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CHAPTER 1 Learner-Centered Psychological Principles

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Lesson 1: Learning Principles Associated to Cognitive, Metacognitive, Motivational

and Affective Factors

At the end of the lesson, you will be able to:

 explain the cognitive, metacognitive, motivational and affective factors of
teaching and learning
 summarize learning using graphic organizers
 cite classroom situations that manifest applications of the principles
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THINK ???
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In the early 1990s, the American Psychological (APA) appointed a group, a Task Force
on Psychology in Education, to conduct further studies in both psychology and education. The
purpose of this group was to conduct studies that could enhance the current understanding of
educators o the nature of learners about teaching and learning process. The end goal was to
improve the existing school practices so that learning becomes meaningful to all kinds of
learners.
The 14 Learner-Centered Principles are categorized as follows: cognitive and
metacognitive factors, motivational and affective, developmental and social, and individual
difference factors. All these principles influence the teaching and learning process (APA 1997).
In this lesson, the first two categories of factors are discussed:

Cognitive and Metacognitive Factors

Cognitive factors refer to the mental processes the learners undergo as they process an
information while metacognitive factors are concerned with the way learners think as they
engage in mental tasks.

A. Nature of the learning process

1. The learning of complicated subject matter is most effective when it is an
intentional process of constructing meaning from information and experience.
Teachers play a significant role in guiding learners to become active, goal
directed and self-regulating and to assume responsibility for their learning. The
learning activities and opportunities are very important situations for learners
can integrate knowledge and concepts to their experiences. An intentional
learning environment fosters activity and feedback, and creates a culture that
promotes metacognition (Bereiter & Scardamalia, 1989).

B. Goals of the learning process

2. The successful learner, over time and with support and instructional guidance,
can create meaningful, coherent representation of knowledge.

EDFLCT-Facilitating learner-centered teaching 1

Meaningful learning takes place when what is presented to learners is very much related to
their needs and interests. Indeed, it is challenging to motivate learners to succeed.

C. Construction of knowledge
3. The successful learner can link new information with existing knowledge in
meaningful ways.
The integration of prior experiences to a new concept to be learned is a way
of making connections between what is new and what is already known. The
new knowledge created from old knowledge is the very heart of constructivism.
Teachers should initiate more opportunities for learners to share ideas,
experiences, observations and readings as the need arises.

D. Strategic thinking
4. The successful learner can create and use a repertoire of thinking and
reasoning strategies to achieve complex learning goals.
Strategic thinking is the person’s ability to use knowledge in different ways to
solve problems, address concerns and issues, decrease difficulties in
certain situations and make sound decisions and judgments in varied
conditions. Strategic thinkers do not give up easily in difficult situations, are
more challenged to find ways to solve a problem in spite of failures, and are
not afraid to commit mistakes as these are perceived as meaningful learning
experiences. Creative strategies may include concept mapping and use of
other graphic organizers, group activities and other collaborative techniques.

E. Thinking about thinking

5. Higher-order strategies for selecting and monitoring mental operations,
facilitate creative and critical thinking.
One of the most challenging roles of teachers is to develop among learners
the higher-order thinking skills (HOTS). Aside from mastering
information, discovery, problem-solving, creation and evaluation should be
integrated to learners’ experiences. Students can make inferences, sound
judgments and relevant conclusions and use their learned knowledge to
varied situations. Assessment tools should be authentic.

F. Context of learning
6. Learning is influenced by environmental factors, including culture, technology,
and instructional practices.
Learning does not only take place in the classroom. Much of what learners
learn here with teachers can only have meaning once they see these
concretely in their everyday life. Examples given in the classroom should be
a reflection of their life experiences.

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Motivational and Affective Factors
How the learners push themselves to learn and how they value learning are the
concerns of motivational factors while affective factors relate the attitude, feelings and
emotions that learners put into the learning task.

G. Motivational and emotional influences on learning

7. What and how much is learned is influenced by the learner’s motivation.
Motivation to learn, in turn, is influenced by the individual’s emotional
states, beliefs, interests and goals, and habits of thinking. It plays a very
important role in learning. No matter how new, challenging or technical the topic
is, if the level of motivation is high, students would always find the interest to
participate and get themselves engaged. However, if there were no efforts to
motivate learners, there would also be no engagement to learning.
Teachers and parents can encourage, praise or reward learners to boost their
confidence. They can also establish positive emotional states and good habits of
thinking so that learners feel that mistakes and errors are normal parts of
learning. Teachers should also use materials and strategies that would
remove learners’ anxiety, panic or insecurities.

