Trends in Food Science & Technology 91 (2019) 436–445

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Trends in Food Science & Technology

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Review

Global status of insects as food and feed source: A review T

a,b,*
Sergey Govorushko
a
Pacific Geographical Institute, 7 Radio St., Vladivostok, 690041, Russia
b
Far Eastern Federal University, 8 Sukhanova St., Vladivostok, 690950, Russia

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Keywords: Background: Entomophagy (eating insects) has a long history. Currently, 2 billion people in 113 countries
Edible insects consume insects (Tao, Li 2018). However, in many states (mainly Western) attitude towards it is ambiguous.
Nutritional value Majority of people there reject insects as food because they consider eating insects as nasty. However, this
Insect farming attitude is no more than a preconception because, over the years, many formerly unusual foodstuffs (for ex-
Production methods
ample, eating frogs) became traditional.
Insect processing
Scope and approach: This review's purpose is to give comprehensive positive and negative analysis aspects of the
Animal feed
use of insects as a food source for humans and animal feed. This study focuses on such positive reasons for using
insects as a food source for human health, environmental factors, and socioeconomic benefit, the high efficiency
of the use of forages for insects cultivation, there are considerable nutritional value of different insect species
comparing to chicken, pork and beef. Challenges of using insects as food related to microbial, chemical, physical,
allergic, parasitical and toxicological risks.
Key Findings and Conclusions: In the context of the world food resources reduction, insect's food use is a pro-
mising direction. The main tasks are the knowledge dissemination, change of the ratio in getting edible insects
(the share increase of semi-domestication and farming comparing to wild harvesting), edible insect food industry
development, species composition expansion of used insects, conducting research on risks to human health. The
review argues that insects have the potential to serve as food and feed source globally with a lower negative
impact on the environment.

1. History of entomophagy work by Aristotle (384–322 BCE), Historia Animalium, in which he

It is evident that both ancestors of Homo sapiens and the primeval
communities used insects as food and nutrition source (van Huis, 2017).
Before humans acquired tools for food hunting and collection, insects
played a substantial part of their diet as evidenced by coprolites - fos-
silized faeces of ancient people (Cortes Ortiz et al., 2016; Hardy et al.,
2017). For example, coprolites from caves on the Ozark Plateau, located
between Arkansas and Missouri (central United States) contain ants,
larvae of beetles, lice, ticks and mites (Mitsuhashi, 2008).
According to Yi, He, Wang, and Kuang (2010), insects were con-
sumed in China 3200 years ago. Locusts on sticks were served at ban-
quets in the palace of the Assyrian king Ashurbanipal (668 BC–ca. 627
BC) (van Huis et al., 2013). The use of wasp larvae and pupae since
ancient times in Chinese culinary art is recorded in the book Tang
Dynasty era (AD 618–907) (Feng, Chen, Sun, & Chen, 2010). The ear-
liest written evidence of entomophagy in the Near East and China, dates
to at least the second and first millennia CE (Schabel, 2010).
The first known mention of entomophagy in Europe is present in a
noted that cicada females tasted best after copulation because of the
presence of mature eggs (Akhtar, Isman 2018). Insects were also con-
sumed by the ancient Romans as indicated by composition done by
Pliny the Elder, in Natural History around 77 CE where he wrote that the
larvae of the great capricorn beetle (Cerambyx cerdo) were especially
popular in the empire (van Huis et al., 2013).
In the sacred books of the Christian, Jewish, and Islamic religions,
there are also fragments related to entomophagy. The roots of en-
tomophagy in antiquity are also noted in the New Testament of the
Bible with reference to John the Baptist, who reputedly depended al-
most entirely for his diet on locusts and honey (Mark, 1: 6). The Holy
Bible tells about the use of locusts for food (most likely the desert lo-
cust, Schistocerca gregaria), as well as crickets and grasshoppers
(Leviticus 11:22). In the Islamic traditions, evidence of the use of in-
sects as food extends to locusts, bees, ants, lice, and termites. In
Judaism four species of locusts are recognized as kosher; that is, per-
mitted for use as food (van Huis et al., 2013).
There are numerous references to the use of insects for food in

