Sustainability-15-08886 (FullPaper)

sustainability
Article
Study Variability of the Land Surface Temperature of Land
Cover during El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) in a
Tropical City
Oliver Valentine Eboy 1 and Ricky Anak Kemarau 2, *
1 Faculty of Social Sciences and Humanities, Universiti Malaysia Sabah (UMS),

Kota Kinabalu 88400, Sabah, Malaysia; oliver@ums.edu.my
2 Earth Observation Centre, Institute of Climate Change, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia,
Bangi 43600, Selangor, Malaysia
* Correspondence: rickykemarau@ukm.edu.my; Tel.: +60-389118484
Abstract: The World Health Organization has reported numerous fatalities, primarily among urban
residents, during El Niño events. This study employed remote sensing technology to investigate the
influence of the El Niño Southern Oscillation on temperature. The objective was to analyze the effect
of ENSO on temperature across different land cover types using Landsat satellite data. Pre-processing
was applied to the satellite data before converting numerical values into surface temperatures. The
findings revealed that RS technology effectively captured the impact of varying ENSO intensity levels
on surface temperatures. ENSO strength influenced temperature variations in the study areas. During
El Niño events, urban areas exhibited higher land surface temperatures compared to vegetation,
wetlands, and water bodies, a pattern consistent during La Niña. Specifically, there was a 2.5 ◦ C
temperature increase in the urban land cover area during El Niño events between 2016 and 1997.
Water bodies, vegetation, and wetlands experienced respective temperature increases of 0.17 ◦ C,
0.17 ◦ C, and +0.7 ◦ C during ONI value 1 events between 2016 and 1997. These findings are crucial
for local authorities, providing spatial information on hot spots to enhance vigilance against potential
El Niño temperatures.
Keywords: remote sensing; El Niño; La Niña; effect; temperature; spatial information

Citation: Eboy, O.V.; Kemarau, R.A.
Study Variability of the Land Surface
Temperature of Land Cover during El
Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) in
a Tropical City. Sustainability 2023, 15,
1. Introduction
8886. https://doi.org/10.3390/ Understanding the impact of ENSO on cities is crucial for managing public health
su15118886 and essential resources. By analyzing temperature patterns during ENSO events, remote
sensing (RS) can help identify areas at higher risk of heat-related illnesses and guide the
Academic Editor: William Frodella
allocation of resources to mitigate health impacts. It also provides valuable information
Received: 18 April 2023 for managing water resources, energy consumption, and urban infrastructure during
Revised: 25 May 2023 periods of extreme heat and drought associated with ENSO. ENSO events can exacerbate
Accepted: 29 May 2023 the urban heat island effect, leading to higher temperatures in urban areas compared to
Published: 31 May 2023 surrounding rural or suburban regions. Remote sensing allows for the quantification of
surface temperature variations within the city, helping to assess the intensity and spatial
extent of the urban heat island effect during ENSO events. The location of the study areas in
Southeast Asia is associated with the occurrence of several climate phenomena, including
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.
the Madden–Julian Oscillation, the Indian Ocean Dipole, monsoons, and ENSO [1]. El Niño
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
events contribute to extremely hot weather in Southeast Asian countries such as Malaysia,
distributed under the terms and
Indonesia, Thailand, and Vietnam [2,3]. Moreover, El Niño leads to warmer weather than
conditions of the Creative Commons
usual and can result in prolonged droughts, which have been responsible for the highest
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// recorded temperature increases in Southeast Asia’s history, observed in 1997/1998 and
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ 2015/2016 [4,5]. These intense heat conditions also have detrimental effects on human
4.0/). health, such as heat stroke, discomfort, increased electricity consumption, and scarcity of
Sustainability 2023, 15, 8886. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15118886 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability

Sustainability 2023, 15, 8886 2 of 22
water and food resources [1,5–7]. The impact of temperature increase is more pronounced
in urban areas due to global warming and the presence of urban heat islands [8]. The
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [9] supports this statement and predicts the
occurrence of extremely hot weather in the future. During El Niño, the urban heat island
effect intensifies this warming effect, as urban areas exhibit higher temperatures than rural
or suburban areas due to modifications in vegetation cover, which absorb and release heat,
particularly during nighttime [10–12].
NOAA (2018) classifies past El Niño events based on strength levels, including weak,
moderate, and strong. It is important to analyze and study the differences in each strength
level to understand the potential effects of future El Niño events [7]. Previous studies have
shown an increase in El Niño effects, but there is limited research on the impact of El Niño on
temperature in other countries, including those in Southeast Asia [7,8]. Studying the impact
and response to ENSO is crucial for developing national policies and response measures to
manage droughts based on accurate scientific data [7]. Furthermore, the lack of information
dissemination and infrastructure during droughts and El Niño events has resulted in
the loss of lives, as seen in India and Pakistan. Therefore, there is a need for diversified
studies to enhance our knowledge of the effects of ENSO on humans, especially beyond
the directly affected areas. Kemarau and Eboy [7] highlight the insufficient knowledge and
research providing information outside the affected regions. These factors have motivated
researchers to utilize GIS and remote sensing (RS) techniques, which provide valuable
external information. In the realm of remote sensing research, studying ENSO is important
as it allows for a better understanding of its impact on temperature patterns and changes in
land cover. Remote sensing techniques, such as thermal remote sensing, enable researchers
to assess temperature variations over large spatial areas. By analyzing satellite data, they
can identify and monitor thermal anomalies associated with El Niño events and their effects
on different regions and land cover types.
However, there are limitations to thermal remote sensing data. One limitation is the
spatial resolution of the data, which may not capture fine-scale temperature variations. For
example, low-resolution data may not accurately detect temperature differences within
small urban areas or localized hotspots. Additionally, the remote sensing sensor, whether
thermal or optical, cannot penetrate clouds, resulting in missing data. Overall, studying
ENSO using remote sensing techniques helps researchers gain insights into the spatial and
temporal patterns of temperature changes and their association with land cover dynamics.
However, there is a lack of knowledge regarding the utilization of remote sensing tech-
nology to examine the impact of ENSO events on land cover temperature. Conducting
further research in this area is necessary to offer a fresh perspective on how remote sensing
technology can assess weather changes resulting from ENSO events. This information is
valuable for understanding the impacts of El Niño events, especially in urban areas affected
by the urban heat island effect, and for developing strategies to mitigate the adverse effects
of extreme weather events in the future. There is a question about the application of remote
sensing to study the impact of ENSO: Can remote sensing data be used to study the impact
of ENSO on the temperature of different types of land cover in Kuching City, Sarawak?
This motivates the study of the application of remote sensing data, which offers spatial
information. This spatial information is important as it provides knowledge and awareness
to the population about hot spot areas to avoid, as seen in India and Pakistan, where
an estimated 4000 people were killed due to heat stroke during El Niño in 2016 [13]. In
addition, studies on the impact of ENSO on each type of land cover in the city are still
lacking because many past studies have used meteorological data from a single station [7,8].
However, there are currently two studies on the use of remote sensing techniques to
study the effect of ENSO on temperature: Felix and Guo [14] on a global scale and Melo
et al. [15] on a regional scale throughout Brazil. The two studies used MODIS data with a
low resolution of 5600 m, which failed to identify the type of land cover and land use in
nearby areas. This study attempts to overcome this problem by using Landsat satellites,
which have a resolution of 30 m for thermal data and 100 m for surface coverage area
nearby areas. This study attempts to overcome this problem by using Landsat satellites,
which have a resolution of 30 m for thermal data and 100 m for surface coverage area
classification.
Sustainability 2023, 15, 8886 However, the question arises: Can the remote sensing technique provide 3 of 22
spatial information on temperature distribution changes based on the strength level of

ENSO in Kuching City? If so, where are the hot and cold areas near ENSO incidents in
Kuching City? Whyclassification. However, the question arises: Can the remote sensing technique provide
did these areas become hotspots?
spatial information on temperature distribution changes based on the strength level of
ENSO in Kuching City? If so, where are the hot and cold areas near ENSO incidents in
2. Materials and Methods
Kuching City? Why did these areas become hotspots?
Daily temperatures in Kuching City, Malaysia (Figure 1), range from 23 °C to 32 °C
2. Materials and Methods
during the day [7]. The weather in Kuching is influenced by various climatic factors ◦such ◦
Daily temperatures in Kuching City, Malaysia (Figure 1), range from 23 C to 32 C
as the Madden–Julian duringOscillation,
the day [7]. El
TheNiño-Southern
weather in Kuching Oscillation,
is influencedmonsoons, and the
by various climatic In- such
factors
dian Ocean Dipole as [7].
theKuching experiences
Madden–Julian two
Oscillation, monsoon seasons:
El Niño-Southern themonsoons,
Oscillation, Northeast andmon-
the Indian
soon from November to February and the Northwest monsoon from May to September. from
Ocean Dipole [7]. Kuching experiences two monsoon seasons: the Northeast monsoon
November to February and the Northwest monsoon from May to September. The Northeast
The Northeast monsoon brings more rainfall, while the Northwest monsoon is relatively
monsoon brings more rainfall, while the Northwest monsoon is relatively drier [7]. The
drier [7]. The transition between
transition thethe
between monsoons occursininApril
monsoons occurs Aprilandand October.
October.
Figure 1. Location of study [Google Earth].

