Ecosystem

1. Basic concepts

2. Population

The population size is dependent on 4 factors – the reproduction rate, the death rate,
immigration and emigration. In a stable population these are balanced and can be
expressed as an equation:

Reproduction + immigration = death + emigration

 3. Energy flow in ecosystem
Energy is loss within and between trophic levels. Ul<mate source of energy:

How is the energy from the sun captured?

Efficiency of this process: 0.2%

Source of energy loss:

Some energy is reflected by the waxy cuGcle.
Some energy is the wrong wavelength to be absorbed.
Some energy is transmiIed through the leaf as it doesn’t hit a chloroplast.

Quantifying the process:

The rate of production of organic molecules by photosynthesis in a given area per

unit time is the gross primary productivity (GPP). The units are kJ m-2 yr-1.

The plant itself uses some of these organic molecules to respire – this energy is lost
as heat and carbon dioxide is returned to the atmosphere. The organic molecules
assimilated (made into plant chemicals) represent the net primary productivity (NPP).
This is the organic molecules that are available to the next trophic (feeding) level, the
primary consumers. This can be expressed as an equation using R for respiration. GPP
– R = NPP= energy available to herbivores

Example:

Calculate GPP and efficiency of transfer from the sun to the plant.

Energy is transferred through ecosystems through food chains by feeding to primary

consumers (herbivores) then to secondary consumers (carnivores) and on to higher
levels if they can be sustained.
Not all NPP can be transferred to herbivores.
Source of energy loss:
some of it will not be digesGble (cellulose), this will pass straight through the gut and
be egested as faeces (F).

The rest of it will be assimilated – taken into the caterpillar’s cells. Energy is loss
within a trophic level as well. In herbivores:

- excess amino acids will be converted to nitrogenous waste and will be excreted as
uric acid (U).
- Some of it will be used in respiraGon to provide ATP for movement and will be lost
as heat (R).

What is leW of the food consumed (C) is the producGvity of the caterpillar (P). The
producGon of the caterpillar can be passed on to a secondary consumer.
Using the leIers, we can represent this as an equaGon: P = C – (F+U+R).

Example:

Calculate Rh and efficiency of transfer between the producer and primary consumer.

A food chain is a representaGon of energy flow. The arrow head points to the
organism doing the eaGng, thus represenGng the direcGon of energy flow.
A food web represents the energy flow through an ecosystem and seeks to represent
the more complex feeding relaGonships where some organisms gain energy at more
than one trophic (feeding) level.
 Example food web

What are the producers?

which organisms are feeding on two trophic levels?

As energy is lost at each trophic level, less and less is available to be passed on at
each level. Eventually there will not be enough energy to sustain a higher trophic
level. This limits how many trophic levels there are in a food chain. Much of the
energy loss is from respiration.

Aquatic food chains tend to be a bit longer than terrestrial ones. Reasons:

1. They do not use as much energy to support themselves as there is buoyancy

from the water.
2. There are not many endothermic animals in aquatic systems so there are less
respiratory losses.
Invertebrates, fish, amphibia and reptiles are ecto-thermic (cold blooded) and
therefore lose less energy from respiration as they are not using the heat from
respiration to keep warm.

Smaller organisms have a higher surface area to volume ratio, so a small mammal or
bird will lose more heat and will have to respire at a higher rate to keep warm. Larger
organisms are more efficient.

Other losses are those from faeces, as herbivores consume a higher proportion of
cellulose which is less digestible, they lose a lot of their food as faeces. This makes
them less efficient than carnivores, in general.

How to increase productivity:

1. cutting down respiratory losses by keeping the animals warm and restricting
movement.
2. feed herbivores with more digestible foods.

3. Succession
Succession is a change in species composition and communities over time.

There are different stages of succession (seres), each sere can be characterised
by dominant species.

Primary succession takes place on land where there has been no existing life,
e.g. bare rock or sand dunes.

Pioneer species:

The first organisms that colonise bare rock in a succession. These are lichens.

Lichens arrive on the rock as spores blown in by the wind or carried by

animals. Lichens erode the rock and as they decompose a little soil builds up.

Soil: Allow plants to grow. More soil: Higher level plants can occupy. The
ground becomes more nutrient rich as decomposition increases. water holding
capacity of the soil increases and biodiversity increases

Typical sequence: pioneer species (lichens) ➔mosses ➔ grasses ➔

herbaceous plants ➔ shrubs ➔ climax community (trees).
 Secondary succession: where there are seeds or spores available in the soil. As
soil is already established and seeds can germinate, rooted plants begin to
grow

Secondary succession is faster than primary succession.

This type of succession happens on cleared land, perhaps by construcGon

digging, tree felling or following a fire.

Deflected succession is where a subclimax community is maintained usually by

human interference. This can be by grazing animals so that shrubs and trees
cannot get established or mowing lawns and school fields.

4. Material cycle
Carbon cycle
Atmospheric nitrogen is inert and unavailable to plants or animals for use.

Key processes:
Decomposi<on (mineralisa<on/ammonifica<on): Decomposers e.g. bacteria
and fungi; are organisms that feed on dead organic maIer and faeces
saprophyGcally. Saprophytes secrete enzymes onto their food and absorb the
small soluble products. Proteins and other nitrogen containing compounds are
broken down into small soluble molecules; these are absorbed for use by the
organism. Any excess nitrogenous compounds are converted into ammonium
and excreted by the micro-organisms. Nitrogenous compounds are converted
into ammonium in the soil.

Nitrifica<on: This is the process by which ammonium is oxidised into nitrite

and then nitrate by bacteria. The nitrogenous compounds ammonium and
nitrite are being used as a source of energy by the bacteria, which therefore
have a chemoautotrophic mode of nutriGon. The bacteria that carry out these
reacGons are called nitrifying bacteria. Nitrosomonas converts ammonium to
nitrite and Nitrobacter converts nitrite to nitrate.
NH4+ -> NO2- -> NO3-

Nitrogen fixa<on: Nitrogen fixaGon is the conversion of nitrogen gas into

ammonium. This is carried out by nitrogen fixing bacteria. Some nitrogen fixing
bacteria are free living in soil like Azotobacter. Some live in a mutually
beneficial (mutualisGc) relaGonship with a plant. Rhizobium lives freely in most
soils where it can carry out nitrogen fixaGon. However, most nitrogen fixaGon
by Rhizobium occurs inside the roots of legumes such as clover and beans. The
bacteria invade the roots of the legumes, the plant responds by forming a
nodule in which the bacteria live. Nitrogen gas diffuses into the nodule from
the soil and is uGlised by the bacteria to make ammonium and then amino
acids. Excess ammonium and amino acids are exported to the plant for protein
synthesis. Nitrogen fixaGon requires much ATP and the Rhizobium gains the
sugars for respiraGon from the plants photosyntheGc product. Nitrogen
fixaGon takes place in anaerobic condiGons and the plant provides this by
producing a pigment called leghemoglobin which takes up oxygen in the root
nodule, removing it from the bacterial environment.

Denitrifica<on: The cycle would not be complete unless some nitrogen was
released back into the atmosphere. This occurs as a result of the acGons of
denitrifying bacteria, such as Pseudomonas. These bacteria use nitrate to
provide oxygen for respiraGon, the nitrogen atoms remaining are converted
into nitrogen gas.
DenitrificaGon occurs in anaerobic condiGons. The most common cause of
anaerobic condiGons in nature is water-logging, where air spaces in soil are
filled with water.