*
Pacific Geographical Institute, 7 Radio St., Vladivostok, 690041, Russia.
E-mail address: sgovor@inbox.ru.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tifs.2019.07.032
Received 13 July 2018; Received in revised form 20 March 2019; Accepted 18 July 2019
Available online 24 July 2019
0924-2244/ © 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
S. Govorushko
literary works of the middle Ages. For example, Leo Africanus of
Morocco reported in 1550 that nomads in Arabia and Libya ate cooked
and dried locusts and pound others into flour and stored for future use
while Ulisse Aldrovandi wrote about the use of fried silkworms by
German soldiers in Italy (van Huis et al., 2013). Well-known historical
record of edible insects was a book called “Donguibogam” written by
Jun Heo, the greatest Eastern medicinal physician (1546–1615) who
described 95 different types of edible insects (Shin, Baker, & Kim,
2018).
In 1737, the French naturalist René Antoine Ferchault de Réaumur
described in his six-volume work Memoirs of the History of Insects
(Mémoires pour servir à l'histoire des insects) the use of insects for food in
different provinces of France (van Huis et al., 2013). In modern Western
society, the use of insect as food was considered by DeFoliart (1999).
2. Reasons for using insects as food
The problem of food resources shortages has always existed among
human societies due to the principal supplier's limitation of foodstuffs
for humanity which are crop plants and livestock. As the world popu-
lation increases, the humanity demands and needs for food and nutri-
tion, especially for animal protein, have also been growing (Kearney,
2010). The complexity of this issue is due to the fact that while arable
and pasture lands expanded substantially since the early 1960s, the
number of areas suited for extensive agricultural production is drop-
ping. Therefore, the increase in animal protein production will likely be
accompanied with further environmental degradation especially in
tropical countries (FAO 2012; Herrero et al., 2016). For example, the
cattle ranches establishment resulted in the deforestation of 38% of the
forests land in Brazil from 1966 to 1975 (Govorushko, 2016).
Insects provide a good source of proteins, minerals, vitamins, and
energy, they can cost less than animal protein for poor rural commu-
nities and their consumption has averted many cases of malnutrition.
Edible insects have a higher protein content, on a mass basis than other
animal and plant foods such as beef, chicken, fish, soybeans, and maize
(Teffo, Toms, & Eloff, 2007). A good example is mopane worms Go-
nimbrasia belina, which are widely consumed in southern Africa, that
have protein levels of 64%, which is higher than for meat and fish
(Dreyer & Wehmeyer, 1982). The nutritional composition of edible
insects can be highly variable depending on the species, insect life
stage, habitat, diet, etc. For instance, grasshoppers in Nigeria that are
fed with bran, which contains high levels of essential fatty acids, have
almost double the protein content of those fed on maize (van Huis et al.,
2013).
The insect farming, consisting of mini-livestock enterprises, pro-
vides or supplements the increasing demand for natural protein
(Alexander et al., 2017). Compared to other food sources, the ad-
vantage of insect farming, according to Wilson (2012), Mlcek, Rop,
Borkovcova, and Bednarova (2014) require (1) less space; (2) less
water, an essential limited resource in many regions of the world. In
addition (3) products not consumed directly by humans can be used as
livestock feed; (4) the demand exceeds the supply; (5) insects have
short life cycles; (6) fast returns on investment; (7) high financial re-
turns; (8) insects are more nutritious for humans; (9) higher feed con-
version ratio; (10) the management of insect enterprises is simple; (11)
insects are easily transported; and (12) insect farming does not require
in-depth training.
The adoption of insects as food sources can be premised on three
reasons, human health, environmental factors and socioeconomic
benefit (Chakravarthy et al., 2016; Sun-Waterhouse et al., 2016; van
Huis et al., 2013). The health benefits include the fact that (a) insects
provide a good alternative animal proteins comparable to chicken,
pork, beef, and even fish; (b) many species of insects have high contents
of proteins, lean fats and sufficient calcium, iron, and zinc; (c) insects
are already part of the diet for many nations.
The environmental benefits include: (a) specific emissions of
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Trends in Food Science & Technology 91 (2019) 436–445
greenhouse gases by insects are far less than those for most other li-
vestock—for example, methane is produced by only some groups of
insects, such as termites and cockroaches; (b) insect rearing requires far
less land and water than livestock; (c) ammonia emissions associated
with insect rearing are also lower than livestock rearing; (d) because
insects are cold-blooded animals, their efficiency in converting food
into protein is very high.
The economic and social factors that make insect farming more
desirable than livestock are that (a) harvesting and raising of insects are
low technology and capital investment options possible for even the
poorest sections of society; (b) raising insects provides opportunities for
subsistence for both urban and rural population.
According to Pimentel and Pimentel (2003), the production of 1 kg
of animal protein in animal farming requires 6 kg of vegetable protein
as food. The feed-to-meat conversion rates (quantity of eaten food for
the production of an additional kilogram of weight) vary essentially
depending on the species of animal and the way it is managed. The
common indices in the United States show that to produce an additional
kilogram of live animal weight, 2.5 kg of feed is necessary for chicken,
5 kg for pork, and 10 kg for beef. The requirement for insects is much
less; for the production of 1 kg of live weight of common house crickets
Acheta domesticus, only 1.7 kg of feed is required (Collavo et al., 2005).
Enormous funds are currently expended in the world every year to
protect agricultural plants, mostly cereal crops against insect pests.
Despite the fact that different chemical and biological agents used to
control the insect populations, yield losses associated with insect pest
have not declined over the years. The paradox of the situation lies in the
fact that cereal crops contain no more than 14% protein while at the
same time, the other food resources (insects), which contain up to 75%
higher-quality animal protein, are destroyed (Cerritos, 2011).
The harvesting of pest insect species as food would be an ideal al-
ternative to increasing food production and lowering pest pressure on
cultivated crops (van Huis, 2018). According to Yen (2015) the ad-
vantages of harvesting pest insect species are as follows (1) increased
plant food productivity; (2) provision of an additional food resource
(insects); and (3) improved health and environmental benefits due to a
reduction in insecticide applications.
Here, investigating the questions of economic efficiency and prac-
ticality is necessary, because pest outbreaks can be unpredictable and
the mode of harvesting will depend on the target species (Mlcek et al.,
2014). Also, technologies for collecting insects should be developed.
A comparison of economic and environmental costs between farms
for insect raising and traditional livestock enterprises was carried out
by Oonincx and de Boer (2012). These researchers analyzed the op-
eration of a Dutch farm specializing in raising the larvae of the yellow
mealworm beetle (Tenebrio molitor) and zophobas (Zophobas atratus),
which are used as feed for poultry and fish and compared these to
domestic animals. Comparison of the larval and meat-and-dairy pro-
duction showed that the ecological costs (contribution to the emission
of greenhouse gases expressed in kilograms of emitted carbon dioxide
per kilogram of produced protein) related to raising larvae were es-
sentially lesser than expenses related to the production of meat and
