LEARNING

OUTCOMES
Explain the two types of seed
germination

Describe primary growth and

the types of tissues involved

Describe secondary growth

and the types of tissues
involved
 EMBRYO DEVELOPMENT

★ The first mitotic division of the

Ovule
zygote is transverse. Endosperm
nucleus
★ Splitting the fertilized egg into Integuments
a basal cell and a terminal Zygote
cell. Zygote
Terminal cell
Basal Proembryo
cell
Suspensor

Basal cell
Cotyledons
Shoot apex

Root apex
Seed coat
Suspensor Endosperm
Campbell, et. al. 2018
ENDOSPERM DEVELOPMENT
★ Endosperm development

★ Usually precedes embryo development.

★ In most monocots and some eudicots

★ The endosperm stores nutrients that can be used by the seedling

after germination.

★ In other eudicots

★ The food reserves of the endosperm are completely exported to the

cotyledons.
STRUCTURE OFTHE MATURE SEED
★ The embryo and its food supply

★ Are enclosed by a hard, protective seed coat.

★ In a common garden bean, a eudicot/dicot

★ Embryo with two cotyledons.

★ The embryo consists of

Seed Epicotyl
coat
the hypocotyl, radicle Hypocoty
l

and thick cotyledons. Radicle

Cotyledons

(a) Common garden bean, a eudicot with thick

cotyledons. The fleshy cotyledons store food absorbed
from the endosperm before the seed germinates.
Campbell, et. al. 2018
STRUCTURE OFTHE MATURE SEED
★ The seeds of other eudicots, such as castor beans.

★ Have similar structures, but thin cotyledons

The narrow, membranous cotyledons (shown in edge and flat

views) absorb food from the endosperm when the seed germinates.
Campbell, et. al. 2008
STRUCTURE OFTHE MATURE SEED
★ The embryo of a monocot
★ Has a single cotyledon, a coleoptile, and a coleorhiza.

Pericarp fused
Scutellum with seed coat
(cotyledon Endosper
) m
Coleoptil Epicotyl
e
Coleorhiz Hypocotyl
a Radicle

(c) Maize, a monocot. Like all monocots, maize has only one
cotyledon. Maize and other grasses have a large cotyledon called a
scutellum.The rudimentary shoot is sheathed in a structure called the
coleoptile, and the coleorhiza covers the young root.
Campbell, et. al. 2018
FROM OVARY TO FRUIT
★ A fruit
◦ Develops from the ovary.
◦ Protects the enclosed seeds.
◦ Aids in the dispersal of seeds by wind or animals.

(Harvard University, 2018)

★ Fruits are classified into several types
◦ Depending on their developmental origin.

Carpels
Flower
Stamen Ovary
Stigma

Stamen
Ovule
Pea flower Raspberry flower Pineapple inflorescence
Carpel Each segment
(fruitlet) Stigma develops
Seed from the
Ovary carpel of
Stamen
one flower
Pineapple
Pea fruit fruit
Raspberry fruit
(a) Simple fruit. A simple fruit
(b)Aggregate fruit. An aggregate (c) Multiple fruit. A multiple fruit
develops from a single carpel (or fruit develops from many separate develops from many carpels of
several fused carpels) of one carpels of one flower (examples: many flowers (examples:
flower (examples: pea, lemon, raspberry, blackberry, pineapple, fig).
peanut).
strawberry).
Campbell, et. al. 2008
Differences between embryo/seed of monocot and eudicot

The embryo of a
monocot (corn) has a
single cotyledon, a
coleoptile, and a
coleorhiza

• The seeds of eudicot,

(castor bean) has
similar structures, but
thin cotyledon
SEED GERMINATION
★ As a seed matures

★ It dehydrates and enters a phase referred to as dormancy  a

condition of extremely low metabolic rate and suspension of growth
& development.
SEED DORMANCY:
ADAPTATION FOR TOUGH TIMES
★ Environmental conditions required to break dormancy vary
among species.
★ Seed dormancy
★ Increases the chances that germination will occur at a
time and place most advantageous to the seedling.
★ The breaking of seed dormancy
★ Often requires environmental cues, such as temperature
or lighting cues.
★ The length of time a dormant seed remains viable and
capable of germinating varies.
★ From a few days to decades or even longer
★ Depending on the plant species and environmental
conditions.
FROM SEED TO SEEDLING
★ Germination of seeds depends on the physical process called imbibition.

★ The uptake of water due to low water potential of the dry seed.

★ Imbibing water causes the seed to expand and rupture its coat and
also triggers metabolic changes in the embryo that enable it to
resume growth.

