Evaporator Control
Chapter 31
31.1 Operational Issues
31.2 The Vacuum System
31.3 Reboiler and Separator
31.4 Condenser with Barometric Leg
31.5 Control Scheme
31.6 Comments
31.7 Nomenclature
This chapter concerns the control of a ther-
mosyphon type of evaporator. The issues are much
the same for calandria and other single effect types
of evaporator.
Figure 31.1 depicts the evaporator in which an
aqueous stream containing suspended particulates
(or dissolved salts) is concentrated by evaporat-
ing off water. The dilute feed stream mixes with
concentrated liquor circulating at its boiling point.
This is partially evaporated on the tube-side of
the reboiler by condensing steam on its shell-side.
The tube-side exit stream consists of water vapour
with entrained droplets of liquor. The separator
provides the space for the droplets to disengage
from the vapour. The droplets fall into the liquor
which is recirculated, a fraction being drawn off as
concentrated product. The reboiler is operated un-
der vacuum provided by a pump which sucks the
vapour out of the separator. The vapour condenses
on the shell side of a water cooled condenser, the
condensate being discharged via a barometric leg
and pumped away by a centrifugal pump.
31.1 Operational Issues
The separator, reboiler and interconnecting
pipework form a manometer. Between the separa-
tor and the inlet of the reboiler, the pipework is full
of liquor. However, the tubes of the reboiler and its
outlet pipework contain a mixture of vapour and
liquor. This density difference provides the driving
force for the circulation of the liquor, known as a
thermosyphon.It is essential that the head of liquor
in the separator be maintained constant because, if
circulation were to cease, the reboiler tubes could
become blocked with aggregated particulates (or
crystallised salts). However, the head must remain
below the level of the separator inlet as otherwise
the liquor would impede the vapour flow.
The reboiler is operated under vacuum to re-
duce the boiling point of the liquor.This increases
the temperature difference between the steam and
liquor which is the driving force for heat transfer.
It is essential that a steady vacuum is maintained.
Any sudden increase in pressure,and hence in boil-
ing point, would cause the liquor to go off the boil
and circulation would cease. Any sudden decrease
in pressure would cause the liquor to flash off. The
surge in vapour flow may be beyond the capacity
of the condenser, resulting in carry over of con-
densate into the vacuum pump. Depending on the
type of pump, this could cause damage.
The condensate formed in the condenser can-
not be discharged using a steam trap because the
condenser is operated under vacuum. A baromet-
ric leg is used, the principle of operation of which
is depicted in Figure 31.2. A head of condensate is
 218 31 Evaporator Control

FA
FD
Separator P0
Vacuum pump
FV,TO

TW0 FW,TW1
Steam
Cooling water
PS,TS
Reboiler Condenser
US,AS UV,AV
Barometric leg

Condensate
F1,X1P,T1
F0,X0P,T0 FV
Dilute feed
Centrifugal pump

Concentrated product
Fig. 31.1 Thermosyphon type of evaporator

Vacuum h be broken and air sucked up the leg into the con-
denser.
Condensate
Shell For the purpose of determining control strat-
egy, the evaporator is considered to consist of three
sub systems: the vacuum system, the reboiler and
separator, and the condenser with the baromet-
ric leg.

31.2 The Vacuum System

Fig. 31.2 Principle of barometric leg
established within the leg which balances the vac-
uum in the condenser.Any condensate entering the
top of the leg displaces an equivalent amount into
the reservoir at the bottom. It is essential that the
level in the reservoir be maintained above the bot-
tom of the leg, otherwise the vacuum seal would
The pressure in the evaporator system is funda-
mental to its operation so consideration of the
vacuum system is a convenient starting point for
applying the process of determination. The vac-
uum system consists of the vacuum pump to-
gether with the vapour space upon which the vac-
uum pump operates. That space includes the shell
side of the condenser, the disengagement space
within the separator and the overhead pipework.
In essence, that space is the system’s capacity for
vapour holdup.
It is evident that the pressure P0 in the sys-
tem depends upon four factors: the rate at which
vapour is produced in the reboiler FV , the rate at