milk. The overall land area used for rearing of larvae which composed
of land used for fodder, storage area, and farm area was lesser than land
that is needed for the production of milk, chicken, pork, and beef.
In addition, for the important index of feed efficiency, raising larvae
also proved to be attractive. For the insects, the index was 2.2, which is
a little less than that for chicken (2.3) but it was much less than the
indices for pork (4.0) and beef (up to 8.8). In addition, high rates of
reproduction (160 eggs for yellow mealworm beetle T. molitor over a
period of 3 months and up to 1500 eggs for zophobas Z. morio per year)
and very low reproductive ages (2.3 and 3.5 months, respectively)
suggest that under limited natural resources and high production costs,
the farms for raising insect larvae can produce larger quantities of va-
luable food protein than traditional meat and dairy farms. In addition,
successes of genetic engineering and further operational optimization
S. Govorushko
Table 1
Environmental impacts of insect rearing compared with traditional livestock raising.a
Food source Global warming potential (kg CO2-eq/kg
of edible protein)
Mealworms 14
Beef 77–175
Pork 21–54
Chicken 19–37
Milk 25–39
Mealworms reared without energy input and on 0.06
organic side streams
a
Nadeau et al. (2015).
(already reaching its limits in the meat and dairy industries) only de-
crease these costs and make raising insects more profitable (Oonincx &
de Boer, 2012).
Similar investigations (comparison of environmental costs related to
cricket farming in northeastern Thailand with broiler production in the
same region) were spent by Halloran, Hanboonsong, Roos, and Bruun
(2017). Also, a comparision of the yellow mealworm beetle Tenebrio
molitor and traditional types of livestock rearing were carried out by
Nadeau, Nadeau, Franklin, and Dunkel (2015). They showed the least
overall environmental impact (Table 1).
3. Why do people not eat insects?
Many people take a dislike to use insects as food, an attitude that
seems to be entrenched in their childhood upbringing, thus consider
eating insects as nasty. The majority of people reject insects as food
because they consider them as unclean (House, 2016; Rudy, Haubruge,
& Francis, 2018; Sun-Waterhouse et al., 2016). However, the majority
of the edible insects, such as grasshoppers, locusts, and the larvae of
butterflies and beetles are herbivores that feed mostly on fresh plant
leaves or wood (Gullan & Cranston, 2014). For this reason, they are
cleaner and more hygienic than crabs or lobsters, which eat carrion and
sometimes harvested from polluted aquatic systems (Mitsuhashi, 2016).
However, this attitude is no more than a prejudice because, over the
years, many formerly unusual foodstuffs became traditional. For ex-
ample, eating frogs, originally a French dish, gradually became so
popular throughout the world that a huge industry related to farming
these amphibians has emerged (Paoletti, 2005). Lobster, once con-
sidered ‘junk’ food in the 17th and 18th centuries, was recognized to be
cruel and extraordinary punishment for feeding to servants and pris-
oners more than twice a week (Tao & Li, 2018). Today, lobster is re-
garded as a fine dining food. Edible insects have the equal potential
because both insects and shellfish are arthropods of the land and sea,
respectively.
In Africa, fried or smoke-cured mopane moth caterpillars (Imbrasia
belina), which costs 4 times more than conventional meat, are con-
sidered to be a delicacy. The popularity of these larvae is so high that,
during the season of their mass development, sales of beef and the meat
of other animals decreases markedly (Obopile & Seeletso, 2013). So,
one cannot exclude the possibility that traditions of using insects as
food will gradually take hold in other regions. An increased interest in
edible insects is reportedly a response to adverse effects of globaliza-
tion, resulting in a reduction of biodiversity, dominance of western
cuisine, and deterioration of living standards for subsistence farmers
and rural people in throughout the world (van Huis, Oonincx 2017).
The attitude to entomophagy is determined by many factors (psy-
chological, social, religious, anthropological, etc.). Changes in its per-
ception can not be fast. Food preferences are formed in childhood, and
the older one becomes, the more difficult it is to change them.
Nevertheless, promoting entomophagy is inevitable, the only question
is the speed of the process.
Currently, a large part of humankind is concerned about the
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Trends in Food Science & Technology 91 (2019) 436–445
Energy (MJ/kg edible Land (m2/kg edible Water (L/kg live weight)
protein) protein)
173 18 No information
177–273 142–254 9, 700
95–237 46–63 2, 800
80–152 41–51 1, 500
36–144 33–58 800
0.29 0.04 2.5
environment. It is possible that the most effective argument in favor of
the widespread consumption of edible insects will be the need to reduce
the load on the environment caused by animal husbandry (by replacing
the insect protein by livestock protein).
Many studies showed that new foods gain popularity in one small
segment of society first, before diffusing further. This has evidently
been the case with sugar, tea, sushi, and white bread (House, 2016). It
is possible that the environmentally concerned part of society will be-
come such a segment.
Educating and promoting the benefits of insect consumption, ap-
propriate processing of insects’ food to improve the sensory properties
and economic efficiency, the strictness of regulation and information
transparency to consumers will help successful globalization of en-
tomophagy (Sun-Waterhouse et al., 2016).
In addition, the importance of insects as a commodity has been
increasingly recognized and insects are now regarded as a class of mini-
livestock. While many people, especially in western cultures shun
eating insects, a noted number of people throughout the world unwit-
tingly eat insects because it is impossible to avoid the remnant insects
found on plants parts like fruits, leaves or seeds. Therefore, it is evident
that people who dislike insects eat them in insect contaminated food
(Mlcek et al., 2014).
4. Most commonly consumed insects
Most commonly consumed insects include crickets like Acheta do-
mesticus (L.), Gryllodes sigillatus (Walker), Gryllus assimilis (Fab.), G. bi-
maculatus De Geer, and G. locorojo Weissman and Gray; the greater wax
moth, Galleria mellonella L.; longhorn grasshopper, Ruspolia differens
(Serville); migratory locust, Locusta migratoria L.; mealworms like
Tenebrio molitor L., Zophobas atratus Fab., Z. atratus Fab., and Alphitobius
diaperinus Panzer; the housefly, Musca domestica L.; and the black sol-
dier fly, Hermetia illucens (L.) (https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/
article/pii/B9780128028568000065 Cortes Ortiz et al., 2016). Evi-
dence of the number of edible species of insects from different countries
and regions is shown in Table 2. Distributions of edible insects globally
by taxon is shown in Table 3. The majority of edible insects (88%)
occupy terrestrial ecosystems while 12% are aquatic (Yen, 2015).
The biogeographical distribution of edible insects is influenced by
significant barriers that prevented the expansion of species like narrow
passage, high mountains, deserts, oceans, or straits and fauna within
each biogeographic region. The edible species distribution of insects
among different biogeographical regions is shown in Table 4.
Edible insects of different orders are consumed at different stages of
their life cycle. Practically all butterflies and moths (Lepidoptera) are
consumed in the larval stage known as caterpillars (Ramos-Elorduy,
2009). The hymenopterans are largely used in their larval or pupal
stages (van Huis et al., 2013). Insects from the order Coleoptera are
consumed as both adult beetles and larvae while insects belonging to
the order Orthoptera, Homoptera, Isoptera, and Hemiptera are mainly
consumed in the adult stages (Cerritos, 2009). Information about the
most used instar of insects also reflects Table 5.
S. Govorushko Trends in Food Science & Technology 91 (2019) 436–445