(US Department of Agriculture, 2016) (Encyclopedia Brittanica, 2006)

SEED GERMINATION (EPIGEAL)
★ The radicle is the first organ to emerge from the germinating seed
★ In many eudicots:
★ A hook forms in the hypocotyl, and growth pushes the hook above
ground.
★ Stimulated by light, the hypocotyl straightens, raising the cotyledons and
epicotyl.
Foliage leaves
Cotyledon

Epicotyl
Epigeal germination Hypocotyl
Cotyledon
Hypocotyl Cotyledon

(a) Common garden Hypocotyl

bean. In common garden
beans, straightening of a
hook in the hypocotyl Radicle
Seed coat
pulls the cotyledons from
the soil. (Campbell, et. al., 2018)
SEED GERMINATION (HYPOGEAL)

★ Monocots use a different method for breaking ground when they

germinate.

★ The coleoptile  the sheath enclosing & protecting the embryonic shoot
★ Pushes upward through the soil and into the air.

Foliage
leaves Hypogeal germination

Coleoptile Coleoptile

(b) Maize. In maize and other

grasses, the shoot grows
straight up through the tube
of the coleoptile.
Radicle
(Campbell, et. al., 2018)
Plant
Growth &
Development
 Body Plan DERMAL TISSUES

• Ground tissue
system VASCULAR TISSUES

• Vascular tissue
system
GROUND TISSUES

SHOOT SYSTEM

• Dermal tissue ROOT SYSTEM

system
PLANT GROWTH
★ 2 types of plant growth:

★ Primary growth : lengthens roots and shoots.

★ Secondary growth : Add girth to stems and roots in woody plants.

(Campbell, et. al., 2008)

 shoot tip (terminal bud)
lateral (axillary) bud young leaf
flower

node
internode dermal tissue
node

vascular tissues
leaf
seeds in
fruit

ground tissues withered

seed leaf
shoot system (cotyledon)
root system

primary root
lateral root root hairs
root tip
Fig. 18-1, p.301
shoot tip (terminal bud)

activity at
meristems
primary tissues
form as new
cells lengthen,
differentiate

primary tissues
form as new
cells lengthen, activity at
differentiate meristems

root tip

Fig. 29-3a, p.494

 Primary growth lengthens
roots and shoots
Primary growth
produces the
primary plant
body, the parts of
the root and
shoot systems
produced by
apical meristems
 AN OVERVIEW OF PRIMARY AND SECONDARY GROWTH
Shoot apical Primary growth in stems
meristems
(in buds) Epidermis
In woody plants, Cortex
there are lateral Primary phloem
meristems that
add secondary Primary xylem
growth, Vascular cambium
Lateral
increasing the Pith
Cork cambium meristems
girth of roots and
stems.
Apical Secondary growth in stems
meristems Periderm
add primary Cork cambium
growth, Pith
The cork
or growth in cambium adds
length. secondary
Primar dermal tissue.
y Cortex
xylem Primary phloem
Root apical Secondary
meristems xylem The vascular
Secondary cambium adds
phloem Secondary xylem
Vascular cambium and phloem.

(Campbell, et. al, 2005)

PRIMARY GROWTH LENGTHENS
ROOTS AND SHOOTS

 Primary growth produces the primary

plant body, the parts of the root and
shoot systems produced by apical
meristems.

(Campbell, et. al., 2018)

PRIMARY GROWTH OF ROOTS
 The root tip is covered by a root cap, which protects the delicate apical
meristem as the root pushes through soil during primary growth.
Cortex Vascular cylinder
Epidermis

Key Zone of
Dermal Root hair differentiation
G
Varosucunlda
r

Zone of
elongatio
n

Apical
meristem Zone of cell
division
Root cap

100 mm
(Campbell, et. al., 2008)
PRIMARY GROWTH OF ROOTS
★ The primary growth of roots

★ Produces the epidermis, ground tissue, and vascular tissue.

ORGANIZATION OF PRIMARY TISSUES
IN YOUNG ROOTS
Epidermis
Cortex
Vascular
cylinder
Endodermis
Pericycle
Core of
parenchyma cells
Xylem
100 mm Phloem
100 mm
(a)Transverse section of a typical root. In the roots
of typical gymnosperms and eudicots, as well as some (b) Transverse section of a root with
monocots, the stele is a vascular cylinder consisting of a parenchyma in the center. The stele
lobed core of xylem with phloem between the lobes. of many monocot roots is a vascular
Endodermis Key cylinder with a core of parenchyma
Pericycle Dermal surrounded by a ring of alternating
Ground xylem and phloem.
Vascular
Xylem
Phloem

50 mm
(Campbell, et. al., 2018)
ORGANIZATION OF PRIMARY TISSUES
IN YOUNG ROOTS

★ Lateral roots
★ Arise from within the pericycle, the outermost cell layer in the
vascular cylinder.