Table 31.1 Analysis of degrees of freedom for vacuum system
One equation and five strategic variables
Variables First view Second view Third view
Wild – FV , QV FV , QV
Controlled – – – P0
Floating FA , FD , FV , P0 , QV F A , F D , P0 F A , P0
Determined – – FD
which vapour is condensed which is determined
by the rate at which heat is removed in the con-
denser QV , the rate at which air leaks (or is bled)
into the system FA and the rate at which air/vapour
is discharged by the vacuum pump FD .
Thus, at equilibrium:
P0 = f(FV , QV , FA , FD ) (31.1)
There is thus one equation involving five strategic
variables with four degrees of freedom. This view
is represented by the first column of Table 31.1.
The rates at which the vapour is produced and
condensed are determined by the design and oper-
ation of the reboiler and condenser so, as far as the
vacuum system is concerned, these rates must be
considered to be wild variables.Thus two of the de-
grees of freedom have been taken up leaving three
floating variables as depicted in the second column
of Table 31.1.
It is common practice in the design of evapo-
rator systems to specify a vacuum pump that oper-
ates at a constant speed: the efficiency of a vacuum
pump is relatively high only over a narrow range
of operating conditions. Thus the discharge rate
is determined by plant design considerations, as
depicted in the third column of Table 31.1.
Given the constant speed vacuum pump, the
pressure in an evaporator system is typically con-
trolled by manipulating the air bleed rate. If the
pressure is controlled then the remaining degree
of freedom is spoken for. There is thus one equa-
tion with one unknown and the air flow rate is
determined as depicted by the fourth column of
Table 31.1.
31.3 Reboiler and Separator 219
Fourth view
FV , QV
–
FA , FD
31.3 Reboiler and Separator
An overall steady state mass balance for the con-
tents of the thermosyphon gives:
F1 = F0 + FV (31.2)
and a steady state mass balance for the solids con-
tent gives:
F1 .X1P = F0 .X0P (31.3)
where X denotes weight fraction and subscripts 1,
0 and V refer to the inlet,outlet and vapour streams
respectively. As pointed out in Chapter 30, there is
no need to use every possible equation. By defini-
tion:
X1P + X1W = 1
X0P + X0W = 1
where subscripts P and W refer to particulates and
water content respectively. These two extra con-
straints introduce another two variables, X1W and
X0W , but have no net effect on the number of de-
grees of freedom. There is no obvious benefit from
including them and, since they potentially confuse
the issue, are best discarded. Likewise a mass bal-
ance for the water content yields:
F1 .X1W = F0.X0W + FV
However, this equation is not independent: it can
be formed by subtraction of Equation 31.3 from
Equation 31.2 and substitution of the constraints,
so it too is discarded.
The heat input through the reboiler goes partly
into raising the temperature of the feed stream to
that of the circulating liquor but mostly into par-
tially evaporating the liquor. A steady state heat
 220 31 Evaporator Control
Table 31.2 Analysis of degrees of freedom for reboiler and separator
Six equations and 11 strategic variables
Variables First view Second view
Wild – X1P , T1 , P0
Controlled – –
Floating F0 , F1 , FV , QS , T0 , T1 , TS , P0 , PS , X0P , X1P F0 , F1 , FV , QS , T0 , TS , PS , X0P
Determined – –
balance for the contents on the tube side of the
reboiler thus gives:
QS = F1.cP .(T0 − T1 ) + FV . V (31.4)
where QS is the heat duty of the reboiler, T de-
notes temperature and cP and V denote specific
and latent heats respectively. However the rate of
heat transfer is itself determined by the tempera-
ture difference between the shell and tube side of
the reboiler:
QS = USAS .(TS − T0) (31.5)
Because the circulation through the reboiler is
roughly constant, its overall heat transfer coeffi-
cient US may be presumed to be constant too. Note
that the steam on both sides of the reboiler is satu-
rated, so both temperatures are uniquely related to
their pressures. Thus, assuming that any elevation
of the boiling point on the tube side is negligible,
two further equations must be introduced:
T0 = g(P0) (31.6)
TS = g(PS ) (31.7)
Equations 31.2–30.7 are the minimum set of six
equations necessary for determining the control
strategy for the reboiler and separator sub-system.
They involve eleven strategic variables giving five
degrees of freedom. This view is represented by the
first column of Table 31.2.
Assume that the composition X1P and temper-
ature T1 of the feed stream are both wild. The pres-
sure P0 is controlled by the vacuum system so, as
far as the reboiler and separator are concerned, it
Third view
X1P, T1 , P0
PS , X0P
–
F0 , F1 , FV , QS , T0 , TS
is deemed to be wild. Thus three of the degrees of
freedom have been taken up leaving eight floating
variables: the view depicted by the second column
of Table 31.2.
There are two remaining degrees of freedom
which can be used for controlling any two of the
floating variables although, in this case, it is fairly
obvious which two to choose.Noting that P0 is con-
trolled by the vacuum system,assigning one degree
of freedom to the shell side pressure PS enables
the temperature difference across the reboiler and
hence the rate of evaporation to be controlled. It is
sensible to assign the other degree of freedom to
the control of product quality XP0. This results in
six equations in six unknowns: thus all the remain-
ing strategic variables are determined. This view is
represented by the third column of Table 31.2.
31.4 Condenser with
Barometric Leg
The latent heat of condensation is removed by the
cooling water.A steady state heat balance yields the
duty of the condenser:
QV = FW .cP .(TW0 − TW1 ) (31.8)
Noting that the temperature difference between
the shell and tube sides is not uniform, a steady
state heat balance across the tubes of the condenser
yields:
(TW0 − TW1 )
QV = UV .AV . (31.9)
(T0 − TW1 )
ln
(T0 − TW0 )

