the suspensory ligaments.
Accommodation of a near object.
The ciliary muscles contract thereby relaxing the tension on suspensory ligaments.
The curvature of the lenses increases causing light rays from the objects to be greatly refracted by the lens
focusing them on the retina.

Accommodation of a distant object

The ciliary muscles relax thereby increasing the tension of the suspensory ligaments.
This stretches the lens decreasing its curvature. Light rays from a far object are less refracted and hence focus
onto the retina.

Accommodation in dim and bright light

 Dim light Bright light
Ciliary muscles relax Ciliary muscles contract.
Radial muscles contract. Radial muscles relax.
Pupil becomes larger to allow more light Pupil becomes smaller to allow less light
into the eye to stimulate photoreceptor into the eye to prevent damage of retina.
cells.

Defects of the eye

Defects of the eye are structural changes that make the focusing mechanism of the eye difficult.
Common defects of the eye include;
a) Short-sightedness (myopia)
Short-sightedness is a condition in which light rays from a distant object are brought to focus in front of the
retina while those from near objects are clearly focused on it.
This is caused by a long eyeball.
The condition can be corrected by wearing concave or diverging lenses.

b) Long-sightedness (hypermetropia)
Long-sightedness is a condition in which light rays from a near object are not brought to focus by the time they
reach the retina, while those from a distant object are sharply focused on the retina.
Long-sightedness is caused by a short eyeball or a weak lens system.
 c) Astigmatism
This is a condition in which light rays from an object are brought into focus in different planes.
This is caused by unequal curvature of the cornea or lens which produces unequal refraction of light entering
the eye.
It is corrected by wearing a special cylindrical lens in front of the eye which corrects the focus in the defective
planes.
d) Squintedness
Squintedness is an eye defect in which the extrinsic muscles of the eye that control the turning of the eyeball do
not coordinate accordingly on stimulation.
The defect can be corrected by wearing a convex lens. This lens refracts thereby enhancing refraction in order
to focus sharply on the retina.
e) Old sight (presbyopia)
This I a condition in which the light rays from a near object are brought into focus behind the retina while rays
from a distant object are sharply focused.
This is caused by hardening of the lens which causes the lens to lose its elasticity and by the weakening of the
ciliary muscles due to old age.
The defect is corrected by wearing a convex or converging lens. Or one pair of glasses with two different lenses
called bifocal lenses.
f) Cataracts
This is an eye defect associated with old age.
It may also be caused by eye injury due to a blow or by a complication of diabetes mellitus.
The eye lens becomes cloudy or opaque hence blocking the transmission of light rays. The condition can be
corrected by replacing the defective lenses with a good one from a donor.
g) Colorblindness
This is an agentic defect in which certain colors cannot be distinguished by human beings.
A common type is red and green color blindness where an individual is unable to distinguish between red and
green colors. There is no cure for this defect at the moment.
The human ear
The ear is a complex sense organ whose function is to perceive sound and maintain balance.
The structure of the ear consists of three parts;
i. An outer ear, ii. The middle ear iii. And the inner ear

i. An
outer ear,
The outer ear consists of the pinna and external auditory meatus.
The pinna is the flap of skin and cartilage which particularly covers the opening to the external auditory
meatus, which is a tube or passage that directs sound waves to the eardrum also called the tympanic membrane.
The auditory meatus is lined with hairs that trap solid particles that may enter the ear.
It is also lined with wax secreting cells whose function is to secrete wax that traps dust as prevents entry of
solid particles.
The wax also maintains the flexibility of the eardrum.

ii. The middle ear

The middle ear is an air-filled cavity consisting of the tympanic membrane. ear ossicles, Eustachian tube, oval
and round windows.
The tympanic membrane is a thin tough membrane that covers the external opening of the middle ear. When hit
by sound waves from outside, it vibrates and transforms sound waves into vibrations to the ear ossicles.
The ear ossicles are three bones namely the malleus, incus and stapes which form a system of levers to amplify
and transmit the vibrations to the oval window.
The eustachian tube is a tube connecting a middle ear with the pharynx. Its function is to equalize the pressure
between the middle ear and the outer ear.
iii. And the inner ear
This is a fluid filled cavity connected to the middle ear by the oval window.
It consists of a series of canals embeded in the born of the skull.
It has three cavities. The vestibule, the cochlea and the semi-circular canals. The vestibule and the semi-circular
canals are the structures for balance while the cochlea is the structure for hearing.
The cochlea is the structure responsible for hearing.