Table 2 of insect can be evident in the tropical region because (1) insect di-
Number of edible insect species in the world, separate regions and countries. versity and abundance in the tropics is usually higher than those in
Country Number of Source temperate regions; (2) insects in the tropics often aggregate therefore
species easing mass harvesting; (3) in the tropics, edible insects can be found
throughout the year, while within the temperate zones, they undergo
Angola 38 Lautenschläger et al. (2017)
diapause to survive during cold winters thus not available; and (4) for
Botswana 27 Obopile and Seeletso (2013)
Brazil 135 Costa-Neto (2012), taken from
many insect species in the tropics, harvests are predictable (van Huis
Gahukar (2016) et al., 2013).
Central African Republic 96 Roulon-Doko (1998), taken from
van Huis et al. (2013) 5. Nutritional value and chemical composition of edible insects
China 177 Feng et al. (2010)
China 178 Chen et al. (2009)
China 324 Feng et al. (2018) Insects are known to be, in most cases, an easily accessible source of
Democratic Republic of over 65 Gomez et al. (1961), taken from protein, lipids, carbohydrates, some vitamins, and minerals such as
the Congo Lautenschläger et al. (2017) calcium, iron, or zinc (Payne, Scarborough, Rayner, & Nonaka, 2016).
Ecuador 83 Onore (1997)
Carbohydrates in insects are mainly present in chitin, accounting for
Japan 55 Nonaka (2005)
Japan 117 Mitsuhashi (2008), taken from Sun-
5–20% of the dry weight (Chen, Feng, & Chen, 2009). The carbohydrate
Waterhouse et al. (2016) content in edible insects varies from 6.71% in stink bugs to 15.98% in
Laos, Myanmar, Thailand, 164 Yhoung-Aree (2010) cicadas (Raksakantong, Meeso, Kubola, & Siriamornpun, 2010). Studies
and Vietnam have also shown that a considerable amount of polysaccharides con-
Mexico 549 Ramos-Elorduy et al. (2008), taken
tained in them can improve the human immune functions. While of
from van Huis et al. (2013)
Nigeria 40 Banjo et al. (2006) low-calorie values, chitin is known to possess medicinal properties
South Africa 50 Niassy et al. (2018) (Park & Kim, 2010).
Thailand 150 Hanboonsong et al. (2013) In health-related issues some insects are key sources of poly-
Thailand 194 Sirimungkararat et al. (2010) unsaturated fatty acids necessary for prophylaxis of many cardiovas-
Zambia over 60 DeFoliart (1999)
Africa 470 Kelemu et al. (2015)
cular diseases. Studies have shown that the composition of unsaturated
World ca. 1700 Chakravarthy et al. (2016) omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids in mealworms compares with that of a
World over 1900 van Huis (2013) fish (for instance Pacific chub mackerel Scomber japonicus or Blackfin
World over 2000 Roos (2018) tuna Thunnus atlanticus) and exceeds the values for cattle and hogs (van
World 2086 Ramos-Elorduy (2009)
Huis et al., 2013).
World 2111 Jongema (2017)
World 2141 Mitsuhashi (2016) Numerous studies (Akhtar & Isman, 2018; Churchward-Venne,
Pinckaers, van Loon, & van Loon, 2017; Kouřimská & Adámková, 2016;
Nowak, Persijn, Rittenschober, & Charrondiere, 2016; Payne et al.,
Table 3 2016; Sun-Waterhouse et al., 2016; Tao & Li, 2018; Yi et al., 2013;
Global distributions of edible insects by taxon (van Huis et al., 2013). Zielińska, Baraniak, Karaś, Rybczyńska, & Jakubczyk, 2015) have
Place Common names Taxa %
shown that most insects have a well-balanced nutrient profile, meet
amino acid requirements for humans, and are high in monounsaturated
1 Beetles Coleoptera 31 and polyunsaturated fatty acids. They are rich in several micronutrients
2 Butterflies Lepidoptera 18 such as magnesium, copper, iron, and zinc. Furthermore, some of them
3 Bees, wasps, and ants Hymenoptera 14
have the ability to stimulate human skin fibroblasts.
4 Grasshoppers, locusts, and crickets Orthoptera 13
5 Cicadas, leafhoppers, planthoppers, scale Hemipter 10 For instance, Zielinska et al. (2015) studied nutritional composition
insects, and true bugs (protein contents and amino acid spectra, amino acid content, fatty acid
6–7 Termites Isoptera 3 composition, mineral content) of mealworms Tenebrio molitor (larvae),
6–7 Dragonflies and damselflies Odonata 3
crickets Gryllodes sigillatus (adult), locusts Schistocerca gregaria (adult).
8 Flies Diptera 2
All remaining taxa 6
Research shown that G. sigillatus, S. gregaria, and T. molitor contain 130,
Total: 100 70, and 40 mg calcium per 100 g dry weight, respectively while beef has
on average 4–27 mg, pork – 5–28, and poultry only 5–14 mg/100 g
(Zielinska et al., 2015).
Table 4 The same is the case with the content of iron. For instance, edible
Biogeographical distribution of edible insects across the world.a insects such as the popular palm weevils (Rhynchophorus phoenicis) or
Region Terrestrial Aquatic mopane caterpillars (Imbrasia belina) can provide 12 and 31 mg of iron
per 100 g of weight. Chicken and beef, on the other hand, provide only
Africa 387 17 1.2 and 3 mg of iron, respectively (Tao & Li, 2018). Several species of
Australasia 90 5
aquatic hemipteran true bugs and larvae of the yellow mealworm beetle
Nearctic 75 15
Neotropical 608 82 also have significantly high content of iron (Nadeau et al., 2015).
Oriental 472 90 Zinc, another mineral important for growth and development, can
Palaearctic 289 52 be generally found in most insects. For example, palm weevil
Total 1921 261 (Rhynchophorus phoenicis) larvae contain 26.5 mg per 100 g (Tao & Li,
a 2018). High contents of potassium and sodium have been recorded
Jongema (2017).
from cricket (Acheta domesticus) nymphs; calcium, phosphorus, and
manganese from adult crickets (Acheta domesticus); copper from ca-
The majority of people who consume insects are predominantly
vorting emperor moth (Usta terpsichore) (Nadeau et al., 2015).
found in the subtropical and tropical regions of the world. China,
The mineral composition depends significantly on the nutrition of
Japan, and Mexico are the only countries wholly or partially located in
the insects. For example, the content of calcium in wax worms (cater-
the temperate zone where entomophagy is practiced in higher pro-
pillars of wax moths), larvae of the yellow mealworm beetle, pupae of
portions (Jongema, 2017).
the silkworm (Bombyx mori), and house crickets increased 5 to 20 times
Even within the same country, higher variation in the consumption
when the insects were fed a food with high concentrations of calcium

