MODULE 1: Cells as the Basis of Life

CELL STRUCTURE
Investigate Different Cellular Structures
PROKARYOTIC + EUKARYOTIC CELLS:
Cell theory-
1. All living things are made of cells.
2. Cells are the basic structural and functional unit of organisms.
3. All cells come from pre-existing cells.
Prokaryotes: Unicellular organisms, no nucleus. E.g., bacteria
Eukaryotes: Multicellular organisms, nucleus, more organelles, complex structure

TECHNOLOGIES USED TO DETERMINE CELL STRUCTURE/FUNCTION:

Microscopes are used when examining cells, each with different properties and functioning.
They produce images of specimens through sources of energy such as light, electron beams,
radioactivity, etc. Different types of microscopes have different benefits and limitations, so are
normally used for a particular purpose.

Magnification: how zoomed in an image can get

Resolution: how clear the image is

Investigate Variety of Prokaryotic + Eukaryotic Cell

Structures
DRAWING SCALED DIAGRAMS:
In order to draw a scaled diagram of a cell, determine the field of view by using a mini grid. Then
count how many cells lie across the diameter of the circle. Use the formula S=F/A where S is cell
size, F is field of view and A is average number of cells per diameter.

COMPARING + CONTRASTING DIFFERENT CELL ORGANELLES + ARRANGEMENTS:

NAME FUNCTION
CYTOPLAS - All material within a living cell, excluding the cell’s nucleus
M - Consists of a thick clear fluid called the cytosol and the organelles
- Most of cell’s activities take place in the cytoplasm.

NUCLEUS - Enclosed by a double membrane w/ holes + pores allowing molecules to

move in/out
- Contains nucleolus- involved in manufacturing proteins within cell
- Controls activity of cell by controlling the formation of proteins within the cell
- Contains DNA (chromosomes carrying genes- units of inheritance
determining type of proteins formed)
PLASTIDS/ - Some store substance such as food made by plants e.g. starch
CHLOROPL - Plastids containing pigment chlorophyll= chloroplast
AST - Photosynthesis occurs within chloroplast, essentially they are the food-
making organelles of plants
VACUOLE - Mainly found in plant cells (always larger then animal)
- Water storage, maintaining its shape, storage of various materials e.g. waste +
food
 CELL - Surrounds all cells (apart from ribosomes)
MEMBRAN - Physical barrier w/ pores that allow movement in + out
E - Regulates flow of substances into cell
- Semipermeable
MITOCHON - Large surface area allowing cellular respiration to occur
DRIA - The more active a cell  the more mitochondria
- Produce chemical energy (ATP) which provide energy for all further chemical
reactions within cells
GOLGI - Stack of membranes forming a network within cell
BODIES - Large surface area allows chemical reactions to occur, and the materials
produced are packed into vesicles which transfer materials throughout cell
LYSOSOME - Contain enzymes which break down large molecules within cells
S - Recycle unwanted materials + foreign invaders
ENDOPLAS - Large network of membrane running through cytoplasm to connect cell
MIC membrane w/ organelle membrane
RETICULU - Forms a complex transport system
M - Rough endoplasmic reticulum has ribosomes attached
RIBOSOME - Site of protein production
S

STRUCTURE + FUNCTION OF FLUID MOSAIC MODEL WITHIN THE CELL MEMBRANE:

Cells have very basic requirements, and their membranes must have the ability to control
substances in/out to meet these needs. Some are dissolved in water, like salt, others are
insoluble such as lipids, and some are transported as gases, like oxygen. The membrane must
allow all these forms to pass through easily.