Figure 1. Location of study [Google Earth].
Kuching City was specifically selected for this study to assess the impact of ENSO
Kuching City was specifically
on temperature forselected for thisFirstly,
several reasons. studyKuching
to assessCitythe impact in
is situated ofaENSO
tropicalonclimate
zone reasons.
temperature for several characterized by consistently
Firstly, Kuching high Citytemperatures
is situated in and a humidity throughout
tropical climate zonethe year.
Tropical regions are known to be highly susceptible to the influences of climate phenomena
characterized by consistently high temperatures and humidity throughout the year. Trop-
like ENSO, which can significantly affect temperature patterns and variability. Additionally,
ical regions are known
Kuchingto be
City,highly susceptible
like many other cities to the influences
in tropical of climate
regions, faces phenomena
specific vulnerabilities related
like ENSO, which can significantly
to temperature affectdue
changes temperature
to factors suchpatterns
as high and variability.
population Addition-
density, the urban heat
ally, Kuching City, island
like manyeffect,other cities access
and limited in tropical regions,
to cooling faces specific
infrastructure. vulnerabilities
Moreover, Kuching City has
related to temperature changes due to factors such as high population density, [16].
experienced rapid urban growth compared to other cities in East Malaysia This growth,
the urban
coupled with the lack of a comprehensive understanding of the specific effects of ENSO
heat island effect, and limited access to cooling infrastructure. Moreover, Kuching City
on temperature in tropical cities like Kuching, underscores the importance of conducting
has experienced rapid
this urban
study. Bygrowth compared
investigating to other
the impact citiesoninKuching
of ENSO East Malaysia [16]. This
City, the research aims to
growth, coupled with the lack
provide of a insights
valuable comprehensive understanding
into the vulnerability of the
of the city specific
to heat during effects
ENSOof events.
ENSO on temperature in tropical cities like Kuching, underscores the importance of con- city
This knowledge can guide future preparations and assist in building a more resilient
ducting this study. toBycope with the potential impacts of climate change. By studying the impact of ENSO
investigating the impact of ENSO on Kuching City, the research
on the temperature in Kuching City, researchers can gain insights into the local climate
aims to provide valuable insights into the vulnerability of the city to heat during ENSO
events. This knowledge can guide future preparations and assist in building a more resil-
ient city to cope with the potential impacts of climate change. By studying the impact of
ENSO on the temperature in Kuching City, researchers can gain insights into the local
dynamics, identify temperature trends during different ENSO phases, and contribute to
climate change adaptation strategies for tropical urban areas.
This research utilized Landsat 5 TM, 7 ETM, and 8 OLI TIR satellite data. The selected
remote sensing data for the study period from 1988 to 2019 were limited to cloud-free areas
in the study location. A total of 37 Landsat data were involved in the analysis, downloaded
from https://earthexplorer.usgs.gov/ (accessed on 15 September 2019). The Landsat
satellites offer ample coverage, enabling researchers to process data for a comprehensive
examination and assessment of urban environments. Table 1 displays information about
the type of Landsat sensor, the date and time the data were taken (metadata), and the
selection of thermal bands applied in this study.
Table 1. Information on the Landsat satellite used in this study.
No Sensor Date and Time Data Were Taken Thermal Band

1 Landsat 5 TM 25 May 1988, 0222 PM Band 6
2 Landsat 5 TM 28 June 1988, 0222 PM Band 6
4 Landsat 5 TM 24 August 1992, 0214 PM Band 6
5 Landsat 5 TM 08 April 1994, 0212 PM Band 6
13 Landsat 7 ETM 08 July 2001, 0241 PM Band 6
14 Landsat 7 ETM 29 September 2002, 0239 PM Band 6
20 Landsat 7 ETM 10 August 2007, 0242 PM Band 6
21 Landsat 7 ETM 08 May 2008, 0242 PM Band 6
22 Landsat 7 ETM 29 September 2008, 0240 PM Band 6
25 Landsat 7 ETM 24 October 2011, 0245 PM Band 6
26 Landsat 7 ETM 20 June 2012, 0246 PM Band 6
27 Landsat 7 ETM 20 April 2013, 0248 PM Band 6
28 Landsat 7 ETM 23 June 2013, 0247 PM Band 6
29 Landsat 7 ETM 23 April 2014, 0249 PM Band 10
30 Landsat 8 OLI 10 August 2016, 0252 PM Band 10
32 Landsat 7 ETM 18 August 2016. 0254 PM Band 6
34 Landsat 7 ETM 24 October 2017, 0254 PM Band 6
36 Landsat 8 OLI 15 July 2018, 0251 PM Band 10
Tables 2–4 provide wavelength information for the Landsat series applied in this
study. The detailed information is based on https://landsat.gsfc.nasa.gov/ (accessed on
15 September 2019). The Landsat 8 OLI TIRS satellite orbits the Earth in a sun-synchronous
orbit, near the poles, at an altitude of 705 km. Landsat 8 is equipped with the Operational
Land Imager (OLI), which consists of nine spectral bands and two thermal infrared sensors,
as indicated in Table 2.
Table 2. Comprehensive Information on Bands for Landsat 8 OLI TIRS.
Band Wavelength Resolution

Band 1 Coastal Aerosol (0.43–0.45 µm) 30 m
Band 2 Blue (0.450–0.51 µm) 30 m
Band 3 Green (0.53–0.59 µm) 30 m
Band 4 Red (0.64–0.67 µm) 30 m
Band 5 Near-Infrared (0.85–0.88 µm) 30 m
Short-wave infrared (SWIR) 1
Band 6 30 m
(1.57–1.65 µm)
Band 7 SWIR 2 (2.11–2.29 µm) 30 m
Band 8 Panchromatic (PAN) (0.50–0.68 µm) 15 m
Band 9 Cirrus (1.36–1.38 µm) 30 m
Thermal Infrared Sensor (TIRS) 1
Band 10 100 m
(10.6–11.19 µm)
Band 11 TIRS 2 (11.5–12.51 µm) 100 m
The Landsat 7 ETM + satellite orbits the Earth in a sun-synchronous and near-polar
orbit. Table 3 presents information regarding the available bands and resolution on the
Landsat 7 ETM + satellite.
Table 3. Information bands on the Landsat 7 ETM + satellite.

Band 1 Blue (0.45–0.52 µm) 30 m
Band 2 Green (0.52–0.60 µm) 30 m
Band 3 Red (0.63–0.69 µm) 30 m
Band 4 Near Red (0.77–0.90 µm) 30 m
Band 6 Thermal (10.40–12.50 µm) 60 m
Band 7 Mid-infrared (2.08–2.35 µm) 30 m
Panchromatic (PAN)
Band 8 15 m
(0.52–0.90 µm)
Table 4 contains information such as the spectral bands available on the Landsat 5
satellite and the level of detail or resolution at which the data were captured.
Table 4. Bands and resolution Landsat 4/5 TM.