It is a spirally shaped tube consisting of a system of canals, membranes, and sensory cells.
The semicircular canals maintain body balance and posture in relation to the movement of the head. For
example, feeling dizzy after spinning is because the endolymph is still in motion and constantly stimulates the
sensory cells.
The vestibule consists of the utriculus and sacculus which contains chalky granules. The utriculus and sacculus
maintain body balance and posture in relation to gravity.

PART FUNCTION AND ADAPTATIONS

Pinna • Funnel shaped flap.

• Collects sound waves and directs the waves to the
external auditory canal
Auditory canal • A tube-like structure that directs sound waves to
the ear drum
• Has hairs and secretes wax to trap foreign
particles protecting the ear drum
Ear drum • Pliable to allow vibration movements
[tympanic membrane] • Converts sound waves to vibrations and transmits
them
to the ear ossicles
Ear ossicles • Vibrates and transmit the vibrations to the
[malleus, incus and colchea[inner ear]
stapes] • They connect the ear drum to the oval window
 Semi-circular canals, • Help in maintaining body balance
utricle and
saccule[vestibular
organs]
Eustachian tube • Connects middle ear with pharynx
• Equalizes air pressure on both sides of the ear drum
Oval window[Fenestra • Made up of thine membrane that covers a small hole.
ovalis] • Aids in transmission of vibrations from middle ear to
inner ear.
Round • Made up of a thin membrane covering a small
window[Fenestra hole.
rotunda] • Vibrations in the fluid of the middle ear are
dissipated back into middle ear
Auditory nerve • Contains nerve cells for transmission of nerve impulses
to the brain.
Cochlea • Spiral shaped with a system of canals
• Contain perilymph and endolymph which conduct
sound vibrations
• Highly coiled to provide a large surface area for
attachment of sensory cells for hearing

Defects of the ear

There are two types of hearing defects; permanent deafness and partial deafness.
Permanent deafness is due to damage of either the cochlea or the auditory nerves. Deafness can be caused by
many things such as mechanical damage or long exposure to high sounds and is difficult to correct.
Partial deafness is caused by impairment of structures that transmit vibrations from the cochlea.
Deaf persons can be taught to learn using sign language for communication.

REVISION QUESTIONS ON IRRITABILITY

1. Define the following terms:
a) Irritability
b) Stimulus
c) Response
2. a) Explain the following responses in organisms:
i. Taxis[tactic] ii.
Tropic[tropisms] iii.
Nastic[nastism]
b) Explain the survival values of the responses named in [2][a] above.
3. The diagram below shows the stem of a plant growing round a tree trunk.

a) State the name given to this type of response.

b) Explain how the coiling round the tree trunk occurs.
4. The diagram below shows tree seedlings grown in a dark chamber with a unilateral light source.

A had the shoot covered with a tin cup while B had the apex cut off. C was left intact. State the results of shoots
A, B
& C by the end of the experiment.
5. a) A seedling grown horizontally in the dark has its shoot curving upwards while the root curves downwards.
Explain the results observed in the: i. Shoot ii.
Root
b) Suggest a control for this experiment.
6. An experiment was set up to investigate a certain response in termites.

• After 15 minutes, count the number of termites in each chamber.

• Then sprinkle naphthalene crystals on the bread crumbs.

• Leave the set up for 15 minutes then count the number of termites in each chamber.
a) State the aim of the experiment.
b) What conclusions can you make concerning movement of termites:
i. When choice chamber has only bread crumbs and sand.
ii. When the choice chamber has bread crumbs mixed with naphthalene and dry sand. c) What
response do the termites in each case show?
d) What is the role of plasticine or wax?
7. State the differences between tropisms and taxes.
8. The graph below shows the effect of different concentration of auxins in shoot and root growth.
Account the shape of the graph of: a) Shoot
b) Root
9. Name two systems of communication in animals.
10. With the aid of diagrams, describe the structure and function of:
a) Sensory neurone
b) Motor neurone
c) Relay neurone
11. State the structural and functional differences between sensory and motor neurone.
12. State the functions of the following parts of the brain:
a) Cerebrospinal fluid
b) Cerebrum
c) Cerebellum
d) Hypothalamus
e) Medulla Oblongata
f) Pituitary gland
13. a) Define the following and give an example in each case:
i. Simple reflex action ii. Conditioned
reflex action