(Campbell, et. al., 2008)

PRIMARY GROWTH OF SHOOTS
★ A shoot apical meristem
Apical meristem Leaf primordia
★ Is a dome-shaped mass of
dividing cells at the tip of the
terminal bud.
Developing
vascular
strand
★ Gives rise to a repetition of
internodes and leaf-bearing
nodes. Axillary bud
meristems

0.25 mm
(Campbell, et. al., 2018)
TISSUE ORGANIZATION OF STEMS
Phloe
Xylem
m
★ In most eudicots and Sclerenchyma Ground tissue
(fiber cells) connecting
gymnosperms (naked seed pith to cortex
plant).
★ The vascular tissue consists of
vascular bundles arranged in
a ring. Pith

Key
Epidermis Vascula Cortex Dermal
r Ground
bundle 1 mm Vascular

(a) A eudicot stem. A eudicot stem (sunflower), with

vascular bundles forming a ring. Ground tissue toward
the inside is called pith, and ground tissue toward the
outside is called cortex. (LM of transverse section)
(Campbell, et. al., 2018)
TISSUE ORGANIZATION OF STEMS
★ In most monocot stems Ground
tissue
★ The vascular bundles are
scattered throughout the
ground tissue, rather than
forming a ring.
Epidermis

Vascular
bundles
Figure 35.16b 1 mm
(b) A monocot stem. A monocot stem (maize)
with vascular bundles scattered throughout the
ground tissue. In such an arrangement, ground
tissue is not partitioned into pith and cortex. (LM
of transverse section)
(Campbell, et. al., 2018)
TISSUE ORGANIZATION OF LEAVES
★ The epidermal barrier in leaves:

★ Is interrupted by stomata, which allow CO2

exchange between the surrounding air and the
photosynthetic cells within a leaf.

★ The ground tissue in a leaf:

★ Is sandwiched between the upper and lower

epidermis.

★ The vascular tissue of each leaf:

★ Is continuous with the vascular tissue of the

stem.
 Guard
Key
cells
Dermal
Ground Stomatal pore
Vascular
Epidermal
cell
Sclerenchyma
Cuticle fibers 50 µm
(b) Surface view of a spiderwort
Stoma (Tradescantia) leaf (LM)

Upper
epidermis
Palisade
Bundle- mesophyll
sheath
cell Spongy
mesophyll
Lower
Guard epidermis
cells Cuticle
Xylem Vein Vein Air spaces Guard cells
Phloem Guard
100 µm
cells (c) Transverse section of a
(a) Cutaway drawing of leaf tissues lilac (Syringa) leaf (LM)
(Campbell, et. al., 2018)
SECONDARY GROWTH
★ Secondary growth adds girth to stems and roots in woody plants.

★ Secondary growth:

★ Occurs in stems and roots of woody plants but rarely in leaves.

★ The secondary plant body:

★ Consists of the tissues produced by the vascular cambium and cork

cambium.
PRIMARY AND SECONDARY
GROWTH OF A STEM
PRIMARY
AND
SECONDARY
GROWTH OF
A STEM

(Macmillan Highered, n.d.)

 VASCULAR CAMBIUM

stem
Growth in surface
a walnut
primary xylem
twig
primary phloem

VASCULAR CAMBIUM

secondary xylem

secondary phloem
Fig. 18-11b, p.308
 Secondary Growth

Ongoing cell divisions

enlarge the inner core of
secondary xylem and
displace vascular cambium
toward the stem.
THE VASCULAR CAMBIUM AND SECONDARY
VASCULAR TISSUE
★ The vascular cambium:

★ Is a cylinder of
meristematic cells.

★ One cell thick.

★ Develops from
parenchyma cells.
THE VASCULAR CAMBIUM AND SECONDARY
VASCULAR TISSUE
★ As a tree or woody shrub ages

★ The older layers of secondary

xylem, the heartwood, no
longer transport water and
minerals.

★ The outer layers, known as

sapwood:

★ Still transport materials through

the xylem.
 SECONDARY PLANT BODY
Growth ring

Vascular ray

Heartwood
Secondary
xylem Sapwood

Vascular cambium
Secondary phloem
Bark
Layers of periderm

(Campbell, et. al., 2018)

 S E CONDARY P LANT B ODY
Secondary
phloem
Vascular Cork
Secondary Late wood cambium Periderm
xylem Early wood cambium
Cork

Xylem ray
Bark

0.5 mm 0.5 mm
(b) Cross section of a three-year-old Tilia (linden) stem (LM)

(Campbell, et. al., 2018)

CORK CAMBIA AND THE PRODUCTION OF PERIDERM
★ Cork cam bium

★ Gives rise to the secondary plant body’s protective covering, or

periderm

★ Periderm
★ Consists of the cork cambium plus the layers of cork cells it
produces

★ Bark
★ Consists of all the tissues external to the vascular cambium,
including secondary phloem and periderm
Cypress Growth Rings

1587-1589 1606-1612