Band 1 Blue (0.43–0.52 µm) 30 m
Band 2 Green (0.52–0.60 µm) 30 m
Band 3 Red (0.63–0.69 µm) 30 m
Band 6 Thermal (10.40–12.50 µm) 30 m
Band 7 Mid–Infrared (2.08–2.35 µm) 120 m
The Oceanic Niño Index (ONI) is frequently used to identify El Niño and La Niña
events [7]. The ONI index shows the development and intensity of El Niño or La Niña
events in the Pacific Ocean and can be accessed at https://origin.cpc.ncep.noaa.gov/
products/analysis_monitoring/ensostuff/ONI_v5.php (accessed on 10 September 2019).
ONI is a three-month sea surface temperature anomaly in the Niño region of 3.4 at 5◦
North–5◦ South, 120◦ –170◦ West. El Niño events are defined as three-month values at or
above +0.5 ◦ C anomaly, while La Niña events are defined as at or below −0.5 ◦ C anomaly
(NOAA Climate Prediction Center, 2019). ENSO value degrees explain Weak (with sea
surface temperature anomalies of 0.5 to 0.9), Moderate (1.0 to 1.4), Strong (1.5 to 1.9), and
Sustainability 2023, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 23
significance of the relationship. Furthermore, correlation analysis is also performed to

Sustainability 2023, 15, 8886 measure the strength and direction of the relationship between two variables. Data 6from of 22
the Malaysian Meteorological Department are used to calculate the correlations between
relevant variables in the study. By utilizing data from the Malaysian Meteorological De-
partment
Very Strongand
(≥conducting regression
2.0) for El Niño events and
and correlation analysis,
vice versa for La Niña theevents.
conclusions
Figureand find-
2 shows
ings of the study can be validated and confirmed based on the analyzed statistical
the flow of steps in producing a land cover map. In the first step, the collected data require rela-
tionships. This helps strengthen the credibility and validity of the study by utilizing
an initial process of atmospheric and radiometric correction to improve the remote sensing reli-
able and credible data sources from the Malaysian Meteorological Department.
data.
Data Landsat (1988-2021)
Pre-Processing (Atmosphere, Geometric and radiometric correction)
Convert Digital Number Landsat 5, 7 , 8 and 9 to land Surface temperature

(Kemarau and Eboy, 2021)
ISO cluster classification for Landsat 5, 7, 8 and 9 to generate Land cover map.
Accurracy Assement conducted using Google map for selected year El

Niño(1998 and 2016) and La Niña (2011 and 2018) and validation result with
Malaysia Meteorlogy Department
Map of land cover and LST selected year El Niño(1998 and 2016) and La
Niña (2011 and 2018)
Figure 2.
Figure 2. Shows
Shows the
the steps
steps in
in producing
producing aa land
land cover
cover and
and land
land surface
surface temperature
temperature map.
map.
Tablemethod
The 5, presented
used in this
this study,
study demonstrates
involves severalthe steps
accuracy of the modeling
to process and analyzeprocess
the
in terms5ofand
Landsat user and producer
8 data; we followed accuracy. These
an existing accuracy
method [16].measures
The first indicate how well the
step is pre-processing,
classification
which includes model performed
geometric, in correctly
radiometric, identifying and
and atmospheric assigning
correction land
of the cover
data. catego-
Geometric
ries. According
correction ensuresto Table 5, the
that the datauser
are and producer
accurately accuracy
aligned and values for spatially.
registered all phases LST
of the
is
classification
estimated process
using exceeded
the thermal 90%. This
infrared (TIR)means
bandsthat the model
of Landsat achieved
sensors, sucha ashigh level of
Landsat 5,
accuracy7,inand
Landsat correctly
Landsat identifying andsensors
8 [16]. These classifying
have land cover that
TIR bands categories
capturebased
thermalon radiation
the input
emitted by the Earth’s
data. Additionally, surface.
the kappa The TIR which
coefficient, bands isused for LST measure
a statistical calculations are typically
of agreement be-
band
tween6thefor classification
Landsat 5 and Landsat
results and7 reference
and bands 10 and
data, was11 for Landsat
reported to be8.98The
for calculation
each of the
of LST involves a series of steps, which typically include radiometric calibration [16]: the
TIR bands are radiometrically calibrated to convert the digital numbers into radiance
values. Next, second-atmosphere correction. Since the atmosphere
Sustainability 2023, 15, x. https://doi.org/10.3390/xxxxx absorbs and emits
www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability
thermal radiation, atmospheric effects need to be corrected to obtain accurate LST values.
Different approaches, such as atmospheric models or empirical methods, can be employed

for atmospheric correction. The third step is conversion to brightness temperature: the
radiance values are converted to brightness temperature, which represents the temperature
of the emitting surface without atmospheric interference, and the next emissivity estimation:
Emissivity is the measure of the efficiency with which a surface emits thermal radiation. It is
typically estimated using ancillary data or through empirical relationships with land cover
types. Finally, the LST calculation: the estimated emissivity and brightness temperature
are used in an algorithm to calculate LST. Different algorithms, such as the split-window
algorithm or the radiative transfer equation, can be applied for this purpose.
The next step focuses on processing the corrected and converted data, ensuring proper
geometric alignment for remote sensing analysis. This step is crucial to accurately overlay
and compare different datasets. It helps in aligning the thermal bands and other relevant
information from Landsat 5 and 8 when the procedure map land surface temperature and
land cover. In the second-to-last step, the researchers employ the ISO Cluster classification
method to generate land cover maps for specific years, such as 1998, 2011, 2016, and 2018.
The ISO Cluster classification is a clustering algorithm that groups pixels with similar
spectral characteristics into different land cover categories. This classification allows the
identification and mapping of different land cover types within the study area. Finally,
the accuracy of the land cover maps from specific years, such as 1972, 1988, and 2019, is
assessed using time series analysis from Google Earth, as described in reference [16]. This
analysis involves comparing the classified land cover maps with high-resolution satellite
imagery or other reliable sources to evaluate the correctness and consistency of the land
cover classification results. The study focuses on classifying the data into four different
surface cover categories: urban areas, vegetation, wetland areas, and water bodies.
The confirmation of findings and results of the study is conducted using data from
the Malaysian Meteorological Department through regression and correlation analysis.
In regression analysis, a regression model is constructed based on the data collected
from the Malaysian Meteorological Department. This model is used to understand the
relationship between the independent and dependent variables and determine the strength
and significance of the relationship. Furthermore, correlation analysis is also performed to
measure the strength and direction of the relationship between two variables. Data from
the Malaysian Meteorological Department are used to calculate the correlations between
relevant variables in the study. By utilizing data from the Malaysian Meteorological
Department and conducting regression and correlation analysis, the conclusions and
findings of the study can be validated and confirmed based on the analyzed statistical
relationships. This helps strengthen the credibility and validity of the study by utilizing
reliable and credible data sources from the Malaysian Meteorological Department.
Table 5, presented in this study, demonstrates the accuracy of the modeling process
in terms of user and producer accuracy. These accuracy measures indicate how well the
classification model performed in correctly identifying and assigning land cover categories.
According to Table 5, the user and producer accuracy values for all phases of the classifica-
tion process exceeded 90%. This means that the model achieved a high level of accuracy
in correctly identifying and classifying land cover categories based on the input data. Ad-
ditionally, the kappa coefficient, which is a statistical measure of agreement between the
classification results and reference data, was reported to be 98 for each of the four years
analyzed. Kappa coefficients range from −1 to 1, with values above 0 indicating agreement
between the classification and reference data. In general, kappa coefficients greater than
0.75 are considered to indicate a high level of compatibility between the classification and
reference data. Therefore, based on the reported kappa coefficients of 98 for each year, it
can be concluded that the classification results were highly compatible with the reference
data. This suggests that the modeling process was successful in accurately classifying the
land cover categories and that the results can be considered reliable for further analysis and
interpretation. Kemarau and Eboy [17] stated that kappa coefficients above 0.75 indicate a
high level of compatibility between the classification and reference data, reinforcing the
findings from the current study.
Table 5. Accuracy Assessment.
Index Land Cover 2011 2016 2018