LIPID COMPONENT PROTEIN COMPONENT OTHER COMPONENTS

Composed of two layers of Scattered throughout and Carbohydrates:
phospholipids called the suspended in lipid bilayer: - May attach to outer
bilayer: - Some protein layer of membrane,
- Hydrophobic- water penetrates all the playing a role in cell
hating- tails way through, forming recognition.
positioned inwards. tunnels for transport. - Termed glycolipids or
- Hydrophilic- water - Some may be partly glycoproteins
loving- tails embedded. Microtubules:
positioned outwards. Active carrier systems or - May attach to inner
Forms the basis of all cell pore-like, or recognition layer of membrane.
membrane markers w/ carbs attached - Assist in cell
 reproduction

CELL FUNCTION:
Investigate The Way Materials Move In/Out of Cells
DIFFUSION + OSMOSIS:
Diffusion:
Form of passive transport moves substances from high concentration to low concentration.
Plasma membrane is semi-permeable, so substances move through unobstructed hence, diffuse
across the membrane. The diffusion of each solute is independent.

Osmosis:
Specific kind of diffusion occurring in the presence of semipermeable membrane. The diffusion
of water from a high-water concentration, to a low water concentration. There is a higher salt
content in the right (and a lower water concentration,) so it should diffuse left however the
semipermeable membrane means the salt cannot pass through, but the water can, so it moves
from left to right to increase the water conc.

ROLE OF ACTIVE TRANSPORT, ENDOCYTOSIS + EXOCYTOSIS:

Active transport requires input of energy, as substances move from low concentration to high
concentration. Larger molecules require active transport as they are too big or need to move
against the conc gradient. The cell membrane can then pump these materials in/out using ATP.
Membranes in cells can bulge outwards and pinch to seal around substances. These membrane-
bound parcels are called vesicles, and the formation of these require energy.
- The use of vesicles to transport substances into a cell is called endocytosis.
- The use of vesicles to transport substances out of a cell is called exocytosis.
RELATE THE EXCHANGE OF MATERIALS ACROSS MEMBRANES TO SA: V RATIO,
CONCENTRATION GRADIENTS + CHARACTERISTICS OF MATERIALS BEING
EXCHANGED:
A cell needs enough surface area to efficiently diffuse substances to the inside of the cell. Surface
area and volume do not increase at the same rate, volume increases much faster. So a bigger cell
will have a smaller surface area to volume ratio while a smaller cell will have a larger surface
area to volume ratio.
- Cell membrane is porous + semi permeable.
- Cells fold over, creating greater surface area w/
smaller volume, allowing optimum cell
efficiency for materials to be exchanged.

Cell Requirements
SUITABLE FORMS OF ENERGY:
Light Energy: PLANTS
- Autotrophs
- Required for photosynthesis.
- Make their own energy.
Chemical Energy: ANIMALS
- Heterotrophs
- Complex, high-energy carbs
- Made by other organisms.

MATTER (GASES, NUTRIENTS + IONS):

PLANTS ANIMALS
Take in - CO2 + H2O
- Minerals from soil - O2
- H2O
- Carbs
- Lipids
 - Proteins
Let out - CO2
- Urea - O2

REMOVAL OF WASTES:
Plant:
- Surplus oxygen is excreted through diffusion from cells, then into air through stomate
- E.g., mangroves may need to excrete salt through active transport.
Animal:
- Cannot tolerate build up of CO2, individual cells excrete through diffusion… Specialist
systems e.g. gills, lungs involves blood transport
- Urea excreted in urine via the kidneys

Biochemical Processes of Photosynthesis, Cell Respiration,

Removal of Cellular Products + Wastes
Photosynthesis:
- Chemical reaction converting light energy from Sun into chemical energy in the form of
glucose

Occur within chloroplast, as special proteins called enzymes act as biological catalysts. Enzymes
are produced by ribosomes. Divided into two main stages:
1. Light dependant reactions:
i. Take place in thylakoid membrane as chlorophyll
pigment absorbs light energy + converts to
chemical, releasing the oxygen gas from water.
2. Light independent reactions:
i. Take place in the stoma, allowing carbon fixation
to occur which changes inorganic carbon dioxide
into organic sugars that combine to form glucose.