Table 31.3 Analysis of degrees of freedom for condenser and barometric leg
Three equations and six strategic variables
Variables First view Second view
Wild – T0 , TW1
Controlled – TW0
Floating FW , UV , QV , T0 , TW0 , TW1 FW , UV , QV , TW0
Determined – –
The overall heat transfer coefficient cannot be pre-
sumed to be constant since the cooling water flow
rate is a variable. Thus:
UV = h(FW ) (31.10)
Note that this particular relationship is explained
in more detail in Chapter 32.
Note also that there are another two equations,
for the condensation of steam, that could be con-
sidered as follows:
T0 = g(P0 ) (31.6)
QV = FV . V
However, these simply introduce another two
strategic variables: they do not affect the no of de-
grees of freedom and can be discarded.
Equations 31.8–31.10 are the minimum set of
three equations necessary for determining the con-
trol strategy for the condenser sub-system. They
involve six strategic variables giving three degrees
of freedom. This view is represented by the first
column of Table 31.3.
The cooling water inlet temperature TW1 is
wild.As far as the condenser is concerned,the oper-
ating temperature T0 must also be considered wild
since it is determined by the pressure P0 which is
controlled independently. These take up two of the
degrees of freedom as depicted in the second col-
umn of Table 31.3.
To make effective use of the cooling water it is
common practice to control the condenser’s out-
let temperature TW0 . That uses up the remaining
degree of freedom, so the other three variables are
determined. This view is represented by the third
column of Table 31.3.
31.5 Control Scheme 221
Third view
T0 , TW1
FW , UV , QV
31.5 Control Scheme
A scheme for the control of the evaporator system
is depicted in Figure 31.3.
The evaporator is operated under vacuum. Its
pressure P0 is controlled by the controller PAC
which manipulates the flowrate of an air bleed
into the inlet of the vacuum pump. It doesn’t
particularly matter whether the pressure is mea-
sured in the separator, overhead pipework or con-
denser shell because the vacuum system has a rel-
atively open structure. Manipulating a bleed valve
is preferable to varying the pump speed because
vacuum pumps are designed to run over a nar-
row range of speeds and their efficiency decreases
rapidly outside this range.
The concentration of the circulating liquor X0P
is controlled by the controller CC which manip-
ulates the product flow rate F0 . The set point for
this control loop is the concentration specified for
the product. The solids content would almost cer-
tainly be measured indirectly, perhaps optically or
by means of density depending on the nature of the
particulates (or conductivity for dissolved salts).
It is important that the measurement is made in
the circulating liquor. It should not be made in
the product line because, in the event of the valve
being shut by the controller, its content would be
stagnant and independent of the concentration in
the evaporator.
The level in the separator is controlled by the
controller LC which manipulates the dilute feed
flowrate F1 . It can be seen that these two control
loops are highly interactive. If the concentration
X0P rises above its set point, the concentration con-
troller would increase the product flow F0. This
 222 31 Evaporator Control
P0
PC
FS
PS
LC
X 0P
CC
PI
F1
FQR
TI
Fig. 31.3 Control strategy for evaporator that is determined
would cause the level in the separator to fall and
force the level controller to increase the feed flow
F1 . This would dilute the circulating liquor result-
ing in X0P returning to its setpoint.
Note that both the inlet and outlet flows are be-
ing manipulated, but not controlled, which is con-
sistent with the flows F0 and F1 being determined
by the mass balances. F0 is being manipulated to
control the strategic variable X0P and F1 is being
manipulated to control an inventory variable, the
level in the separator.
Note also that these two loops can be inter-
changed, i.e. CC to manipulate F1 and LC to ma-
nipulate F0 . It is often the case in process con-
trol that loops can be interchanged like this. The
question arises as to what are the most appropri-
ate couplings of controlled and manipulated vari-
ables. There is a technique, known as relative gain
analysis, which enables the best arrangement to be
identified. This is discussed in Chapter 111.
The steam pressure PS on the shell side of the
reboiler is controlled by the controller PC which
manipulates the flow of steam to the shell. The
FA
PAC
TC
FV
PI
TW0 FW
LC
F0
combination of the two pressure controllers en-
sures that the temperature difference across the
tubes of the reboiler is regulated. The rate of cir-
culation, and hence the overall heat transfer coef-
ficient, is roughly constant because the level con-
troller LC controls the head of liquor in the separa-
tor.Given that the reboiler’s temperature difference
is controlled and that the overall coefficient is con-
stant, the rate of heat transfer QS , and hence the
rate of evaporation FV , is determined.
The controller TC controls the condenser out-
let temperature TW0 by manipulating the cooling
water flow rate FW . If the temperature increases
then the flow rate is increased, and vice versa. The
control valve would require a bias on its opening to
guarantee a minimum flow for start-up purposes.
This is an inventory control and ensures that ef-
fective use is made of the cooling water. The alter-
native, which is to have a flow control loop on the
cooling water flowrate, would need a set point high
enough to cope with all eventualities and would be
wasteful of cooling water.
 31.6 Comments 223