Water bodies 97 95 97
User Accuracy (%)
Urban Area 94 92 96
Wetland 95 99 99
Vegetation 97 96 98
Water Bodies 96 98 99
Producer Accuracy (%) Urban Areas 100 99 97
Wetland 92 98 97
Vegetation 99 100 99
Overall Accuracy (%) 98 99 98
Kappa coefficients (%) 98 98 98
3. Results
3.1. Validation and Verification of LST Data from Satellite Landsat with In-Situ Temperature
Measurements
The relationship between meteorological temperature data and temperature measured
by the Landsat satellite is strong, with a correlation coefficient of 0.97. This study examined
the correlation between meteorological temperature and surface temperature using Landsat
data. Daily air temperature data were collected from Kuching Airport station, which is
a grassy land cover area, at latitude 01◦ 29 North and longitude 110◦ 20 East. The unit
for temperature is ◦ C. The average temperature value was taken between 0200 PM and
0300 PM on the same date that satellite data were captured. This time range corresponds
to when Landsat 4–5 TM (0214–0244 PM), Landsat 7 ETM (0244–0254 PM), and Landsat 8
OLI TIRS (0251–0252 PM) orbit data passed through and captured images in the study area.
Temperature data were obtained from MMD from 1988 to 2019. These meteorological data
are used as a benchmark to assess the accuracy and effectiveness of RS data in studying the
effects of ENSO on temperature in Kuching City, Sarawak.
Figure 3 shows the largest temperature differences observed in December 1995 (−1.7 ◦ C),
August 2004 (−1.4 ◦ C), February 2011 (−1.3 ◦ C), as well as September and October 2005
(−1.2 ◦ C). These differences can be attributed to the different sensors used, as Landsat mea-
sures surface temperature while meteorological stations measure air temperature. Overall,
the correlation analysis indicated a positive relationship between the daily data from the
Malaysian Meteorological Department and the Landsat satellite, with a coefficient value
of 0.97, indicating a close agreement with temperature differences of less than ±0.5 ◦ C.
Based on the graph presented in Figure 3, a high positive correlation (correlation coeffi-
cient of 0.97) is observed between meteorological data and surface temperature from the
Landsat satellite. The correlation of temperature data from MMD is based on the average
temperature value between 0200 PM and 0300 PM on the same date that satellite data were
captured. This time range corresponds to when Landsat 4-5 TM (0214-0244 PM), Landsat 7
ETM (0244–0254 PM), and Landsat 8 OLI TIRS (0251-0252PM) orbit data passed through
and captured images in the study area. The average land surface temperature value from
the Landsat satellite at the pixel location of in situ measurement is used. The selection of
time is important in explaining the high correlation relationship between temperature from
the Meteorological Department and temperature from the Landsat LST satellite.
Referring to Figure 4, differences between daily temperatures obtained from the
Malaysia Meteorology Department (MMD) and the Landsat satellite are observed. The
study identified the largest difference to be −1.7 ◦ C in December 1995, followed by −1.4 ◦ C
in August 2004, −1.3 ◦ C in February 2011, and −1.2 ◦ C in September and October 2005.
These differences arise because the Landsat remote sensing sensors measure surface tem-
perature, while meteorological stations measure air temperature [18].
ellite.
Referring to Figure 4, differences between daily temperatures obtained from the Ma-
laysia Meteorology Department (MMD) and the Landsat satellite are observed. The study
identified the largest difference to be −1.7 °C in December 1995, followed by −1.4 °C in
August 2004, −1.3 °C in February 2011, and −1.2 °C in September and October 2005. These
differences arise because the Landsat remote sensing sensors measure surface tempera-
ture, while meteorological stations measure air temperature [18].
Figure 3. Correlation R-value between Temperature from Malaysian Meteorological Department

Figure 3. Correlation R-value between Temperature from Malaysian Meteorological Department and
and Surface Temperature from Landsat Satellites.
Surface Temperature from Landsat Satellites.
However,
However,thetheoverall
overall difference betweenRSRS
difference between Landsat
Landsat data
data andand temperature
temperature data from
data from
thetheMalaysian
MalaysianMeteorological Department
Meteorological Department (MMD)
(MMD) is below
is below ◦
±0.5 C.±0.5
This°C. This indicates
indicates that 97% that
◦ C. The positive relationship between
97% of the datadata
of the exhibit a small
exhibit a difference
small difference of ±
of less than 0.5 than
less ±0.5 °C. The positive relationship
RS Landsat
between data anddata
RS Landsat MMD andtemperature data is supported
MMD temperature data is by a correlation
supported by acoefficient
correlation of coef-
0.97. This suggests that
ficient of 0.97. This suggeststhe majority
that the majority of daily data from MMD and Landsata satel-
of daily data from MMD and Landsat satellites have
difference below ±0.5 ◦ C. The high correlation coefficient of 0.97 indicates that RS data have
lites have a difference below ±0.5 °C. The high correlation coefficient of 0.97 indicates that
the potential to study land surface temperature characteristics in specific locations [19,20].
RSThedata have the potential to study land surface temperature characteristics in specific
use of remote sensing (RS) enables areas without weather station facilities to stay
locations
informed [19,20]. The useconditions
about weather of remote sensing
and (RS) enables
global climate changes,areas
suchwithout weather station
as El Niño-Southern
facilities
Oscillation (ENSO). Landsat satellites are the primary choice for temperature studies, such
to stay informed about weather conditions and global climate changes, as as
they provide data from 1989 to the present (2021) through second-generation satellites,
including Landsat 4/5 TM, 7 ETM, 8 OLI TIRS, and 9 OLI TIRS 2. These satellites have
been extensively utilized by researchers studying the effects of development changes on
temperature [18]. Additionally, Landsat data offer a higher resolution of 100 m compared
Sustainability 2023, 15, x. https://doi.org/10.3390/xxxxx
to the MODIS satellite, which has a resolution of 5600 m. Thewww.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability
finer resolution of 100 m is
crucial for temperature studies, allowing researchers to investigate the impacts of land use
and surface features on temperature.
perature studies, as they provide data from 1989 to the present (2021) through second-
generation satellites, including Landsat 4/5 TM, 7 ETM, 8 OLI TIRS, and 9 OLI TIRS 2.
These satellites have been extensively utilized by researchers studying the effects of de-
velopment changes on temperature [18]. Additionally, Landsat data offer a higher resolu-
Sustainability 2023, 15, 8886 tion of 100 m compared to the MODIS satellite, which has a resolution of 5600 m. The10finer
of 22
resolution of 100 m is crucial for temperature studies, allowing researchers to investigate
the impacts of land use and surface features on temperature.
Figure 4. Daily Temperature Difference between the Malaysian Meteorological Department and the
Daily Temperature Difference between the Malaysian Meteorological Department and the
Figure 4.satellite.
Landsat
Landsat satellite.
In addition, Zhou et al. [20] utilized MODIS and Landsat data to investigate temper-
In addition, Zhou et al. [20] utilized MODIS and Landsat data to investigate temper-
ature changes resulting from development activities in the Himalayan Mountain region.
ature changes resulting from development activities in the Himalayan Mountain region.
They reported 90% accuracy in measuring temperature using MODIS and Landsat data.
They reported 90% accuracy in measuring temperature using MODIS and Landsat data.
The authors employed the correlation method to assess the effectiveness of these datasets
The authors employed the correlation method to assess the effectiveness of these datasets
in studying the effects of temperature changes due to land use and surface modifications
in studying the effects of temperature changes due to land use and surface modifications
in mountainous areas, yielding a correlation coefficient of 0.90. Parastatidis et al. [21]
in mountainous areas, yielding a correlation coefficient of 0.90. Parastatidis et al. [21]
found that the overall root mean square error (RMSE) was 1.52 °C, indicating that the
found that the overall root mean square error (RMSE) was 1.52 ◦ C, indicating that the
accuracy
accuracy of of the
the land
land surface
surface temperature
temperature (LST)
(LST) product
product is is influenced
influenced by by emissivity
emissivity when
when
using
using the online Google Earth Engine. Different emissivity sources were found
the online Google Earth Engine. Different emissivity sources were found to to yield
yield
varying
varying levels
levels ofof LST
LST accuracy, depending on
accuracy, depending on the
the type
type of of surface
surface cover.
cover. Ermida
Ermida et et al.
al. [22]
[22]
conducted
conducted aa validation
validationexercise
exerciseusing
usingininsitu
situland
landsurface
surface temperature
temperature (LST)
(LST)data from
data 12
from
stations. The overall accuracy for Landsat 5, 7, and 8 was found to be
12 stations. The overall accuracy for Landsat 5, 7, and 8 was found to be 0.5 K, −0.1 K, 0.5 K, −0.1 K, and 0.2
K,
andrespectively. The overall
0.2 K, respectively. The root mean
overall square
root meanerror
square(RMSE) for Landsat
error (RMSE) 5, 7, and5,8 7,
for Landsat wasand2.08
K, 2.1 K, and 2.1 K, respectively. The study focuses on developing
was 2.0 K, 2.1 K, and 2.1 K, respectively. The study focuses on developing a split-windowa split-window (SW)
algorithm
(SW) algorithm to retrieve land surface
to retrieve temperature
land surface temperature(LST)(LST)
fromfrom
Landsat 8 satellite
Landsat datadata
8 satellite in the
in
Beas
the Beas River basin, India. The algorithm utilizes spectral radiance and emissivityfrom
River basin, India. The algorithm utilizes spectral radiance and emissivity data data
two
frombands of theofthermal
two bands infrared
the thermal sensor
infrared (TIRS)
sensor andand
(TIRS) showsshowsaccurate results
accurate compared
results compared to
in situ
to in airair
situ temperature
temperature measurements
measurementsand andLSTLSTvalues
valuesobtained
obtainedfrom
fromother
other algorithms.
algorithms.
Rongali
Rongali et et al.
al. [23]
[23] also
also highlight
highlight the
the variation
variation of of LST
LST inin different
different terrain
terrain types,
types, with
with higher
higher
temperatures in barren/rocky areas and lower temperatures in snow/glacier areas. The
SW algorithm demonstrates good transferability and has a maximum difference of 5 ◦ C
compared to measured air temperature. Jiménez et al. [24]
Sustainability 2023, 15, x. https://doi.org/10.3390/xxxxx applied the method for the
retrieval of land surface temperature (LST) using split-window (SW) algorithms. In this
study, both single-channel (SC) and SW algorithms were proposed and tested using simu-
lated data, demonstrating mean errors below 1.5 K. The SW algorithm performed slightly
better, especially in areas with higher atmospheric water vapor content. This highlights the
significance of LST retrieval from Landsat-8 TIRS data for various applications.
temperatures in barren/rocky areas and lower temperatures in snow/glacier areas. The
SW algorithm demonstrates good transferability and has a maximum difference of 5 °C
compared to measured air temperature. Jiménez et al. [24] applied the method for the
retrieval of land surface temperature (LST) using split-window (SW) algorithms. In this
study, both single-channel (SC) and SW algorithms were proposed and tested using sim-
ulated data, demonstrating mean errors below 1.5 K. The SW algorithm performed
slightly better, especially in areas with higher atmospheric water vapor content. This high-
lights the significance of LST retrieval from Landsat-8 TIRS data for various applications.
3.2. Land Cover Change between the Years 1998 and 2016
3.2. Land Cover Change between the Years 1998 and 2016
The Thestudy found that there were changes in land cover as described in Figure 5.
study found that there were changes in land cover as described in Figure 5. This
This study
studyidentified
identified
landland
covercover changes
changes between between the and
the years 1998 years 1998
2016. and 2016.
A detailed A detailed
explana-
explanation is provided
tion is provided based
based on on the figure.
the figure.
Sustainability 2023, 15, x. https://doi.org/10.3390/xxxxx www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability
5. Land
FigureFigure covercover
5. Land mapmap
in 1998 and
in 1998 2016.
and 2016.
The study found that there were changes in land cover between the years 1998 and
2016. Based on Figure 3, it was observed that there was an increase in urban areas, transi-
tioning from central urban areas to suburban areas. This process of urbanization led to a
decrease in the extent of wetland and vegetation areas, as depicted in Figure 6.
Figure 5. Land cover map in 1998 and 2016.
Thestudy
The studyfound
foundthat
thatthere
there were
were changes
changes in land
in land cover
cover between
between the years
the years 19982016.
1998 and and
2016. Based
Based on Figure
on Figure 3, itobserved
3, it was was observed thatwas
that there thereanwas an increase
increase in areas,
in urban urban transitioning
areas, transi-
tioning
from fromurban
central central urban
areas areas to suburban
to suburban areas.
areas. This Thisofprocess
process of urbanization
urbanization led to a
led to a decrease
decrease
in in the
the extent extent ofand
of wetland wetland and vegetation
vegetation areas, as in
areas, as depicted depicted in Figure 6.
Figure 6.
Figure 6. The land cover area between 1997 and 2016.