b) State the differences between simple reflex action and conditioned reflex action.
14. The diagram below shows the transverse section of the spinal cord.
 a) Name the part
labelled H
b) State 2 functions of the fluid found in the part labelled J
c) Give a reason for the colour of white matter
d) Name and give a function of the enzyme found at the part labelled K
e) On the diagram, use an arrow to show the direction of impulse transmission along the neurone labelled I.
15. Describe the sequence of events that lead to the withdrawal of hand from a hot object.
16. Name the following in transmission of nerve impulse and state the function of each: a) Two mineral
ions
b) A transmitter substance
c) An enzyme
17. Explain the transmission of nerve impulse along:
a) An axon
b) A synapse
18. a) What is a hormone?
b) Explain the effect of the following hormones to human beings:
i. Thyroxine ii. Adrenaline
19. Explain the effects of the following:
a) Hyperthyroidism [overproduction of thyroxine
b) Hypothyroidism [under secretion of thyroxine]
20. State five differences between nervous and endocrine system
21. a) What is drug abuses?
b) Explain the effects of drug abuse in human beings.
22. State the functions of the following sense organs in mammals: i. Eye ii. Eye tongue iii. Nose iv. Skin
23. Complete the table below for the mammalian eye.
Part Adaptation function

24. State the differences between cones and rods.

25. With the aid of a diagram, explain how an image is formed in the retina of the eye.
26. a) What is accommodation of the eye?
b) Describe accommodation in:
i. Dim light ii. Bright light
iii. Far object iv. Near
object
27. State three advantages of binocular[stereoscopic] vision over monocular vision.
28. With aid of diagrams, explain the causes, effects and corrective measures of the following eye defects:
a) Long-sight[hypermetropia]
b) Short-sight[myopia]
29. Describe the structure and adaptations of mammalian ear by completing the table below.

PART ADAPTATION FUNCTION

30. Describe the hearing process in human beings.

31. Describe the causes and corrective measures for the following ear defects:
a) Permanent deafness
b) Partial deafness
 EVOLUTION
INTRODUCTION ;
Many biologist believe that the earth and all That therein is not as it was originally

Objectives
A. Meaning of evolution

B. The origin of life

1. Special creation
2. Chemical evolution

C. Evidence of organic evolution

1. Fossil records
2. Geographical distribution - Continental drift
3. Comparative anatomy
4. Comparative embryology
5. Cell biology- occurrence of cell organelles and blood pigments
6. Comparative serology
7. Taxonomy

D. Mechanisms of evolution
 Lamarck's theory of use and disuse
 Darwin’s theory of natural selection

2. Evolution by natural selection

Is evolution taking place today?

a) Natural selection in action e.g. peppered moth
b) Resistance to drugs, pesticides and antibiotics

What is evolution
 The current organisms have completely different characteristics from the similar pre-existing form.
Evolution has taken place.
 Evolution is the gradual change of living organism from simple life forms to more complex forms
over a long period of time

THE ORIGIN OF LIFE

There are two main theories which explain the origin of life:
 Theory of special creation
 Theory of chemical evolution
Other theories
 Spontaneous generation
 Steady state theory
 biogenesis
Special creation
 There is a supreme Being (God).
 The supreme Being brought into existence something out of nothing. (creation)
 That life was brought into existence by a supreme Being.
 That life forms were created in a perfect form and have remained unchanged over
time

DO YOU AGREE On Special Creation?

 The knowledge of special creation is based on faith and can not be disputed .
 It can not be tested scientifically hence cannot be contradicted scientifically.

CHEMICAL EVOLUTION
Proposes that
 Life came into existence through combinations of chemicals
 Initial life forms were simple and have changed over the years to form the present complex
organisms.
 There is scientific evidences in form of experiments, art efacts and fossils to support this theory

Life began through a catalytic effect of lighting , bringing together elements to form simple molecules like a)
Water (H2O)
b) Ammonia ( NH3)
c) Methane(CH4)
Further random combination of such compounds resulted in formation of self – replicating molecule --
DNA
 This may have further developed into simple form of the first living cells which have resembled
present-day viruses and bacteria
 This has been proved in laboratory where S.L.MILLER successfully produced four of the 20 known
amino acids by passing a spark through a mixture of hydrogen, methane , water and ammonia

What could have happened

A virus
Simple form Of live
Has only a protein coat and a DNA molecules carrying genes that instructs other cells to make similar viruses
Eg Corona virus

EVIDENCE FOR ORGANIC EVOLUTION

 These are factors that attempts to proof that initial life forms were simple and have changed gradually
over the years to form present complex organism
 That variations over generations has led to formation of new species which are completely different
from the original organism
The evidence include :
 Fossil records
 Geographical distribution of organisms
 Comparative embryology
 Comparative anatomy
 Cell biology
 Comparative serology
 Taxonomy

1.State the importance of fossils to the study of evolution .