439
S. Govorushko Trends in Food Science & Technology 91 (2019) 436–445

Table 5
Examples of energy content of differently processed insect species, by region.a
Location Common name Scientific name Energy content (kcal/100 g fresh weight)

Thailand Crickets 140.2

Thailand House cricket Acheta testacea 133
Mexico, Veracruz Leaf-cutter ant, adult, raw Atta mexicana 404
Mexico Grasshopper nymphs and adults Average for 24 species 17
Thailand Pupae of silkworm, raw Bombyx mori 94
Thailand Pupae of silkworm (cooked) Bombyx mori 152
Taiwan Taiwan giant cricket Brachytrupes portentosus 121
Thailand Taiwan giant cricket Brachytrupes portentosus 188
Australia Australian plague locust, raw Chortoicetes terminifera 499
Thailand Grasshopper, raw Cyrtacanthacris tatarica 89
Thailand Field cricket, raw Gryllus bimaculatus 120
Thailand Scarab beetle larvae Holotrichia sp. 98
Southern Africa Mopane worm (caterpillar) Imbrasia belina 250
Thailand Giant water bug, raw Lethocerus indicus 165
The Netherlands Migratory locust, adult, raw Locusta migratoria 179
Cote d’Ivoire (Ivory Coast) Mendi termite, adult, dewinged, dried, flour Macrotermes subhyalinus 535
Canada, Quebec Red-legged grasshopper, whole, raw Melanoplus femurrubrum 160
Mexico, Hidalgo Honey ant, adult, raw Myrmecocystus melliger 116
Australia Green (weaver) ant, raw Oecophylla smaragdina 1272
Thailand Caterpillar of bamboo borer Omphisa fuscidentalis 231
Thailand Rice grasshopper, raw Oxya japonica 149
Thailand Bombay locust Patanga succincta 157
United States, Illinois Larvae of yellow mealworm beetle (Tenebrio molitor), raw Tenebrio molitor 206
United States, Illinois Yellow mealworm beetle, adult, raw Tenebrio molitor 138
– Larvae of yellow mealworm beetle Tenebrio molitor 205.6
Thailand Larvae of hornet Vespa sp. 140
– Larvae of zophobas Zophobas atratus 242.3

a
Dwi (2010); Yhoung-Aree (2010); van Huis et al. (2013); Nadeau et al. (2015).

(Mlcek et al., 2014). grasshoppers and silkworm pupae, is decarboxylated by bacteria to

Majority of edible insects provide satisfactory levels of the required
essential amino acids. Threonine, valine, and histidine are amino acids,
the requirement for which will be covered in full by all the insect
species which were analyzed by Zielinska et al. (2015). In all the insect
species analyzed, they found high content of tyrosine. The highest va-
lues for isoleucine, leucine, tyrosine, valine, and histidine were ob-
tained in S. gregaria, and those for lysine, methionine, cysteine, phe-
nylalanine, and threonine in G. sigillatus.
6. Challenges of using insects as food
The use of insects as food brings many advantages. However, not all
insects are safe to eat. In developing and less developed countries,
legislation is nearly absent. In developed countries, on the contrary,
food complaint actions are formulated and executed (Gahukar, 2013;
Belluco et al., 2013, 2017). Microbial, chemical, physical, allergenic,
parasitical and toxicological risks should be considered when insects
are selected for human consumption. Also, there are risks caused by
consumption of insects in the inappropriate developmental stage or
incorrect culinary preparation.
A detailed review of the literature on the risks to human health due
to the use of insects in food is given in the article by Testa et al. (2017).
Questions on the food safety of edible insects have been discussed in
articles of Sun-Waterhouse et al., 2016); Chakravarthy et al. (2016);
Poma et al. (2017); Grabowski, Klein (2017); Akhtar, Isman (2018).
Among the challenges are microbiological contamination, chemical
contamination, malabsorption of nutrients, hematic and growth al-
terations etc. For example, the cossid moth Comadia redtenbacheri
Hammerschmidt (known in its larval stage as “agave red worm”) tra-
ditionally used as food in Mexican cuisine. However, most of the sold
larvae show signs and symptoms of infection by various bacteria, which
carries a potential risk to human health. Among them are Pseudomonas
aeruginosa, Acinetobacter calcoaceticus, Bacillus cereus, etc. (Hernandez-
Flores, Llanderal-Cazares, Guzman-Franco, & Aranda-Ocampo, 2015).
Also, there are cases of histamine poisoning due to ingestion of fried
insects. Histidine, which is present in high concentration in
histamine, a heat stable toxin. The ingestion of histamine is responsible
for poisoning (Chomchai, Chomchai, 2018). Yellow mealworms (Te-
nebrio molitor L.) can be grown on diets composed of organic by-pro-
ducts. However, these diets could be contaminated with mycotoxins
that can be a reason for poisoning (Van Broekhoven, Gutierrez, De Rijk,
De Nijs, & Van Loon, 2017).
In southwestern Nigeria, African silkworm pupae [Anaphe spp.]
reportedly poisons consumers every year, because, the heat-resistant
enzyme thiaminase cause abnormalities in locomotory functions (van
Huis et al., 2013). In consuming locusts and grasshoppers, the legs must
be removed in order to avoid intestinal constipation, caused by the
large spines on the tibia.
Most cases of insect allergy are caused by stings from insects be-
longing to the order Hymenoptera (Govorushko, 2013). The potential
allergenicity of insects could be associated with body components such
as the haemolymph and cuticle, as well as body parts including exuviae,
hairs, setae, and scales (Sun-Waterhouse et al., 2016). A detailed review
of the literature on allergic risks of consuming edible insects is made in
the article by Ribeiro, Cunha, Sousa-Pinto, and Fonseca (2018). The
species reported to have caused allergic reactions were locusts, grass-
hoppers, silkworm (Bombyx mori) pupae, ghost moths (Hepialidae),
mopane worms Imbrasia belina, yellow mealworm Tenebrio molitor, ci-
cadas Magicicada septendecim, Magicicada cassini and Magicicada sep-
tendecula, bee pupae, bee larvae, moth Clanis bilineata and sago worms
Rhynchophorus ferrugineus.
For instance, in China, allergic reactions after consuming silkworm
pupae, cicadas and crickets have been reported (Feng et al., 2018).
They include skin itch, urticaria, dizziness, and shock, among others. In
a review of case reports of allergies caused by food consumption in
China from 1980 to 2007, insects were the fourth most common al-
lergenic offenders after pineapple, soft-shelled turtle and crab. The in-
sects that have caused anaphylactic shock are locusts (27 cases),
grasshoppers (27 cases), silkworm pupae (5 cases), a cicada (1 case), a
bee pupa (1 case), a bee larva (1 case) and moth of the family Sphin-
gidae Clanis bilineata tsingtauica Mell (1 case). No deaths caused by
insects were reported (Ji et al., 2009).