Figure 6. The land cover area between 1997 and 2016.
The study found that there were changes in land cover between the years 1998 and
2016. The selection
of this period was based on the occurrence
Sustainability 2023, 15, x. https://doi.org/10.3390/xxxxx of a strong El Niño event,
specifically an ONI (Oceanic Nino Index) value of 1. The objective was to understand
the changes in the land cover extent to assess the impact of the strong El Niño events
during both years on land surface temperature. Based on the above figure, it was observed
that there was a decrease in vegetation area from 216 km2 in 1998 to 193 km2 in 2016.
This decrease in vegetation was due to the transformation into urban areas. The urban
area extent increased from 112 km2 to 162 km2 . Additionally, the area of water bodies
and wetlands also experienced a decrease, with wetland area decreasing from 234 km2 to
183 km2 , and water body area decreasing from 56 km2 to 54 km2 .
3.3. Land Surface Temperature during El Niño with ONI 1 during 1998 and 2016, and La Niña in
2011 and 2018
During the El Niño events in 1997 (19 April 1997) and 2016 (1 July 2016), when the
data were recorded, the strength of El Niño was considered strong with an ONI value
of 1. Figure 7 shows that the maximum temperature during the El Niño event in 2016
was 34.5 ◦ C, which was higher compared to the El Niño event in 1998, which recorded a
maximum temperature of 32.2 ◦ C. Additionally, the average temperature during the El
Niño event in 2016 was higher at 33.6 ◦ C compared to 30 ◦ C during the El Niño event in
1998. The minimum temperature during the El Niño event in 2016 was also higher at 25 ◦ C
compared to 24.1 ◦ C during the El Niño event in 1997.
Figure 8 illustrates the distribution of temperatures during the La Niña events in 2011
and 2018. Based on Figure 8, it was found that the highest temperature recorded was 30 ◦ C
during the La Niña event in 2011, and 31 ◦ C during the La Niña event in 2018.
The average temperature during the La Niña events was 28 ◦ C in 2011 and 29 ◦ C in
2018. Additionally, the minimum temperature reported during the La Niña events in 2018
and 2011 was 19 ◦ C. This study found that during the El Niño events, which bring hot
and dry weather, compared to the La Niña events, which bring higher-than-usual rainfall,
there was an impact on the maximum, average, and minimum temperature values. The
El Niño events were found to result in higher land surface temperature (LST) in the study
area compared to the La Niña events.
data were recorded, the strength of El Niño was considered strong with an ONI value of
1. Figure 7 shows that the maximum temperature during the El Niño event in 2016 was
34.5 °C, which was higher compared to the El Niño event in 1998, which recorded a max-
imum temperature of 32.2 °C. Additionally, the average temperature during the El Niño
Sustainability 2023, 15, 8886
event in 2016 was higher at 33.6 °C compared to 30 °C during the El Niño event in 13
1998.
of 22
The minimum temperature during the El Niño event in 2016 was also higher at 25 °C
compared to 24.1 °C during the El Niño event in 1997.
LST Map during El Niño 1997
LST Map during El Niño 2016
Sustainability 2023, 15, x. https://doi.org/10.3390/xxxxx www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability
Figure
Figure 7.
7. the
TheLST
LSTdistribution
distributionmap
mapduring
duringEl
ElNiño
Niño1998
1998and
and2016.
2016.
Figure 8 illustrates the distribution of temperatures during the La Niña events in 2011
and 2018. Based on Figure 8, it was found that the highest temperature recorded was 30
°C during the La Niña event in 2011, and 31 °C during the La Niña event in 2018.
023, 15, x Sustainability
FOR PEER REVIEW2023, 15, 8886 15 of 23 14 of 22
LST Map during La Niña 2011
LST Map during La Niña 2018
Figure 8. Distribution of temperatures during La Niña in year 2011 and 2016.