 The study of fossils is called palaeontology
 Fossils are remains of ancestral forms preserved in materials like sedimentary rocks, ice , plant resins
or impressions eg cast and mould
 Most fossils are formed from the hard parts of organisms like bones, shells etc.
 Soft parts decay when animal dies.
 They are replaced by minerals forming a rock like structure which retains the shape of the original
organism. This is referred to as Petrification
 Fossils show different organisms that existed in a place in particular time
 Comparing the fossils of different organisms it is possible to tell relationships between the organisms.
 Fossils when constructed on the basis of increased complexity shows history of development of
certain organisms
 Fossils shows gradual increase in complexity of organisms over time.
Using carbon dating the age of organisms can be estimated

Limitation of using fossil records

 There are several missing links--- because some parts or whole organisms decomposed, eaten by
scavengers, some have not been discovered.
 Some parts could have been distorted during sedimentation hence giving wrong impression
 Destruction of fossils by geological activities eg volcanicity , earthquakes, mass, movement
Parth way of human

2.GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF ORGANISMS

 proposes that the whole world was one large single landmass.
 Organism used to move freely all over the land mass.
As result of continental drift, isolation occurred bringing about different patterns of evolution e.g. Ilams of
Amazon resemble the camel, Kangaroos in Australia resemble the Jaguar in S.America.
 Organisms in each continent evolved along different lines hence emergence of new species.

Continental drift
 The drifting a part of the continents from one landmass/pangea/Godwana land.

3.Comparative embryology.
 This is the comparison of the embryo of different vertebrates during early stages of development.
 The closer the resemblance between the embryos the closer the phylogenic(evolutionary) relationship of
the organisms.
 This has shown that embryos of all vertebrates and chordates have a lot of structural resemblances
during the early stages of development which indicate all vertebrates have same ancestral orgin.Birds are
closely related to man than the fishes.

4.Cell biology.
 Study of cells to establish evolutionary relationship between living organisms.
 Organisms having same chemical characteristics are said to be related.
 Occurrence of the cell e.g.
mitochondria,ribosomes,nucleus,cytochromes, point to a common ancestry.

5.Comparative serology/physiology.
 Closely related animals have similar blood proteins.
 Antibody-antigen reactions show that human blood is closely related to that of a chimpanzee or monkey
than a dog or snake.
 Antigen-antibody reactions reveal same phylogenic relationship among organisms/same ancestry.s
6.Comparative anatomy.
 When the form and structure of different organisms are compared, some groups show basic structural
similarities.
 These similarities suggest a common or related ancestry.
 Differences in anatomical structures show that such organisms have less evolutionary relationship.
 Comparative anatomy is classified into two groups:
 i) convergent evolution
 ii) Divergent evolution

Divergent evolution.
 This is where one’s structural form is modified to give rise to various forms forming homologous
structures.

Homologous structures.
 Structures of same embryonic origin but modified to perform different functions e.g. pentatactyl
limb/vertebrate fore limb/beaks of birds/feet of birds/mouth parts of insects.
Convergent evolution
 Type of comparative anatomy where structures of different embryonic origins have been modified to
perform similar functions.
 Such structures are called analogous structures.
Analogous structures.
 Structures of different embryonic origin that have in the course of time been modified to perform similar
functions.
 These structures help them to exploit same type of environment, they therefore look similar.
 Analogous structures are important because they enable different groups of organisms to exploit the
same ecological niche.
Examples of analogous structures.
 Wings of birds and wings of insects have different embryonic origin but in the course of time have been
modified to perform similar function of flight. Wings of birds originate from the endoskeleton while those of
insects from exoskeleton.
 Eye of octopus and man have different embryonic origin but have been modified to perform same
function of sight.

Vestigial structures.
 Structures that have ceased to be functional over along period of time and have hence reduced in size.

Examples of vestigial structures.

 Appendix in man is functionless while in herbivores
e.g. rabbits it is used for digestion of cellulose.
 Coccyx,nictating membrane,semilunar fold,caecum,ear muscles, body hair.
 Kiwi(flightless bird) with reduced wings.
 Python and the whale lack externally visible hind limbs but their original presence is evidenced by the
existence of a rudimentary pelvic girdle.
 Halteres in diptera
 Third digit of awing in a bird.
Mechanisms of evolution.
 Lamarck's theory.
 Darwin’s theory.