H. Intrinsic motivation to learn

8. The learner’s creativity, higher order thinking, and natural curiosity all
contribute to motivation to learn.
There are two kinds of motivation – intrinsic and extrinsic motivation.
Intrinsic motivation is manifested when an individual engages in an
activity or task that is personally gratifying. It is stimulated by tasks of
optimal novelty and difficulty, relevant to personal interests, and providing for
personal choice and control.
Extrinsic motivation is shown when an individual engages in a task or activity
to earn external rewards or to avoid punishments in some situations.
The most important way to motivate students to learn is to present the
value of that knowledge or concept in life. Learning is not only about getting
good grades or complying with requirements but more of knowing why
there is a need to learn such knowledge, attitude or skill and how these
can be used in everyday life.

I. Effects of motivation on effort

9. Acquisition of complex knowledge and skills requires extensive learner effort
and guided practice.
Without learner’s motivation to learn, the willingness to exert this effort is
unlikely without coercion. The learners’ motivation to learn is also
partnered by their extended efforts. It is through teachers’ encouragement that they
will have to do tasks with quality and not just for compliance’s sake.
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EXPERIENCE
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 Learners acquire knowledge and skills from the experiences that they actively engage
in. Initially, teachers’ awareness of students’ background or characteristics is vital input in
instructional design. Cognition is triggered by varied types of motivation and strategies used by
the teacher to build a more positive affect among the learners.
The teachers should consider all the major elements of the cognitive and metacognitive
factors of learning: nature of the learning process, goals of the learning process, construction
of knowledge, strategic thinking, thinking about thinking and context of learning.
Teachers have best practices in motivating and stimulating their learners depending on
their age and grade levels. Sometimes, extrinsic motivation works effectively among those in
the lower grades like giving tokens, stars or any tangible reward. As they progress from one
grade level to the other, teachers can modify motivation from being extrinsic to intrinsic
because they are now becoming matured learners.
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ASSESS
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Read and analyze the statements. If true, write YES before the item; if false, write NO.
___ 1. Differentiated instruction attempts to resolve diversity of learners in the classroom.
___ 2. The motivation of a learner from the urban area is similar to the one from the rural
area.
___ 3. The development of higher-order thinking skills is attainable in the lower grade levels.
___ 4. Making learning alive and active initiates students’ positive love for the subject.
___ 5. Verbal reinforcements, as they seem fitted in the elementary level, are avoided in the
senior high school level.
___6. The practice of unlocking difficulties for a new lesson provides scaffold to the learners.
___7. The assistance of a more advanced student to a slow learner in explaining the lesson
defeats the purpose of active engagement of the learner.
___8. Praising a slow learner for a little effort exerted is a stepping stone for his or her
progress.
___9. Using new technologies in the classroom has more advantages and advantages, as
learners are overwhelmed.
___10. A teacher who facilitates learning becomes the main source of knowledge in every class
lesson.
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CHALLENGE
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“This subject is my Waterloo”, is a statement most learners attribute to subjects they
find difficult. As a future teacher in your field of expertise, what motivation and affective
strategies would you use to alter this perception and attitude. Answer in one paragraph only.

EDFLCT-Facilitating learner-centered teaching 4

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HARNESS
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Complete the graphic organizer by filling in with novel classroom practices that address
the psychological principles under the Cognitive and Metacognitive factors. Cite only four (4)
classroom practices addressing any of the six (6) principles presented.

Cognitive and
Metacognitive
Factors

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_____________________________________________________________________________
CHAPTER 1 Learner-Centered Psychological Principles
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Lesson 2: Learning Principles on Development, Social and Individual Differences

At the end of the lesson, you will be able to:

 explain the development and social factors and individual differences that
influence learning
 recognize classroom instances that apply learning principles related to
development and social factors and individual differences
 apply the principles learned in classroom-specific situations

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THINK ???
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Development and social factors as well as individual differences are considered critical
factors in the capacity of learners to engage in learning. These principles include the following:

Developmental and Social Factors

J. Developmental influences on learning
10. As individuals develop, there are different opportunities and constraints for
learning. Learning is most effective when differential development within and across
physical, intellectual, emotional, and social domain is taken into account. Knowledge on
these domains is an excellent springboard for planning learning activities, materials and
assessment. Often, some are not learning well because there is a mismatch between
the learning activity and the developmental stage.
Teachers should be knowledgeable of the various developmental milestones of the
learners. They should always collaborate with the school administrators, guidance
counselors, parents, guardians and even family in instructional planning. Teachers
should always look into the readiness of learners through keen observations,
diagnostic tools, authentic assessments and the like.