Figure 8. Distribution of temperatures during La Niña in year 2011 and 2016.
The average temperature during the La Niña events was 28 °C in 2011 and 29 °C in
2018. Additionally, the minimum temperature reported during the La Niña events in 2018
and 2011 was 19 °C. This study found that during the El Niño events, which bring hot and
4. Discussion
4.1. Influence of ENSO Events on LST (Maximum, Minimum, and Mean) in Land Cover
Milica et al. [25] stated that humans start to feel discomfort when the land surface
temperature exceeds 30 ◦ C for residents in Kuching City. Figure 3 describes the land surface
temperature (LST) and land cover map during El Niño and La Niña events in the study
areas. It illustrates the changes in temperature patterns and land cover types during these
climatic events. According to the findings depicted in Figure 8, during the La Niña event,
hotspots were observed in specified areas (e.g., a zone near area G) to a greater extent
compared to other events. For instance, during the El Niño event in 2016, hotspots were
identified in areas A, B, C, D, E, and F (urban areas) and G, H, I, and J (industrial areas).
Similarly, during the La Niña event in 2018, hotspots were observed in areas B, C, D (urban
areas), and G (industrial area). Another example mentioned is the El Niño event in 1998,
where additional hotspots were found in areas B, C, D, E, F (urban areas), and G, H, and I
(industrial areas) compared to the time of the La Niña event. In summary, Figure 7 provides
visual representations of temperature and land cover changes during El Niño and La Niña
events in Kuching City. The information suggests that specific areas, particularly urban
and industrial zones, tend to exhibit hotspots during these climatic events, with variations
observed between El Niño and La Niña conditions.
Urban areas typically experience higher temperatures compared to surrounding rural
or natural areas due to the urban heat island effect. This effect is primarily caused by the
extensive use of impervious surfaces such as asphalt, concrete, and buildings in urban
environments. These surfaces absorb and retain heat from the sun, leading to elevated
temperatures. Additionally, the lack of vegetation and green spaces in urban areas reduces
the cooling effect of evapotranspiration. Urban and industrial areas are characterized
by high levels of human activities and infrastructure. These activities release significant
amounts of heat into the environment. Heat-generating sources such as factories, power
plants, vehicles, and air conditioning systems contribute to localized heating.
Urban areas often have limited vegetation cover compared to natural or rural areas.
Trees and plants play a crucial role in regulating temperatures by providing shade and
evaporative cooling through transpiration. The absence of vegetation results in reduced
shading and less evapotranspiration. The presence of tall buildings and narrow streets
can create a canyon-like effect that traps heat within urban areas. This can limit airflow
and prevent heat dissipation. Moreover, urban areas tend to have higher levels of air
pollution which can contribute to increased temperatures. Overall, factors such as the
urban heat island effect, human activities and infrastructure, reduced vegetation cover, and
heat-trapping contribute to urban and industrial areas becoming hotspots with elevated
temperatures. Mitigation strategies can help alleviate the heat island effect and create
more comfortable and sustainable urban environments. The figure clearly shows more hot
spot areas in the study area at the time of the El Niño event. This result is supported by
Melo et al. [15], Kanghyun et al. [26], and Jin et al. [27], who show that during El Niño,
the temperature increased compared to La Niña. This explains the statistical value and
distribution of high temperatures around Kuching City during El Niño. Figure 9 shows
that the maximum value of land surface temperature during El Niño in 1997 and 1998
was higher than during La Niña events. For example, during El Niño 1998, the maximum
value was 33 ◦ C compared to 30 ◦ C during La Niña 2011. Kemarau and Eboy [2] showed
that during El Niño events, rainfall decreases, which can cause temperatures to rise, while
during La Niña, rainfall is high, which can cause temperatures in Kuching City to decrease.
Kemarau and Eboy [28] reported that the El Niño phenomenon can cause temperatures to
rise between 0.5 ◦ C and 1.5 ◦ C, while the La Niña phenomenon can cause temperatures to
drop between 0 ◦ C and 1.2 ◦ C.
ability 2023, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 17 of 23
and
Sustainability 2023, 15, Eboy
8886 [28] reported that the El Niño phenomenon can cause temperatures to rise be- 16 of 22
tween 0.5 °C and 1.5 °C, while the La Niña phenomenon can cause temperatures to drop
between 0 °C and 1.2 °C.
Figure 9. The absolute maximum, absolute minimum, and mean value of LST during El Niño and
La Niña for eachFigure The absolute
type of9.land maximum,
cover in Kuching absolute
City, minimum, and mean value of LST during El Niño and La
Sarawak.
Niña for each type of land cover in Kuching City, Sarawak.
This study discovered that the value of the absolute maximum, mean, and absolute
This study discovered that the value of the absolute maximum, mean, and absolute
minimum LST was higher during El Niño events compared to La Niña events for each
minimum LST was higher during El Niño events compared to La Niña events for each
type of land cover (Figure 7). The study also found that urban and industrial areas had
type of land cover (Figure 7). The study also found that urban and industrial areas had
higher LST values compared to wetlands, water bodies, and vegetation during El Niño
higher LST values compared to wetlands, water bodies, and vegetation during El Niño
and La Niña events. This study also found that the center’s urban and industrial activities
and La Niña events. This study also found that the center’s urban and industrial activities
experienced a decrease in LST value during the La Niña event in 2018 compared to during
experienced a decrease in LST value during the La Niña event in 2018 compared to during
the El Niño event in 2016. The study showed that the effect of ENSO on the absolute max-
the El Niño event in 2016. The study showed that the effect of ENSO on the absolute
imum temperature of each type of land cover during the El Niño event was higher than
maximum temperature of each type of land cover during the El Niño event was higher
during the La Niña
than event.
duringFor theexample,
La Niñaas shown
event. in example,
For Figure 4, during
as shown the in
El Figure
Niño phenom-
4, during the El Niño
enon in 2016, the absolute maximum LST in an urban area was
phenomenon in 2016, the absolute maximum LST in an urban area 35.81 °C, while during
wasLa35.81 ◦ C, while
Niña in 2018, it was 31.89 °C. A second example is
◦ that industrial zones
during La Niña in 2018, it was 31.89 C. A second example is that industrial during El Niño zones during
2016 had an absolute maximum LST value of 35.9 °C, while during
El Niño 2016 had an absolute maximum LST value of 35.9 C, while during the La◦ Niña event in the La Niña
2018, it was 31.99
event°C.
in In addition
2018, it was to other
31.99 ◦ C.areas surveyed
In addition during
to other thesurveyed
areas El Niño during
event, the
the El Niño event,
vegetation areathe reported a temperature in 2016 with an absolute maximum
vegetation area reported a temperature in 2016 with an absolute LST of 26.29
maximum LST of
°C, while during La Niña
26.29 in 2011,
◦ C, while it was
during La 24.1
Niña°C.in The
2011,figure
it wasalso
24.1shows
◦ C. Thethat during
figure alsoElshows
Niño that during El
in 1998, wetland Niño in 1998, wetland areas had an absolute maximum LST of 26.77 Ccom-
areas had an absolute maximum LST of 26.77 °C which was higher◦ which was higher
pared to the absolute
compared maximum LST of 23.14
to the absolute °C during
maximum LSTLa of Niña
23.14 in◦ C2011.
duringTheLa values
Niñaof inthe
2011. The values
absolute minimum of theand meanminimum
absolute LST haveand similar
mean patterns
LST have to the absolute
similar maximum
patterns LST
to the absolute maximum
values in eachLST typevalues
of cover during
in each typeElofNiño
coverevents,
during being
El Niño higher
events,than during
being Lathan
higher Niñaduring La Niña
events, as shown in Figure
events, 9. in Figure 9.
as shown
Melo et al., [15], Kemarau and Kemarau
Melo et al. [15], Eboy [2] and
andJin
Eboyet al.
[2][28]
andsupport
Jin et al.this
[28]result based
support onresult based on
this
Figure 4 and report that rainfall plays an important role in LST variability in study
Figure 4 and report that rainfall plays an important role in LST variability in study areasareas
during La Niña and El Niño. Melo et al. [15], Kemarau and Eboy [2], Jin et al. [28] and
Mahmud [29] reported that there were times when La Niña caused temperatures to drop
◦ ◦ temperatures from 0.5 ◦ C to 1.5 ◦ C based on
ability 2023, 15, x. https://doi.org/10.3390/xxxxx from 0 C to 1.2 C while El Niño increasedwww.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability
data provided by a meteorological station in Kuching discussed in Section 3.3. Overall,