Lamarck's theory.
 Also referred to as the use and disuse theory.
 He proposed that when an organism develops a need for a particular structure, it induces its appearance.
 He also said that if an organism does not need a particular structure, it will tend to
degenerate(vestigial).Organisms will then pass on this new characteristics to the offspring leading to formation
of new species.
 e.g. long neck of Giraffe.
 Flightless birds e.g. Ostrich,Kiwi,Emu.
Theory not accepted by Biologists because of the following:
 Evidence does not support Lamarck’s theory.
 Acquired characteristics are not inherited/inherited characteristics are found in reproductive cells.

Darwin’s theory
 He based on evidence of natural occurrence of variation within a species. He noted that variations arose
spontaneously from within an individual and could be passed to successive generation.
 Variations may be acquired as due to environmental factors. This variations accumulate over along
period of time and lead to emergence of new species.
 Organisms with suitable variations survive while those with unsuitable variations disappear from
existence.
Natural selection.
 Nature selects those individuals which are sufficiently well adapted and allows them to survive and
rejects those that are poorly adapted.

Criticism of Darwin’s theory.

 It does not explain the presence of vestigial organs in many organisms.
 In the struggle for existence the fittest and many unfit also survive, for humans the unfit are protected.
 The theory does not explain mutation which result to permanent variations.
 The theory does not explain the presence of intermediate forms.
 The theory believes in small variations mostly environmental that can not be inherited.

How natural selection brings about adaptation of a species to its environment.

 Individuals of same species show certain variations. This variations are caused by genes.
 These variations can be passed from parents to offspring through genetic inheritance.
 Some of the variations become more suited to the prevailing environmental conditions.
 Due to selection pressure, most organisms generally produce offsprings more than the environment can
support, therefore there is always a tendency for struggle for existence.
 Due to competition among individuals, those individuals that posses characters that enable them to have
competitive advantage to survive stand a better chance to survive in the struggle.
 The result is that well adapted individuals are able to survive and reach reproductive age and hand over
their favorable characteristics to their offsprings.
 Those that are poorly adapted fail to reach sexual maturity hence do not pass their genes to their
offsprings.
 Variations regarded as ‘raw materials’ of evolution by Darwin have been traced to changes that occur at
gene or chromosomal level.
 The changes are called mutations.
 Mutations occur randomly in organisms .
 Organisms with beneficial mutations pass them to their offsprings and this may lead to emergency of
new species. Most mutations result in variations of an already existing structure leading to modification of
organs and appendages.

Natural selection in action

 The peppered moth Biston betularia is found in Britain. Its common type is speckled white while the
other one is black melanic form.
 Before industrial revolution, the speckled white form was well camouflaged against tree trunks with
similar pattern and coloration.
 Industrial revolution took place in 1848 darkening the environment by soot.
 The dark form blended well against trees darkened by soot and smoke.
 The dark forms were better protected in industrial area against predation from birds than lighter forms.
 There is a higher frequency of melanic form in smoke and soot polluted areas while speckled white
predominate in soot-free areas.
 The agent of natural selection was selective predation on the un protected forms.
 Melanic form was as a result of mutation.

Other examples of natural selection in action include:

 Sickle cell trait. Malaria
 Resistance to drugs, pesticides and antibiotics.
 The micro-organisms acquire resistant genes through mutation and resist the chemicals.

REVISION QUESTIONS ON EVOLUTION

1. a) Define evolution.
b) Distinguish between chemical evolution and organic evolution.
2. Explain the following theories of origin of life:
a) Chemical theory
b) Special creation theory
3. Describe the following evidences for organic evolution:
a) Fossil records
b) Geographical distribution
c) Comparative embryology
d) Comparative anatomy
e) Cell biology
f) Comparative serology
4. State the structural differences between apes and humans.
5. Explain the following theories if mechanism of evolution:
a) Lamarck’s theory
b) Darwin’s theory
6. Explain why Lamarck’s theory was rejected by scientists.
7. Explain the following:
a) Natural selection
b) Adaptive radiation
c) Struggle for existence
d) Survival for the fittest
8. Explain the following and give examples for each case:
a) Homologous structures
b) Analogous structures
c) Vestigial structures
9. What is the difference between divergent and convergent evolution?
10. Explain the following examples of natural selection in action:
a) Peppered moth [Biston betularia] in Britain
b) Sickle cell trait
c) Resistance to drugs, pesticides and antibiotics
11. a) What is heterozygous advantage?
b) Explain why it has become difficult to eradicate malaria.