Condensate is discharged into the barometric leg’s • For the purpose of controlling these four strate-
reservoir, the controller LC controlling the head gic variables, another three strategic variables
in the leg by manipulating the product flowrate. and one utility are manipulated: F0 , F1 , FA and
If the level rises the rate at which the product is FS .
pumped away is increased. This is an inventory • For inventory purposes, level loops manipulate
control which maintains the vacuum seal on the a further two strategic variables: FV and FW .
leg.It is important in situations such as this that the • None of the strategic variables deemed to be de-
pump is of the centrifugal type. In the event of the termined are controlled (as opposed to manip-
valve being shut by the controller, a constant head ulated).
is developed and the pump is not damaged. The • All strategic variables controlled in, or deter-
impeller simply rotates the trapped liquor, which mined by, one unit are deemed to be wild vari-
warms up due to the energy being dissipated. Clos- ables in other units.
ing the exit valve on the alternative positive dis- • No attempt is made to control any of the wild
placement types of pump would result in a sudden variables: X1P , T1 and TW1 .
and massive increase in pressure leading to dam-
age to the pump and/or rupture of the pipework.
The totaliser FQR provides a record of the
amount of dilute feed processed and is included
31.7 Nomenclature
for management purposes. The remaining pres- A is the surface area m2
sure and temperature indicators are included for cP specific heat kJ kg−1 K−1
commissioning and diagnostic purposes. F flow rate kg s−1
P pressure bar
Q rate of heat transfer kW
T temperature K
31.6 Comments U overall heat transfer kW m−2 K−1
The sub-systems of this evaporator plant are typ- coefficient
ical of the scope of the unit referred to in the X weight fraction –
methodology of Chapter 30. A careful review of latent heat kJ kg−1
the methodology will reveal that each of the issues
raised has been explicitly addressed in the control Subscripts
scheme proposed. In particular: 0 outlet
1 inlet
• The only strategic variables that are controlled P particulates
are those four which were deemed to be con- S steam/reboiler
trolled by the process of determination: P0 , PS , V vapour/condenser
XOP and TW0 . W cooling water