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Chapter 4 Behavioral Learning Theories

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Lesson 1: Classical Conditioning

At the end of the lesson, you will be able to:

 Explain how behaviors are learned according to the Pavlovian and Watsonian
theories
 Discuss the salient processes and phenomena of the Pavlovian and Watsonian
theories
 Cite classroom applications of the association theory
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THINK
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Some of the most popular learning theories are lodged under behaviorism. It is primarily
concerned with influencing change in one’s behavior. In the parlance of psychology, behaviorism is
concerned with behavioral changes and the role of the environment in these changes. Behaviorists
claim that nurture is crucial in the process of acquiring knowledge (Dastpak et al., 2017).

Pavlovian Conditioning
Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936was a phy
He spent the rest of his life studying reflexes of dogs, which led him to
the discovery of classical conditioning, also known as the association
theory.
Still recognized
conditioning has become the basis for many early learning theories.

nobelprize.org
In his discovery,
the dog, but any other stimulus may result to such effect if paired with the food (Le Francois, 2000).
In another version, the salivation of the dog is influenced by associating the steps of the attendant
with the food (Schunk, 2012).
Pavlovian conditioning involves a set of multi-layered procedures. Initially, the food is called
the unconditioned stimulus (UCS). In psychology, an environmental event that affects the organism
is called stimulus. The food is an unconditioned stimulus because it leads to an unconditioned
response (UCR) without any learning taking place. The immediate salivation of the dog is referred
to as the UCR. The UCS and the UCR are considered unlearned stimulus-response units termed as
reflexes.
Conditioning the dog requires recurrent presentation of a neutral stimulus paired with the
UCS. For instance, the bell was sounded repeatedly but caused no dog’s salivation at all. However,
when the bell came with the food, the dog salivated. Later, by just hearing the bell, the dog learned
to salivate (Fig 11). The bell is now called a conditioned stimulus (S) that elicited the salivation of
the dog, now termed as a conditioned response (CR).

EDFLCT-facilitating learner centered Teaching 1

 Figure 11. Illustration of Pavlovian conditioning

When applied in the classroom, the use of a pointer or stick to whip unruly learners in class
may affect other pupils. They may associate the stick with whipping, thus they learn to fear. Later,
merely hearing or seeing a stick in class may elicit fear among them. This is why expert educators in
the country suggest that classroom teachers should avoid using stick as pointers. Instead, they are
advised to use their open palm to pointing words on the chalkboard.

Other Phenomena in Classical Conditioning

According to Buoton and Moody (2004), when the CS is repeatedly unreinforced, that is
without the UCS, the CR will eventually diminish in intensity and effect called extinction. When the
extinction of learning passes through time, the CR may be restored (Robins, 1990). This recovery-
after-extinction phenomenon is spontaneous recovery. This means that extinction does not
completely involve unlearning of the pairings (Redish et al., 2018).
When the dog salivates by just merely hearing the bell, it is likely to elicit similar CS when it
hears a faster or slower ring of the bell or any device with quite a similar sound which is known as
generalization. Harris (2006) pointed out that the more different the new stimulus to the CS, the
lesser generalization surfaces.
When the dog recognizes the sound of the bell is different from other stimuli (i.e., the sound
of the buzzer), thus salivating only upon hearing the bell, discrimination occurs. This is a
phenomenon when the subject reacts differently to other stimuli, where it can decipher CS very
strongly.

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 Watsonian Conditioning
Watson (1982) wrote that the ultimate goal of behaviorism is to derive laws to explain the
relationships existing among antecedent conditions (stimuli), learned
behavior (responses) and following conditions (rewards,
punishments or neutral effects). The theory of behaviorism may be
dichotomized into associationism and reinforcement.
During the dawn
aimed to revolutionize the status of American psychology. According
to him, if Pavlov is successful in proving associationism between
stimulus and response, people can also have such ability
facweb.funman.edu to associating certain feelings,
behaviors, instances and even symbols. He theorized that unlearning and relearning can occur. He
posited that humans are born with emotional responses such as love, fear and hate.
Perhaps, the most popular conditioning experiment he did was “Little Albert.” Here, Watson
tried to prove that emotions can be learned. Initially, 11-month old Albert played with the white
rat showing that he was not afraid of the rat. After some time, Watson and his partner, Rosalie
Rayner, accompanied the appearance of the white rat with a banging sound, so Albert was
conditioned to fear the rat.
Later, he and his partner paired the presentation of the rat with other objects. They found
out that baby Albert also feared the occurrence of the objects even without the rat’s presence.
This experiment became the anchor of Watson’s belief that learning happens by association (Fig.
12).