K. Social influences on learning

11. Learning is influenced by social interactions, interpersonal relations and
communication with others.
Collaboration is a 21st century skill that will prepare learners for the real world
where they are expected to interact effectively to a community of diverse people. This ability
encompasses social interactions, personal relations and communication. Learning
activities such as group work, group dynamics, group tasks are examples of situations
which this skill can be developed.

EDFLCT-Facilitating learner-centered teaching 6

 When learners work with their peers and classmates, they learn to appreciate
diversity. They practice their listening skills and consider each other’s perspectives and
contributions on the task to be completed. When adequately facilitated by the teacher,
this skill contributes to a positive and healthy learning such as respect for each other’s
opinions, give and take responsibility and taking responsibility for assigned tasks.

Individual Differences Factors

L. Individual differences in learning
12. Learners have different strategies, approaches, and capabilities for learning that
are a function of prior experience and heredity.
Diversity is a natural part of life. The learning environment is the best example
where this is manifested between and among learners. Each has his or her learning
style, intelligence, potential, skills, talents, preferences or cognitive abilities which are the
effects of both experience and heredity.
Current trends in teaching encourage teachers to apply concepts on
multicultural teaching, differentiated instruction (DI) and the Universal Design for Learning
(UDL). All these principles support the premise that teachers should be creative, innovative
and supportive of the individual differences of their learners. These trends in teaching offer
various ideas, options and ways by which diversity can best be used for meaningful
teaching and learning.

M. Learning and diversity

13. Learning is most effective when differences in learners’ linguistic, cultural and
social backgrounds are taken into account.
Multicultural teaching encourages teachers to consider their learners’ linguistic,
cultural and social backgrounds. Language can be a barrier in learning when learners
cannot express themselves properly and when the learning material is not also related
to their social context. Cases and situations should be contextualized and localized so that
they can appreciate learning.
Culture makes one person distinct from other people. Students manifest
differences in language, values, belief systems and way of life. An inclusive classroom
welcomes and respects these differences which are incorporated in their learning
activities. Students do not feel discriminated and ridiculed because of their uniqueness
as an individual. When they feel valued, accepted and appreciated for who they are,
this contributes to a positive learning environment.

N. Standards and assessment

14. Setting appropriately high and challenging standards and assessing the learner
as well as learning progress - including diagnostic, process, and outcome
assessment – are integral parts of the learning process.
Assessment and evaluation are essential parts of the teaching-learning process.
The results are used to gauge the learners’ strengths and weaknesses, limitations and
areas of difficulties. Teachers can determine the kind of support and scaffold the
learners need and which instructional material would best assist a learner for better
school performance.

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 Assessment, whether formative or summative should be an ongoing process and
used as means of improving teachers’ strategies and techniques. Low results may not
always be attributed to students’ negligence and difficulties but may also be because of
ineffective teaching strategies. Assessment is for both the teacher and the learner.

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EXPERIENCE
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Teaching is a complex process. It can be observed that there are teachers who enter
their classroom without much preparation on how they could make learning more interesting
and engaging in varied kinds of learners. It is the very reason why institutions preparing
preservice teachers at present have continuously introduced innovations on their teacher
education programs to prepare them for this complex task.
A classroom is a place where diversity is appreciated, respected and celebrated. It is
never a place where learners are discriminated upon or ridiculed because of their unique way
of life, social background, beliefs, value systems and traditions.

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ASSESS
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Put a check mark (√) before each item if the teaching practice satisfies the development and
social factors and individual differences of learning; put an X mark if not.

___ 1. A teacher varies the level of difficulty of the same task for fast and slow learners.
___ 2. A Social Science teacher allows a learner to explain the answer in dialect which he/she
is fluent and the class understands.
___ 3. Ms Ramos asks far-sighted learners to be seated in front.
___ 4. Mrs. Junsay tolerates the minor misbehavior of a learner.
___ 5. Ms Rein discourages the use of local materials in the Art project of her learners.
___ 6. A teacher cites cultural practices of students as examples for learning.
___ 7. Mr. Ram asks the fast learners to coach or mentor the learners needing assistance.
___ 8. Ms Dels tells the class singer to enroll in the Special Program for the Arts track.
___ 9. Julie was told by the teacher to concentrate on academics, not on the school paper
assignment.
___10. A Science teacher asks the help of the school nurse to explain human reproduction.
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CHALLENGE
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Explain your answer in one paragraph.
1. Why is it important for beginning teachers to be aware of the learner-centered
psychological principles?
2. Do you think that length of service guarantees effectiveness in implementing the
learner-centered principles?
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HARNESS
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EDFLCT-Facilitating learner-centered teaching 8

 Read or download an article or study on teachers’ best practices in conducting
assessment on the diversity of learners. Which among these practices do you believe is very
effective?

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