Cell Respiration:
- All organisms use cellular respiration to gain a usable form of energy called ATP
- One form is aerobic respiration where a series of chemical reaction occur within
mitochondria which converts glucose + oxygen into energy (ATP)

Removal of Waste:
 - Products of reactions within cells which may not be required by the organism are called
cellular wastes.
- Need to be transported to other cells or removed for ultimate efficiency:
o Can occur through diffusion through the cell membrane e.g. oxygen, carbon
dioxide
o Can occur through osmosis e.g. excess water
o Waste chemical products that are water soluble dissolve alongside the water.
o Fat soluble substances are attached to electrically charged molecules to make
them water soluble.
o Lysosomes break down any old cell matter or wastes, if it cannot be broken
down in this manner, removed through exocytosis.
o Proteins produced are packaged in vesicles and leave cell through exocytosis.
- Wastes are excreted from cell.
- Useful products leaving cell to be used elsewhere are secreted.

MODULE 2: Organisation of Living

Things
ORGANISATION OF CELLS
Differences Between Unicellular, Colonial + Multicellular
Organisms
STRUCTURES AT THE LEVEL OF THE CELL + ORGANELLE:
Unicellular: organisms that are made up of a single cell only. The single cell constitutes the
structure, and shape of the organism and carries out all the functions needed by the organism.
Colonial: many unicellular organisms can come together to make a colony with each organism
having a specific duty or job that benefits the whole colony.
Multicellular: an organism composed of many cells. The multicellular organisms are developed
by cellular specialization and division of labour.

STRUCTURE OF CELL + CELL SPECIALISATION TO FUNCTION:

- E. Coli:
o Disease that infects humans
o Unicellular
o Form of bacteria
- Coral
o Form a rock-like group underwater.
o Colonial
o Grow together to maximise survival potential.
- Human
o Complex organism
o Multicellular
o Group of systems work together to support the organism.
Structure + Function of Tissues, Organs & Systems
Multicellular organisms are a collection of
specialised cells, tissues, organs + systems that
each have a specific task to keep the organism
alive. As different cells are suited to carry out
different functions, this specialisation of cells to
perform a task is called differentiation.
All specialised cells originate from stem cells,
which are undifferentiated and can turn into
any cell type. A cell’s structure relates to its
function as it provides the needed SA:V ratio or
structural integrity to perform whatever task is
required.

Hierarchical Structural Organisation of Organelles, Cells,

Tissues, Organs, Systems + Organisms
- Different systems carry out different tasks to achieve the needs of an animal’s body.
- By having specialised tissues, organs, etc. cells can coordinate their bodily functions to
achieve maximum efficiency and complete tasks.
Cellular Differentiation: when cells express specific genes that characterise a certain type of cell.
Tissue: organized communities of cells that work together to carry out a specific function.

NUTRIENT + GAS REQUIREMENTS

Structure of Autotrophs
Autotroph: an organism that can form nutritional organic substances from simple inorganic
substances such as carbon dioxide.

SHOOT SYSTEM: MAIN FUNCTION: STRUCTURE:

Leaves Photosynthesis, exchange of
gasses and transpiration.
Stems Provides support to the plant,
holding leaves, flowers, and
buds; in some cases, stems
also store food for the plant.
Connects the roots to the
leaves, helping to transport
absorbed water and minerals
to different parts of the plant.
Root Absorbing water and minerals,
anchoring and supporting the
plant, and storing food.
The cuticle layer, the upper
epidermis, the palisade layer,
the spongy layer, the lower
epidermis, and the stomata.
Enable plants to acquire the
materials needed for
photosynthesis
Allows the leaves to arrange in
a way that they can receive
direct sunlight to perform
photosynthesis. Arrangement
+ position of leaves allow for
gas exchange. The xylem and
phloem present in the vascular
bundles of stems move water
and minerals across the plant.
The root cap protects the root
as it continues to grow
underground. Root hairs are
small thread-like structures
 that help the root absorb
water and minerals from the
soil.