ASSOCIATION

Behavioristic
Stimulus Response Repetition Learning
n

Figure12. Illustration of association theory

His research methods would be questioned today but his work show the role of conditioning
in the development of emotional responses to certain stimuli. This may help us understand the
fears, phobias and prejudices that people develop

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 Chapter 4 Behavioral Learning Theories
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Lesson 2: Thorndike’s Connectionism

At the end of the lesson, you will be able to:

 Identify the primary laws of learning postulated by
Edward Thorndike
 Describe how behaviors are learned according to his
laws of learning
 Provide teaching implications of Thorndike’s laws of
learning

______________________________________________________________________________________________
THINK
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Within the first half of the 21st Century in the United States, Edward Lee Thorndike (1874-
1949) was prominent because of his laws of learning, primarily under associationism or
connectionism (Mayer, 2003). It is mainly concerned with the connection between the stimulus
and response (S-R).
According to Karadut (2012), Thorndike is one of the few psychologists who focused on
education. In proving his findings, he used an experimental approach in measuring a student’s
academic achievement. Thorndike believed that forming associations or connections between
sensory experiences and neural impulses results in the prime type of learning.
The neural impulses called responses are behaviorally manifested. He believed that learning
often occurs by trial and error (selecting and connecting) and that intelligence is a function of the
number of connections learned.

Laws of Learning
Thorndike’s basic ideas rest in the laws of exercise and effect. The Law of Exercise is divided
into the Law of Use and the Law of Disuse. Drills are vital to acquire and sustain learning. In the
very words of Thorndike (1913), bonds between stimuli and responses are strengthened through
being exercised frequently, recently and vigorously.
Learners usually learn faster when they often apply a certain skill (spelling new terms) and
tend to forget when such a response does not occur over some time (Karadut, 2012).

Table 9. Thorndike’s Laws of Learning

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 Primary Laws Description Example
Law of Exercise The more an SR bond is practiced the stronger Pianists practice their
it will become. He also revised this when he pieces before performing
found that practice without feedback does not on stage
necessarily enhance performance.
Frequent recurring of the response to a
Law of Use Teacher gives spelling test
stimulus strengthens their connection
Law of Disuse everyday to improve
When a response is not made to a stimulus,
vocabulary
the connection’s strength is weakened or
even forgotten.
Connection between a stimulus and response is Teacher giving insulting
Law of Effect strengthened when the consequence is positive remarks discourages
(reward) and is weakened when the students to go to school;
consequence is negative (punishment). He however, there are
later revised this when he found that negative
students who are more
reward did not necessarily weaken bonds, and
challenged to do better
some seemingly pleasurable consequences do
not necessarily motivate performance when insulted
When learner knows the
Law of The more readiness the learner has to respond answer when called,
Readiness to stimulus, the stronger will be the bond reciting is rewarding but
between them. when he does not know, it
If one is prepared to act, to do so is rewarding
is annoying on his part.
and not to do so is punishing.

Other Laws
The first thing learned has the strongest S-R Relearning correct concept
bond and is almost inerasable. It implies that later will be confusing, the
Law of Primacy learning a concept or skill again is more difficult first (prime) learning
than the first time one has learned it. This should be as functional, as
explains why teachers correct students who
precise and as positive as
have misconceptions in a new lesson. In
possible.
English Language Teaching, a recurring mistake
among learners is fossilization (Demirezen & Remembering the first
Topal, 2015). When it is not corrected for the name on the list is easier
first time, it may lead to habit formation. than those in between.
K+12 curriculum immerses
Law of Intensity Exciting, immediate or even dramatic learning senior high school students
within the context of students tremendously to a short-time real world
facilitate learning. application called on-the-
job-training (OJT)
Law of Recency Foreign language (French)
Concepts and skills most recently learned are learned minutes ago is
least forgotten (opposite primacy law) easier to recall than when
learned a month ago

Thorndike also mentioned that humans tend to show an almost similar response to an
entirely different stimulus, if on recurring instances, that stimulus has slight changes compared to
the previously known one. He coined this as the Principle of Associative Shifting.