440
S. Govorushko
7. Insect production methods
The edible insects can be obtained in three ways: (1) wild har-
vesting; (2) semi-domestication; and (3) farming. At present, edible
insects worldwide are sourced predominantly by wild harvesting and
92% of known species of edible insects are obtained by this method. Six
percent of edible insects species are considered to be semi-domes-
ticated, and only 2% of the species are reared (Yen, 2015). While a
lower percentage of the edible insects are obtained by rearing and semi-
domestication, these methods have huge potential to provide a more
stable supply.
Wild harvesting is the most ancient and most labour-consuming
method that developed through accumulated experience and awareness
of the seasonal and diurnal availability for harvesting. For example, the
stink bug Nezara robusta in southern Africa are harvested early in the
morning when it is not hot and the insects are inactive; they are then
shaken down from the branches of trees using a long bamboo stick with
a bag attached at the end (Rousseau, 2013).
Also, various appliances that improved harvesting efficiency are
developed. Examples of collecting insects using light or sound are given
in the publication of van Huis (2018). Under favorable circumstances,
the harvesting of edible insects can be highly labor-efficient; harvesting
of the locust Melanoplus sanguinipes provides an average return of
273,000 cal/hour per collector (Schabel, 2010).
van Huis et al. (2013) reported that semi-domestication requires the
selection of insects having the following characteristic features (1) short
reproduction cycle; (2) large sizes; (3) gregarious behavior; (4)
swarming; (5) high reproductive rate; (6) higher survival rates; (7)
higher nutritional value; (8) potential for storage; (9) possibility to
manipulate the habitats; (10) ease of cultivating host plants; (11)
marketability; and (12) favorable cost-benefit ratio.
For an edible insect species to qualify for semi-domestication, it
needs to meet the majority of the above characteristic features. A sui-
table host crop plants, therefore, is that which can simultaneously host
more than one species of edible insects. Insects produced in semi-do-
mestication are not isolated from wild populations because it is possible
that the insects can infest planted host from the wild population.
In Venezuela, for example, palm weevil larvae (Rhynchophorus pal-
marum) are bred in plastic containers before they are released into the
wild (Cerda et al., 2001). In using this method producing edible insects,
habitat manipulation is usually practiced to ensure a continuous supply
of food source for the insects.
A classic example of semi-domesticated insects is palm weevils
Rhynchophorus palmarum in Central and South America, R. phoenicis in
Africa and R. ferrugineus in Southeast Asia. For example, in the
Venezuelan Amazon Joti people actively cultivates palm weevil R.
Palmarum. Females of this insect prefer to deposit eggs in exposed inner
palm tissues than on the surface of an intact palm trunk. By making
wedge-shape cuts into palm trunks after they are cut down, the Jotı
facilitate the colonization of R. palmarum larvae in these trunks.
After felling Jotı leave the palms on the forest floor until the larvae
are ready to be harvested. They may return occasionally before the
harvest to check on the larvae's development. Individual cultivators use
a lot of methods to distinguish whether the larvae are ready for harvest,
such as counting the days or lunar cycles (i.e., 29.5 days), or examining
the color of sawdust expelled from the entry holes larvae create as they
tunnel through the palm trunks. Indicator when the weevil larvae are
ideal for harvesting is the sawdust which turns a darker orange-yellow
color (Choo, Zent, & Simpson, 2009).
In farming other insects, in order to reduce natural mortality, the
larvae are protected from drought, heat, and predation and diseases by
simply covering them with branches, leaves and shade houses like in
the case of mopane worm caterpillars (I. belina) from Botswana and
South Africa (Kelemu et al., 2015; Obopile & Seeletso, 2013). In
Mexico, the eggs of aquatic true bugs (Corisella, Corixa, and Notonecta
species), which lay on aquatic vegetation in lakes are highly valued.
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Trends in Food Science & Technology 91 (2019) 436–445
Here, changes in habitats consist of bundles of twigs, grasses, or reeds
that are pressed down with stones to the bottoms of water bodies.
After that, the females lay eggs on these bundles; the eggs can easily
be harvested by extraction and shaking of the bundles. In many regions
of Africa, methods of collections, storage, and cooking termites were
described in detail by van Huis (2017). Termite mounds that are under
construction are considered to be a perfect choice, but one can also
obtain good results in this way with old termite mounds (van Huis
et al., 2013).
Insect farming is a recent and rarely used method of producing
edible insects. The insects are cultivated in captivities isolated from
their natural populations, and their living conditions, diet, and food
quality are controlled. This method has its benefits and drawbacks. On
the one hand, it is the far more productive method for the production of
consumable goods. On the other hand, the keeping of insects in con-
fined spaces frequently results in various undesirable effects (van Huis
et al., 2013).
Among them are genetic deviations due to inbreeding depression;
genetic drift (changes in genetic resources of populations from gen-
eration to generation caused by some mechanisms other than natural
selection); laboratory adaptation, the so-called founder effect where the
translation by the group of individuals of a large population of only part
of the genetic diversity of this population; as a result, the initial and
new populations end up not resembling wild populations.
Insect farming for human consumption has been undertaken in both
tropical and temperate countries. An example of the tropical country is
Thailand, one of the few countries of the world having developed an
insects rearing sector to use for food. Now, more than 20,000 insect
farming enterprises are incorporated in the country (Preteseille,