Gas Exchange Structure in Plants + Animals

MICROSCOPIC STRUCTURES:
When gasses move in/out of an organism, they must move across the surface of the body. This is
called the respiratory surface and gasses move across through diffusion.
This could be:
- General movement across entire body surface e.g. insects like worms
- Special surface area developed for this purpose e.g. gills or lungs
A larger multicellular organism will also have a transport system then carries these gasses from
where they are produced/enter to where they are used.

Plants:
- Lenticels: pores in the woody parts of plants, diffusing oxygen, carbon dioxide + water
vapour relatively slowly
- Stomata: pores in the epidermis (skin) of leaves bordered by two guard cells.
Open/close as needed to maintain cellular needs and retain water
Animals:
- Alveoli: sacs in the lung forming boundary between air + external environment. Have an
increased surface area for efficient gas exchange, closely surrounded by capillaries so as
to be well supplied w/ blood.

MACROSCOPIC STRUCTURES:
Respiratory system works to maintain efficiency within gas exchange and the supply of these
chemicals to the rest of the organism.

Insects:
- Gas move by diffusion directly into tissues, exchanging in/out at the end of the
tracheole.
- Valves in spiracles control the rate of entry/exit of air into the tracheal system.
- Move rhythmically to ventilate body.
-
Animals:
- Complex respiratory systems allow them to maintain a bigger size.
- Air breathers produce mucus to ensure gas exchange surface retains moisture.
- Breathing in/out keeps the air moving and maintains concentration gradient.
Fish:
- Have internal gills which can extract oxygen from water at a high rate.
- Appear pinkish due to their proximity to blood.

Digestion of Foods in a Mammalian Digestive System

One significant factor to animals eating food is to gain access to the chemical energy stored in
glucose which is used in respiration to generate ATP. Other important substances within food
are:
- Salt
- Carbs
- Lipids
- Proteins
- Vitamins
PHYSICAL DIGESTION:
Involves breaking food down into smaller pieces without changing their chemical composition.
Chewing, peristalsis, etc.

CHEMICAL DIGESTION:
Involves the use of chemicals to break down foods. Digestive enzymes catalyse majority of these
reactions. Saliva w/ amylase, pepsin in stomach, lipase in the small intestine.

ABSORPTION OF NUTRIENTS, MINERALS + WATER:

The small intestine absorbs majority of nutrients, which is then collected through the
circulatory system and distributed throughout the body.

ELIMINATION OF SOLID WASTE:

The large intestine absorbs water and changes the waste from liquid into stool. Peristalsis helps
move the stool into your rectum. Rectum. The lower end of your large intestine, the rectum,
stores stool until it pushes stool out of your anus during a bowel movement .
Nutrient + Gas Requirements of Heterotrophs vs
Autotrophs
NUTRIENT/GAS AUTOTROPH HETEROTROPH
REQUIREMENT
OXYGEN Diffuse into plant across Diffuses through
cell surfaces respiratory surface
CARBON DIOXIDE Diffuses into the plant N/A
WATER Diffuses into roots Ingested into the digestive
system
GLUCOSE Produced through Ingested into digestive
photosynthesis system as either
simple/complex carbs 
absorbed into bloodstream
PROTEIN + LIPIDS Produced from glucose + Ingested into digestive
mineral ions system  absorbed into
bloodstream as amino
acids, fatty acids, or
glycerol
MINERALS Move into plants through Ingested into digestive
roots by diffusion/active system  absorbed into
transport bloodstream

TRANSPORT
Animals
Open System:
- Common for insects and invertebrates
- Heart is the driving mechanism w/ a fluid to transport materials and a system of vessels.
- Transport vessel (fluid) always remains enclosed in the system of vessels.