EDFLCT-facilitating learner centered Teaching 5

 For example, to teach pupils to add a three-digit number, teachers let them master the
adding of one-digit number first. As they solve increasing numbers, pupils will tend to associate the
response to the previously paired S-R.
The transfer occurs when the contexts of learning have identical elements and call for
similar responses which Thorndike called as generalization (Thorndike, 1913). This implies that not
only skills should be taught in one isolated topic, but also that other related subjects or topics
should provide opportunities for students to apply them.
In a Social Studies class, it is not enough to teach the students to read maps, but it is better
if they are taught to calculate miles from inches. Later, the skill is reinforced when they will create
maps and map problems to solve.

form habits,
do not expect
them to
introduce a create
skill when it themselves beware of
will most fully forming a
faclitate habit that
learning which must be
will follow Thorndike broken later
shortly noted that
introduce a skill teachers
when it is most should: not formtwo
fully facilitated or more habits
by immediately when one will
preceding identify a skill do as well
learning when it is
most suited in
difficulty to
the learner's
ability

Figure 13. Thorndike’s connectionism and teaching

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_____________________________________________________________________________
Chapter 4 Behavioral Learning Theories
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Lesson 3: Skinner’s Operant Conditioning

At the end of the lesson, you will be able to:

 Describe reinforcement and punishment in the
context of operant conditioning
 Differentiate the characteristics of the theories of
classical and operant conditioning
 Analyze a research article about operant
conditioning

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THINK
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One of the most popular behavioral theorists of all time is Burrhus Frederic Skinner (1904-
1990) who postulated operant conditioning. Classical conditioning refers to the association of
stimuli, whereas operant conditioning actively involves the subject’s participation. The subject has
a choice to respond. It is the type of learning where learning occurs as a consequence of the
learner’s behavior.
B.F. Skinner made this conclusion after
experimenting on animals through his Skinner’s box
(Fig. 13), a device that modified the animal’s
behavior. In his experiment, he put a rat in a box with
a lever, a bowl and a closed chamber.
If the lever was pushed by the rat, the food was
dispensed. The rat learned that continuously pushing
the lever could open the food dispenser to the bowl.
Skinner termed the food as the reward.

Psychologywizard.net
Figure 13. Skinner Box

Reinforcement
Operant conditioning is dichotomized into reinforcement and punishment. Each category is
also divided into positive or negative. Reinforcement or a reinforcer is anything that strengthens
the behavior, also called response strengthener (Schultz, 2006). Positive reinforcement is the
addition of a pleasant stimulus as illustrated in Skinner’s box that the dispensed food became a
positive reinforcement to the rat to keep pushing the lever.
Positive reinforcement applied in the classroom is exemplified by preschool teachers who
stamp three big stars on the hands of pupils who behave well in class, get the highest score or who
is friendly during the academic time. To maximize the use of this type, teachers should make it

EDFLCT-facilitating learner centered Teaching 7

clear to pupils why they are stamping three stars and what these three stars mean. In this way,
pupils will be motivated to repeat their pleasant behavior and can eventually gain the reward
(stamp).
By building operant conditioning techniques into lesson plans, it is easily possible to teach
children useful skills as well as good behaviors. By using symbols like smiley faces, “good work”
stamps, stickers and even simple ticks when a child does something correctly, you are encouraging
them to repeat such satisfying work further down the line.
Negative reinforcement is taking away something from a situation that subsequently
increases the occurrence of the response. It is taking away an unpleasant consequence to cause
the behavior to happen again. Some stimuli that often function as negative reinforcers are loud
noise, criticisms, annoying people and low grades, because actions that remove them tend to be
reinforcing.
For instance, Ms. Jean wants her Grade 3 pupils to master the multiplication table, so she
gives the pupils a problem set on multiplication. After a set is solved, they would recite the
multiplication table from multiples of 5 to 10. If they master the multiplication table, the problem
set is withdrawn, thus, strengthening the behavior (perfectly reciting the table).

Schedule of Reinforcements
According to Skinner (1938), as mentioned by Zeiler (1977), schedules refer to when
reinforcement is applied.

Table 10. Reinforcement Schedules in Skinner’s Experiment

Reinforcement Description Classroom Application
Schedules
Students receive feedback after each
Continuous Given every time the animal response concerning the accuracy of
Schedule gives the desired response their work.
Students are not called on every time
Intermittent Given irregularly as the animal they raise hands, not praised after
schedule gives the desired response working each problem, not always
told when behaving appropriately
Appreciating student’s answer is
Fixed interval Time interval is constant from done for the first response made
one reinforcement to the next after 5 minutes
The first correct response after 5
Variable Time interval varies from minutes is reinforced but the time
interval occasion to occasion around interval varies (e.g. 2, 3, 7 or 8
some average value minutes
Given depending on the
Ratio Schedule number of correct responses or Teacher gives praise to a student
the rate of responding after reciting the fifth correct answer.
Every nth correct response is Every 10th correct response
Fixed Ratio reinforced, where n is constant receives reinforcement
Every nth correct response is A teacher may give free time
Variable reinforced, but the value varies periodically around an average of
Ratio around an average number n five completed assignments