industrial areas are typically found to be the hottest areas within urban environments due to
high heat generation [30,31]. Table 5 describes in-depth surface temperature patterns with
different types of coverage. There are numerous studies on the impact of land cover change
on land surface temperature. For instance, in the study conducted in the Kuala Lumpur
metropolitan city, researchers [30] found that there was an increase in non-evaporating
surfaces (such as concrete or asphalt) and a decrease in vegetation area. This change in
land cover resulted in elevated surface temperatures and modified the overall temperature
of the study area. In another study conducted in Omeno et al. [31], the capital of Botswana,
researchers discovered that there was a net gain in built-up areas and tree-covered areas.
This means that these areas increased in size or density. However, cropland and grassland
experienced a net loss, meaning they decreased in size or density. The study also observed
that there was an increase in mean land surface temperature (LST) values across all villages
between the years 2000 and 2018. The sentence also mentions a specific El Niño event. It
states that during this event, there was a higher temperature increase in 2016 compared to
1998. This increase in temperature was mainly attributed to factors related to land cover
changes, particularly in urban areas affected by the urban heat island effect [16,28,32].
Overall, these studies highlight the impact of land cover changes on surface temperatures
and demonstrate the significance of factors such as non-evaporating surfaces, vegetation
area, built-up areas, and the urban heat island effect in modifying the temperature patterns
of the respective study areas.
The significant increase in the time gap between the two periods (1998 and 2016)
highlights the potential influence of global warming on the observed higher land surface
temperature (LST) values. It is important to note that while global warming and El Niño
events can both contribute to temperature increases, they are separate phenomena with
distinct impacts. In the given statement, the specific relation to the El Niño event may
not be explicitly addressed. However, it is possible to infer that the El Niño event, in
combination with long-term global warming trends, could have exacerbated the already
high temperatures observed in 2016. El Niño events often lead to regional climate anomalies,
including altered precipitation patterns and changes in atmospheric circulation, which can
influence local temperature conditions. Therefore, while global warming is a broader and
ongoing phenomenon, the occurrence of an El Niño event can contribute to short-term
temperature variations within a specific period.
To provide a more comprehensive analysis of the relation between El Niño events
and the observed temperature increases, additional information about the specific El Niño
conditions during 1998 and 2016, as well as their influence on regional climate patterns
and land surface temperature, would be needed. Similarly, in the case of La Niña events,
such as those that occurred in 2011 and 2018, it was found that maximum, average, and
minimum temperatures were lower compared to the El Niño event in 2016, as indicated by
the findings in Figure 7. This is despite changes in land cover, particularly the increase in
urban areas and the decrease in wetlands and vegetation. This study conducts correlation
and regression analyses to identify the effects of the ENSO event on LST. Figure 3 illustrates
a significant positive correlation between the Oceanic Niño Index (ONI) and land surface
temperature obtained from Landsat satellite data, with a correlation coefficient of 0.71. This
strong positive correlation indicates a direct relationship, indicating that an increase in
ONI results in an increase in land surface temperature. Additionally, this study utilizes
linear regression to understand both parameters. Table 6 presents the findings of the linear
regression analysis, aiming to comprehend the influence of the El Niño-Southern Oscillation
(ENSO) on land surface temperature in Kuching, Sarawak, derived from Landsat remote
sensing data.
Table 7 presents the regression coefficient R and R2 . The R-value of 0.75 indicates
a high correlation between the effect of ONI on land surface temperature from Landsat
satellite data. The R2 value of 0.57 indicates that 57% of the variation in the dependent
variable (temperature) can be explained by the independent variable (ONI). In this case,
57% of the effect of ONI on temperature can be explained by ONI. Table 6, which is the
analysis of the variance table, reports the extent to which the relationship between the
dependent and independent variables is significant. ANOVA is used to test the adequacy
of understanding the dependent variable.
Table 6. Linear Regression Impact of ENSO on Land Surface Temperature.
Model R R2 Adjusted R2 Std. Error for the Estimation

4 0.755 0.570 0.556 0.661
Predictor: (Constant) ONI Index.
Table 7. ANOVA for the Regression Results of the Impact of ENSO on Land Surface Temperature
from Landsat Satellite.
Model Sum of Squares Df Mean Square F Sig

Regression 18.81 1 18.81 42.368 0
Residual 14.207 32 0.44
Total 33.017 33
Dependent Variable: LST Landsat; Predictor: (Constant): ONI.
Table 7 demonstrates a well-fitting regression model that supports the importance of

regression analysis in understanding the dependent variable. A p-value of < 0.0005, which
is less than 0.05, is reported. Overall, the regression model is consistent with the study’s
data. Table 7 is the ANOVA table, which reports the extent to which the regression equation
aligns with the data in understanding the dependent variable.
4.2. Impact of Land Cover Changes on Maximum during El Niño

Figure 5 illustrates the land cover map during the El Niño events in 1998 and 2016.
The figure reveals changes in land cover, including the clearance of vegetation areas for
the construction of commercial areas in the western and southern regions of the study
area. Moreover, an increase in commercial and industrial areas can be observed in the
northeastern part of the study area. A detailed description of the land cover changes in
1998 and 2016 is provided in Table 8. Table 8 presents the land cover distribution for the
years 1998 and 2016. In 2016, there was an increase in the municipal area, which expanded
by 50.7 km2 , from 112.06 km2 to 162.82 km2 . This increase is the only one observed among
the different land use types, as the remaining areas experienced a decrease in size.
Table 8. Impact Land cover areas (km2 ) change on LST Maximum (◦ C).
The Maximum Land The Maximum Land

Surface Temperature Area in Square Surface Temperature Area in Square
Trend Land Trend LST
Land Cover (LST) in Degrees Kilometers (km2 ) (LST) in Degrees Kilometers (km2 )
Cover Max (◦ C)
Celsius during the ONI in the Year 2016. Celsius during the ONI in the Year 1998.
Index (1) in 2016. Index (1) in 1998.
Urban area 35.81 162.82 33.31 112.06 +50.7 +2.5
Water Bodies 27.29 54.69 27.12 56.99 −2.30 +0.17
Vegetation 26.99 183.58 26.29 234.34 −50.76 +0.7
Wetland 26.89 193.7 26.77 216.71 −23.1 +0.12
The most significant decrease occurred in the vegetation area, which decreased by
50.76 km2 . In 1998, the vegetation area covered 234.34 km2 , but by 2016, it had decreased
to 183.58 km2 . The next land use type that reported a decline is the wetland area, which
decreased from 216 km2 to 193 km2 , representing a reduction of 23.1 km2 between 1998 and
2016. Lastly, the water area experienced a decrease of 2.30 km2 . This reduction is attributed
to reclamation activities in the river area for the construction of a port in the Sama Jaya
industrial area.
and 2016. Lastly, the water area experienced a decrease of 2.30 km². This reduction is at-
tributed to reclamation activities in the river area for the construction of a port in the Sama
Jaya industrial area.
This study found that changes in the land cover area had an influence on the maxi-
Sustainability mum
2023, 15,Land
8886 Surface Temperature (LST) during El Niño events. The study compared the 19 of 22
maximum LST temperature during El Niño at the same ONI 1 scale value for two selected
years. In 2016, the maximum LST temperature reached 35.81 °C, which showed an in-
crease of 2.5 °C comparedThis study
to thefound that changes
maximum LSTinofthe land °C
33.31 cover area hadin
observed an the
influence
urbanonarea the maximum
during the El Niño event in 1998. Furthermore, the study revealed that the maximum LSTmaximum
Land Surface Temperature (LST) during El Niño events. The study compared the
LSTin
value also increased temperature
the ground during
coverElvegetation
Niño at the(0.7 same°C),
ONI 1 scale value
wetland area for
(0.12 two selected
°C), and years. In
2016, the maximum LST temperature reached 35.81 ◦ C, which showed an increase of 2.5 ◦ C
water body area (0.17 °C). This increase was influenced by the decrease in the area of the
compared to the maximum LST of 33.31 ◦ C observed in the urban area during the El
water body, vegetation, and wetland. The rise in maximum
Niño event in 1998. Furthermore, the study revealed temperature values in 2016
that the maximum LST value also
was attributed to increased
the expansion of urban areas (commercial, ◦ residential, and industrial).
in the ground cover vegetation (0.7 C), wetland area (0.12 C), and water body◦
The increase in urban areas◦ C).
area (0.17 indirectly modified
This increase was the naturalby
influenced ecosystem
the decrease by in
reducing
the area cooling
of the water body,
elements such as vegetation,
green plants andand waterThe
wetland. bodies.
rise inThis
maximumindirectly led to an
temperature increase
values in 2016 inwas
the attributed
urban heat islandto the expansion
effect, of urban
contributing areas
to the (commercial,
upward trend inresidential,
maximumand LSTindustrial).
values in The 2016increase in
compared to 1998.urban areas indirectly modified the natural ecosystem by reducing cooling elements such
as green
These findings plants andwith
are consistent water bodies.
the researchThisconducted
indirectly led
bytoKemarau
an increase and in Eboy
the urban
[33],heat island
effect, contributing to the upward trend in maximum LST values in 2016 compared to 1998.
which showed that El Niño events lead to an expansion of heat island areas compared to
These findings are consistent with the research conducted by Kemarau and Eboy [33],
La Niña and neutralwhichevents.
showed Additionally, the increase
that El Niño events lead to an inexpansion
maximum of temperature
heat island areas in compared
each to La
land cover type is also
Niña andinfluenced by the
neutral events. presence the
Additionally, of increase
urban land cover, especially
in maximum temperaturethe in each land
changes in urban cover
areas,type
which contribute
is also influenced tobylocal temperature
the presence increases
of urban due especially
land cover, to the lackthe ofchanges in
green plants and water areas which
urban areas, that help moderate
contribute thetemperature
to local temperature in the environment
increases due to the lack [33].
of green plants
A visual representation of the temperature distribution in each land cover is presented[33].
and water areas that help moderate the temperature in the environment in A visual
Figure 10. representation of the temperature distribution in each land cover is presented in Figure 10.
Figure 10. LST Patterns for Each Land Cover Type.