Closed System:
- More complex organisms e.g. humans
- Heart is the driving mechanism w/ fluid to transport materials and a network of vessels
 - Transport vessel leaves the vessels to enter cavities in the body and comes in direct
contact w/ organs
OPEN CLOSED
ANIMAL INVERTEBRATE VERTEBRATE
EXAMPLE insect human
CIRCULATING FLUID haemolymph blood
PUMP One or more tubular heart Four chambered heart
VESSELS Open Closed
PRESSURE low high
FLUID CIRCULATES slowly rapidly
ENERGY USED less more
SUITS NEEDS OF: Smaller animals Large active animals

The cardiovascular system in mammals is a closed system, uses blood as its circulating fluid and
provides majority of the transport needed for survival.
Vessels are divided into pulmonary- carrying blood to/from lungs + systematic- carrying blood
to/from the rest of the body.

TYPE OF FUNCTION STRUCTURE + FEATURE DIAGRAM

VESSEL
Artery Carry oxygenated Thick walls + narrow central
blood at high core, elastic fibres for
pressure away from stretching under pressure,
the heart to the rest thick muscles that contract to
of the body push blood along
Vein Carry deoxygenated Valves inside the vein stop
blood from the body blood flowing backwards.
back to the heart at Surrounded by muscles which
lower pressure squeeze the veins, therefore
pushing the blood
Capillaries Carry blood to/from Fine tubes that are 1cm thick.
the body’s cells (w/ Lie close to the body’s cells,
nutrients) and are most numerous blood vessel
where gas exchange servicing all tissues in the
occurs body

The human heart has four chambers- two for pumping + two for receiving and is responsible
for movement of blood throughout the cardiovascular system. Right side pumps deoxygenated
blood to the lungs, left side pumps oxygenated blood to the body.
Blood
Blood functions to:
1. Carry oxygen from lungs to the cells of the body and returns carbon dioxide to the lungs.
2. Transport digested food from the intestines to parts of the body.
3. Carry wastes from cells to the kidney.
4. Remove excess heat from cells.
5. Help maintain the body’s pH.

It is made up of:
Plasma: containing mainly water, some proteins + hormones. It transports nutrients to all cells
of the body and collects waste.
Thrombocytes: (platelets) are very small cells lacking a nucleus + irregularly shaped which clot
blood.
Erythrocytes: (red blood cells) w/ no nucleus and short life span. Contain iron rich molecule
haemoglobin which combines w/ oxygen and is released throughout cell.
Leucocytes: (white blood cells) they have a nucleus but no haemoglobin

To maintain homeostasis, chemicals transported must be maintained in specific concentrations

and forms to keep the internal environment balanced. If unbalanced, conditions such as low
blood sugar levels or high blood pressure may arise.

Plants
 XYLEM PHLOEM
Structure Dead cells, vessels have walls Made up of living sieve tube
strengthening them cells and companion cells
Vessels form a continuous Long and thin with
pipe as adjacent cell wall perforated walls at each end
breaks down called sieve plates
Materials transported Water and minerals Sugars from the leaves to the
other parts of plant
Direction of travel Upwards Both directions (down + up)
Active or passive Passive- transpiration- Active- source-sink theory
cohesion-tension theory
Xylem transports materials:
1. Water vapour diffuses out of the stomata; called transpiration.
2. Water evaporates from the mesophyll cell walls.
3. Tension pulls water from the veins into the space between the cell wall and the cell
membrane of the mesophyll cells.
4. Tension pulls the water column upwards and outwards in the xylem of veins in the
leaves.
5. Tension pulls the water column upwards in the xylem of the root and stem.
6. Water molecules form a cohesive column from the roots to the leaves.
7. Water moves into the xylem by osmosis.

Phloem transports materials:

1. Movement of sugars in the plant is called translocation and it can happen in any
direction.
2. The movement of substances is driven by the formation of high- and low-pressure areas
in the phloem tissue. At the source, glucose is actively loaded into phloem tissue by
companion cells. At the sink, the sugars are actively taken out by companion cells This
results in a flow from the source to the sink.
3. At the source sugar is actively pumped into the phloem, water follows from the xylem
and there's high pressure. The sugar flows down the stem and flows down to the low-
pressure area (because water is being pumped out).
4. At the bottom sugars are actively pumped into the sink (root cell)