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Punishment
Its main aim is to weaken the response. Punishment does not necessarily eliminate the
behavior, when the threat of punishment is removed, the punished response may recur (Merrett
and Wheldall, 1984).
Skinner believed that positive punishment is an addition of an unpleasant stimulus to
decrease the behavior. Example: Max, a Grade 6 pupil has been neglecting his assignments. He
completely hates washing dishes. To decrease such behavior of neglecting assignments, his parents
assign him to wash the dishes after dinner. After some time, he became more diligent in doing his
assignments. The addition (positive) of the work Max hates (punishment) decreases the likelihood
for the behavior (neglect of assignments) to occur.
Negative punishment is the removal of rewarding stimulus to decrease the behavior.
Example: Jennie, a Grade 3 pupil, is always noisy in a group activity. Her teacher calls her attention
and warns her that she could not participate in the next fun activity if she continues to behave
noisily. Joining in a fun activity is a pleasant stimulus. Withdrawing it (negative) is believed to
reduce noisy behavior (punishment).

Table 11. Relationship of Reinforcement and Punishment

Type of
Reinforcement/ Reinforcement Punishment
Punishment (increasing behavior) (decreasing behavior)
Positive Adding something pleasant to Adding something unpleasant to
(adding) increase the behavior decrease the behavior
Negative Subtracting something unpleasant Subtracting something pleasant to
(subtracting) to increase the behavior decrease the behavior

Alternatives to Punishment
Punishment is often applied I schools to address disruptions. Maag (2001) enumerated
some common punishments like loss of privileges, removals from the classroom, in and out of
school suspensions and expulsions. There are several alternatives to punishment (Table 12). The
primary advantage of this alternative over punishment is that it shows the student how to behave
adaptively.

Table 12. Alternatives to Punishment

Change the Allow the unwanted Extinguish the Condition an
discriminative behavior to continue unwanted behavior incompatible
stimuli behavior
Reinforce learning
Move misbehaving Have student who Ignore minor progress which
student away from stands when he or misbehavior so that occurs only when a
other misbehaving she should be sitting it is not reinforced by student is not
students continue to stand teacher attention misbehaving

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_____________________________________________________________________________
Chapter 4 Behavioral Learning Theories
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Lesson 4: Neo-Behaviorism

At the end of the lesson, you will be able to:

 Distinguish between behaviorism and neo-behaviorism theories
 Relate the salient features of Tolman’s purposive behaviorism and Bandura’s social-
cognitive theory to actual teaching
 Relate real-life experiences showing the application of Tolman’s and Bandura’s
theories
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THINK
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As behaviorism developed, one more sub-branch came out to fill the gap between
behaviorism and cognitive learning beliefs. It is called neo-behaviorism. Notable pyschologists that
contributed much to it included Edward Tolman and Albert Bandura. Neo-behaviorists were more
self-consciously trying to formalize the laws of behavior. They believed that some mediating
variables into the stimulus-response theory contribute much to learning.
Neo behaviorism bridges the gap between behaviorism and cognitive theories of learning.
Neobehaviorists considered both overt and covert (mental functions) behaviors in learning.

Tolman’s Purposive Behaviorism or Sign Learning Theory

Edward Chace
purpose or goal. He believed that a behavior is never merely the result
of mindless S-R connections, but that all behaviors are focused on
achieving some goals by cognition, an intervening variable.
He further believed
which they lead. His intervening variables are tied to observable
behaviors.
findagrave.com
In his experiment, two groups of rats were put in mazes for 17 days. The first group of rats
was fed (rewarded) every time they found their way out. The second group of rats was non-
reinforced. The rats did not receive any food from days 1 to 10 even if they have seen the end
point. Later, it was observed that in the first 10 days, the rats developed a cognitive map. Hence,
from day 11 onward, they were motivated to perform and look for the end point faster than the
first group to find food because they were hungry. Hunger was the intervening variable.
From this experiment, Tolman concluded that an organism performs a behavior because it
has purpose or goal. It also led to the birth of latent learning, a form of learning that occurs

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without any visible reinforcement of the behavior or associations that are learned. It also means
learning that is hidden and comes out when needed.
Latent learning occurs every time an organism sees a reason to perform or show it. For
example, a 4-year old boy observes his father using a TV remote control. When he is left alone and
has the opportunity to turn on the TV using the remote control, he could easily demonstrate the
learning.
Another distinctive feature of purposive behaviorism is the coining of the term “cognitive
map.” According to Tolman, it is the mental illustration of the layout of the environment. It is
believed that everything in our cognitive map influences our interaction with the environment.
Hence, making our cognitive map more detailed and comprehensive helps facilitate our learning.
For example, when we learn the direction of the house of our friend, we look for signs so we
can find our way. It may be a store, a flag, a marker or monument that helps us recognize we are in
the right direction. We are motivated by the purpose to find our friend’s house so we learn though
the signs, that is why, his theory is also known as sign learning.