Deguerry, Reverberri, & Weigel, 2018). Among temperate countries, the
Netherlands and France are leaders (Derrien, Boccuni 2018). For in-
stance, there are 18 companies producing insects in the Netherlands.
Three of them—Kreca, Meertens, and van de Ven— produce insects for
human consumption (Hanboonsong, Jamjanya, & Durst, 2013).
Production echnologies by species are described in publications of
Cortes Ortiz et al. (2016); Dossey, Tatum, & McGill, 2016). For instance,
methods of cricket farming in Thailand, Laos, and Vietnam involve
using rings approximately 0.5 m in height and 0.8 m in diameter placed
in sheds used as rearing units. A layer of rice husk is placed at the
bottom of each ring, while chicken feed or other pet food and vegetable
residues are used for nutrition.
In temperate zones, insects are reared predominantly for domestic
animals. The most commonly reared insects are mealworms (Tenebrio
molitor) (Oonincx & de Boer, 2012). Because they are usually reared in
confined spaces, climate control is frequently applied because high
temperatures can result in the desiccation of soft-bodied larvae. The
other reared insects include crickets and grasshoppers.
8. Insect processing prior to eating
After being wild-harvested or reared in a domesticated setting, the
insects should be processed for human consumption or feed for live-
stock. The following variants of insect processing prior to eating have
been reported in literature (1) eating of whole insects; (2) processing
into granular or paste forms; and (3) extraction from insects of parti-
cular food components (Obopile and Seeletso, 2013).
When insects are consumed in the unchanged form, traditional
preparation methods are steaming, boiling, baking, deep-frying, sun-
drying, smoking, and processing into chutney (Rumpold, Schlüter,
2015; van Huis & Oonincx, 2017). In countries where people eat insects
for millennia, food habits have shifted towards Western diets (Morris,
2008; van Huis et al., 2013).
Eating insects intact is more characteristic of tropical countries. The
insects are usually eaten whole; however, for insects such as grass-
hoppers and locusts and adult beetles, some of their body parts (for
example, wings and legs) are preliminarily removed from the body
S. Govorushko
(Obopile & Seeletso, 2013). Already, many edible-insect cookbooks
have been published; for example, the books by Ramos-Elorduy (1998),
Menzel and D'Aluisio (2004), Gordon (2013), and van Huis, van Gurp,
Dicke, Takken-Kaminker, and Blumenfeld-Schaap (2014).
Processing into the granulated and paste forms is more often used in
countries where consumers are not accustomed to eating whole insects.
For instance, Europe has been producing typical foodstuffs from
homogenized insects, e.g. patties, pasta, and bread. Grinding or milling
is normal methods for processing of a great number of products, and
they are often used for reworking insects (van Huis, 2013). In these
forms, they are better accepted by consumers. The resulting powders
and pastes usually have been added to other products with low protein
contents to increase their nutritional value (Ramos-Elorduy, 1998;
Menzel & D’Aluisio, 2004).
This direction of insects food use is successfully developing in many
countries, new technologies are being developed. For example, a wide
range of patents has been issued in South Korea. Among them, patents
for the silkworm powder refining process, the cicada larva snack
manufacturing method, and the mealworm powder processing method
(Han, Shin, Kim, Choi, & Kim, 2017). However, this method has also
been used in countries with long-standing traditions of entomophagy.
For example, in Thailand and Laos, powder of the ground giant water
bug (Lethocerus indicus) is the main ingredient of a very popular chili
paste (Hanboonsong et al., 2013; van Huis et al., 2013).
The extraction from insects of certain food components is preferable
in societies where the use of insects for food has no long-standing tra-
ditions. Often, people are receptive to an idea of the nutritional value of
insects, but they prefer to be blind to what they eat. This method of
processing insects is acceptable to inhabitants of North America and
Europe. However, at times it has created problems for people having
allergic responses (Mlcek et al., 2014). In most cases, the proteins are
extracted from the insects, but the extraction of fats, chitin, minerals,
and vitamins is also possible. Up to now, processes for extraction of
individual food components have been too expensive, and the further
development of cost-efficient and practical methods of their commer-
cial use is needed (van Huis et al., 2013).
9. Insects as animal feed
The demand for animal feed and feed ingredients has been in-
creasing and is expected to rise as an increase of human population put
pressure on natural resources and the ecosystem to produce an animal
protein (Verbeke, Sans, & Van Loo, 2015). The use of insect for animal
feed is predicated on the fact that insects have a higher nutrient that
can improve the performance of domestic animals. However, the cost of
feed and feed production reportedly account for 50–70% of the total
animal production in commercial farming.
Global fodder production in 2016 amounted to 1032.2 million
metric tons. The production of feed for various animal categories in the
same units was as follows: poultry – 451.6, pigs – 272.4, ruminant –
221.1, aquaculture animals – 39.9, pets – 25.0, horse – 7.8, others –
14.4 (Alltech Global Feed Survey, 2017).
The nutritional properties of insects are very high, and they can be
successfully substituted for many ingredients used in the production of
feed (fish, soybeans, etc.). Black soldier flies Hermetia illucens, common
housefly (Musca domestica) larvae, silkworms Bombyx mori, and yellow
mealworms Tenebrio molitor have been recognized as major species for
the commercial production of feed (Oonincx, van Broekhoven, van
Huis, & van Loon, 2015; van Huis, 2015). To a lesser degree, grass-
hoppers and termites are also prospective species currently investigated
for feed production (van Huis et al., 2013).
The production of feeds consisting of black soldier flies, their fecal
masses, and wheat middling to raise prawns did not reveal gustatory
differences between prawns reared with the use of traditional and these