Figure 10. LST Patterns for Each Land Cover Type.
Based on Figure 10, it isonevident

Based thatit the
Figure 10, water that
is evident bodythe
area (Sarawak
water body areaRiver) and vege-
(Sarawak River) and veg-
tation exhibit lower temperatures
etation exhibit lower compared
temperatures to the urban area.
compared to the For instance,
urban area. Forthe water the water
instance,
body temperaturebody
is around 26 °C,iswhile
temperature around 26 ◦ C, while
vegetation ranges from ranges
vegetation 27.5 °Cfrom °C,◦ C
to 2927.5 to 29 ◦ C, whereas
whereas
urban areas exceed 29 ◦ C. The temperature variations depend on factors such as vegeta-
tion volume, quantity, and area. Additionally, the presence of human-made structures
and impervious surfaces tends to increase surface temperatures, making urban areas
hotspots [29,30]. Human activities, especially indoor air conditioning usage in urban areas,
23, 15, x. https://doi.org/10.3390/xxxxx www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability
significantly contribute to the urban heat island effect [16,30,31]. The urban area within the
black square comprises areas B, C, D, E, F, and G [29,30]. Moreover, Kemarau and Eboy [16]
demonstrated that emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) and carbon monoxide (CO) from
industrial zones contribute to elevated temperatures in the surrounding areas.
Vegetation and water bodies play critical roles in mitigating high temperatures in ur-
ban environments by providing cooling effects and offsetting the heat generated by human
activities and infrastructure. Vegetation, including trees, plants, and green spaces, offers a
natural cooling effect through a process called evapotranspiration. During evapotranspira-
tion, plants release water vapor through their leaves, which helps cool the surrounding
atmosphere. The evaporation of water from vegetation surfaces absorbs heat from the
environment, thereby reducing the temperature of the surrounding air. This process creates
a more comfortable microclimate in urban areas and helps alleviate the heat buildup caused
by human activities and urban infrastructure.
Water bodies, such as rivers, lakes, and ponds, also contribute to heat mitigation.
Water possesses a high heat capacity, allowing it to absorb and store significant amounts of
heat energy. In urban areas, water bodies act as heat sinks, absorbing excess heat from the
surroundings. This helps lower the overall temperature and provides a cooling effect in
the immediate vicinity. Overall, vegetation and water bodies offer crucial mechanisms for
mitigating high temperatures in urban environments. Their cooling effects, capacity to offset
heat from human activities, and ability to absorb and dissipate heat from infrastructure
contribute to creating more comfortable and sustainable urban spaces. Encouraging the
presence of green spaces, promoting urban greening initiatives, and preserving water
bodies are vital strategies for combating the heat island effect and enhancing the livability
of cities.
5. Conclusions
This study utilized remote sensing techniques to investigate the impact of ENSO
on land surface temperature across different land cover types in Kuching City, Sarawak.
The results revealed a positive relationship between the Oceanic Niño Index (ONI) and
temperature, indicating that an increase in ONI leads to higher land surface temperatures.
The study compared land surface temperature changes during El Niño and La Niña events
in various land cover types within the study area. El Niño events resulted in land surface
temperature increases, with land surface temperature rises of 1.8 ◦ C during the 1997/1998
event and 2.5 ◦ C during the 2015/2016 event. On the other hand, La Niña events caused a
decrease in land surface temperature ranging from 0 ◦ C to 1.2 ◦ C. Urban and industrial
areas with high-temperature building materials and areas near CO2 emission sources were
particularly susceptible to the effects of ENSO. However, during the La Niña event, certain
land cover areas such as urban areas, industrial areas, wetlands, water bodies, and regions
with lower maximum, minimum, and mean land surface temperatures exhibited higher
land surface temperatures compared to the El Niño event. Conversely, cold areas such as
wetlands, water bodies, and vegetation experienced higher temperatures during El Niño
events compared to La Niña events.
These findings highlight the impacts of urban heat islands and ENSO on ambient land
surface temperatures, emphasizing the need for preparations and practices to mitigate the
warming effects. The results can provide valuable forecast and spatial information regard-
ing hotspots and cold spots in Kuching City, Sarawak, benefiting the general population
in terms of health, comfort, and productivity. The information can assist organizations
and policymakers in making informed decisions and implementing appropriate measures
in hotspot areas such as industrial zones and city centers. It also emphasizes the impor-
tance of eco-friendly building practices and urban climate maps for town planners and
engineers. Studying the impact of ENSO on cities using remote sensing contributes to
our understanding of climate change adaptation and provides valuable data for urban
planners and policymakers to develop strategies to mitigate its adverse effects. These
strategies may include implementing urban greening initiatives, enhancing heat-resistant
infrastructure, and improving urban design. The findings have important implications
for local authorities and policymakers, allowing them to identify hotspots and implement
targeted interventions and strategies during El Niño events to minimize potential health
risks and impacts on urban residents.
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, R.A.K. and R.A.K.; methodology, R.A.K.; software, R.A.K.;
validation, R.A.K. and O.V.E., formal analysis, R.A.K. and O.V.E.; investigation, R.A.K. and O.V.E.;
resources, R.A.K. and O.V.E.; data curation, R.A.K. and O.V.E.; writing—original draft preparation,
R.A.K. and O.V.E.; writing—review and editing, R.A.K. and O.V.E.; visualization, R.A.K. and O.V.E.;
supervision, O.V.E.; project administration, R.A.K. and O.V.E.; funding acquisition, O.V.E. All authors
have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: The publication fee of this paper is funded by Universiti Malaysia Sabah.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: The data used to support the findings of this study are available from
the corresponding author upon reasonable request.
Acknowledgments: The authors are grateful to the Malaysia Meteorology Department, NASA, and
NOAA for providing valuable data that contributed to this study, enhancing our understanding of
ENSO’s impact on temperature patterns in Kuching City.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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sustainability

1 Faculty of Social Sciences and Humanities, Universiti Malaysia Sabah (UMS),

Keywords: remote sensing; El Niño; La Niña; effect; temperature; spatial information

Sustainability 2023, 15, 8886. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15118886 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability

spatial information on temperature distribution changes based on the strength level of

Figure 1. Location of study [Google Earth].

Table 1. Information on the Landsat satellite used in this study.

No Sensor Date and Time Data Were Taken Thermal Band

Table 2. Comprehensive Information on Bands for Landsat 8 OLI TIRS.

Band Wavelength Resolution

Table 3. Information bands on the Landsat 7 ETM + satellite.

Band Wavelength Resolution

Table 4. Bands and resolution Landsat 4/5 TM.

Band Wavelength Resolution

significance of the relationship. Furthermore, correlation analysis is also performed to

Data Landsat (1988-2021)

Pre-Processing (Atmosphere, Geometric and radiometric correction)

Convert Digital Number Landsat 5, 7 , 8 and 9 to land Surface temperature

Accurracy Assement conducted using Google map for selected year El

Different approaches, such as atmospheric models or empirical methods, can be employed

Table 5. Accuracy Assessment.

Index Land Cover 2011 2016 2018

Figure 3. Correlation R-value between Temperature from Malaysian Meteorological Department

Sustainability 2023, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 23

Sustainability 2023, 15, x. https://doi.org/10.3390/xxxxx www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability

Figure 6. The land cover area between 1997 and 2016.

LST Map during El Niño 1997

Sustainability 2023, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 23

LST Map during El Niño 2016

Sustainability 2023, 15, x. https://doi.org/10.3390/xxxxx www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability

LST Map during La Niña 2011

LST Map during La Niña 2018

Figure 8. Distribution of temperatures during La Niña in year 2011 and 2016.

data provided by a meteorological station in Kuching discussed in Section 3.3. Overall,

Table 6. Linear Regression Impact of ENSO on Land Surface Temperature.

Model R R2 Adjusted R2 Std. Error for the Estimation

Model Sum of Squares Df Mean Square F Sig

Table 7 demonstrates a well-fitting regression model that supports the importance of

4.2. Impact of Land Cover Changes on Maximum during El Niño

The Maximum Land The Maximum Land

Figure 10. LST Patterns for Each Land Cover Type.

Based on Figure 10, it isonevident

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