new foods (Tiu, 2012). Apart from feeding insect after processing, live
insects have also been used in raising poultry (Makkar, Tran, Heuzé, &
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Trends in Food Science & Technology 91 (2019) 436–445
Ankers, 2014).
Prospective insects for use in poultry production include grass-
hoppers, crickets, cockroaches, termites, stink bugs, cicadas, aphids,
scale insects, psyllids, beetles, caterpillars, flies, fleas, bees, wasps, and
ants (Ravindran & Blair, 1993). For example, in villages of Guinea,
Togo, Burkina Faso, and India, live termites are used to feed fowl, in-
cluding chickens, as well as being used to feed ostriches in farms (Food
and Agriculture Organization 2012).
In many countries, maggots—larvae of the common housefly (Musca
domestica)—are widely used as feed for poultry. They were successfully
used in Nigeria, Togo, Cameroon, Russia, and South Korea (Hwangbo
et al., 2009). The maggots are fed both in the fresh form and in the
dried state; the latter form facilitates storage and transportation.
Studies have shown that maggots can be substituted for fish meal in
the production of broiler chickens (Al-Qazzaz, Ismail 2016). For ex-
ample, in South Korea, the importance of maggots in feeding broiler
chickens fed with maggots improved the carcass quality and rate of live
weight gain by 10–15% (Hwangbo et al., 2009).
In India, conventional feed accounts for 60% of the total cost of
raising poultry but food sources shortage such as maize and soybeans
hinders feed production (van Huis, 2013). The harvesting of insect
agricultural pests to use as feed reduces the consumption of harmful
pesticides by humans.
The nutritional composition of four acridids species was studied
being common short-horned grasshopper (Oxya fuscovittata), common
Indian grasshopper (Acrida exaltata), rice grasshopper (Hieroglyphus
banian), and short-horned grasshopper (Spathosternum prasiniferum
prasiniferum). The studies showed that all the acridids investigated were
characterized by higher protein contents compared to conventional
soybean and fish meal and may well be used as an ingredient in the food
production. The common short-horned grasshopper (O. fuscovittata)
was found to be the most promising for harvest and a good candidate
for farming because of its high fecundity and fertility (Anand, Ganguly,
& Haldar, 2008).
Many fish species feed on insects, so the use of insects as food in
aquaculture comes naturally but their contribution to household fish
production is insignificant. The insect species considered most suitable
for the production of combination fodder are black soldier fly larvae
(Hermetia illucens), common housefly larvae (Musca domestica), silk-
worms (Anaphe panda), mealworms, grasshoppers (Acrididae), and
termites (Kalotermes flavicollis) (EFSA Scientific Committee 2015; Lock,
Biancarosa, & Gasco, 2018).
Black soldier fly larvae are already used successfully for feeding red
seabream (Pagrus major) (Ido et al., 2015), rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus
mykiss), channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus), and blue tilapia (Or-
eochromis aureus). In the case of rainbow trout, the larvae may be
substituted for 25% of fish meal and 38% of fish oil (St-Hilaire et al.,
2007). In China, Mormon cricket meal (Anabrus simplex) is used as feed
in freshwater aquaculture as well as in pig and fur farming (Food and
Agriculture Organization 2012).
A vast number of different animals (both in zoos and those used as
pets) feed on insects. Among the most popular insects used as pet food
are crickets (tropical house cricket, Gryllodes sigillatus; two-spotted
cricket, Gryllus bimaculatus; and house cricket, Acheta domesticus);
mealworms (superworm, Zophobas atratus; lesser meal black beetle,
Alphitobius diaperinus; yellow mealworm beetle, Tenebrio molitor); lo-
custs (migratory locust, Locusta migratoria); sun beetles (Pachnoda
marginata peregrina); wax moths (greater wax moth, Galleria mellonella);
cockroaches (orange-spotted cockroach, Blaptica dubia; speckled or
lobster cockroach, Nauphoeta cinerea); and maggots of the housefly,
Musca domestica (Bosch, Zhang, Oonincx, & Hendriks, 2014; van Huis
et al., 2013).
While insects are rarely used to feed cats, an estimated 6% feral cat's
diet is composed of insects (Plantinga, Bosch, & Hendriks, 2011). In-
sects generally are not used in the commercial production of dog foods,
but studies estimate that protein quality of insects has potential as
S. Govorushko
ingredients for dog foods (Bosch et al., 2014).
Companion birds can be phytophagous and entomophagous. In
practice, there are no birds that feed on only vegetable food, and even
species considered to be phytophagous (canaries, parrots, crossbills,
bullfinches, weavers, etc.) need animal protein. Most companion birds
are entomophagous and therefore rearing of insects to feed them will
prove beneficial in the long run. Other pets that may benefit from nu-
trient from insects include aquarium fish, reptiles which are to a greater
extent entomophagous (Vidotto-Magnoni & Carvalho, 2009).
10. Conclusions
In this study, I reviewed the history of the use of insects as food and
feed and presented globally the entomophagy status. The review de-
monstrates that an array of insect species is used as food in many
countries of the world, especially those not associated to an extent with
western cultures. We have shown that the nutrient content of edible
insects are comparable and in some cases above commonly used sources
like fish and other livestock. After an extensive literature review, it is
evident that edible insects are climate-smart food source because the
emissions of greenhouse gases by insects are far less than those for most
other livestock. Economic and social factors that make insect farming
more desirable than livestock were identified. The review argues that
insects have potential use globally as food and feed source and will have
lower negative impact on the environment thus a better alternative in
light of current changes in climate.
Declarations of interest
None.
Funding
This research did not receive any specific grant from funding
agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.
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