Other Salient Principles of Tolman’s Theory

1. Behavior is always purposive and goal-directed. All behavior is ignited to accomplish
a specific goal. In its purest sense, a demonstration of learning is the outcome of
possessing a purpose to show it.

2. Behavior is cognitive. The expectations that underlie and guide behavior are
cognitions. This means than an organism is mindful of the connections between specific actions
and certain outcomes (cognitive map). Such mental map is developed by expanding the
experiences, coupled with the stimuli and rewards. Notably, Tolman cognition as an abstraction or
a theoretical intervention. He believed that cognition should only be inferred from behavior not
through introspection.

3. Reinforcement establishes and confirms expectancies. He also underscored the role

of reinforcement in learning. Learning deals with connections between stimuli and
expectancies or perceptions, representations, needs and other intervening variables. Because
expectancies develop in situations in which reinforcement is possible, its role is primarily one of
confirming expectancies. The more often an expectancy is established, the more likely is that the
stimuli (signs) associated with it will become linked with the relevant significate (expectancy). He
concluded that reinforcement is not necessary for learning, although it provides an incentive for
performance.

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Bandura’s Social Learning Theory

Albert Bandura (1925) is considered the leading proponent of

this theory which focuses on learning that occurs within a social
context, that is, people learn from one another, including such
concepts as observational learning, imitation and modelling . He
conducted the Bobo doll experiment to prove his point.
Under the social learning theory, learning is done by observing
and copying or imitating other’s behavior (Akers & Jensen, 2006).
Modeling refers to a change in one’s behavior by observing
models (Rosenthal & Bandura, 1978).

pinterest.com Historically, modeling was equated with imitation, but modeling is

more inclusive concept (Mussen, 1983).
His theory is also called the social-cognitive theory because of the influence of cognition on
behavior. He is one among few behaviorists who believed that humans process information
through cognition. The term self-efficacy has bridged social learning theory and cognitive
psychology. It is defined as one’s evaluation of his or her own ability to accomplish or perform an
action in a particular context. Those with high self-efficacy see themselves as capable or useful in
dealing with the world and with other people.

Fundamental Principles of Social Learning Theory

1. One may learn without changing his or her behavior. This is in contrast to what
other behaviorists discussed earlier; for them, a change in behavior is always an indication of
learning. This is similar to Tolman’s latent learning.
2. Learning takes place by imitating a model. That model possesses characteristics (like
intelligence, beauty, popularity, talent, etc.) that a learner finds attractive and desirable.
Admiration plays an essential role in imitating a particular behavior of a model. This explains why
speech teachers recite a crucial sound first, then guide the learners until they can recite the sound
by themselves correctly.
3. An observing person will always react to the one imitated depending on whether the
model is rewarded or punished. If the model receives rewards, the imitator copies the
behavior; if the former is punished, the latter will most likely avoid copying the behavior.
4. Acquiring and performing behavior are different. Bandura made a demarcation line
between performing and acquiring a behavior. One can acquire the behavior by observing
someone but may opt not to perform it until the context requires so.
5. Interaction is vital for successful social learning. Social learning may occur successfully
when learners interact with their co-learners and models (Mourlam, 2013). Learning
in isolation may dampen self-efficacy. This means that copying behavior involves the guiding of
one person’s behavior by another person, such as when an art instructor gives guidance and
corrective feedback to a student who is attempting to draw a picture. With copying behavior, the
final copied response is reinforced and thereby strengthened.

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 6. Learning is self-regulated. Bandura noted that self-regulation occurs when individuals
observe, assess and judge their behavior against their standards, subsequently,
reward and punish them.
7. Learning may be acquired vicariously. Vicarious learning is acquired from observing
the consequences of others’ behavior. For example, when a model is given praises and rewards,
the observer may likely repeat the copied behavior because he or she feels the same satisfaction
too.
8. Learning may be reinforced by the model or by others. Compliments coming from the
model may strengthen the occurrence of the behavior. Similarly, when a person is
praised by his or her peers because of a change in behavior, he or she may show an increase in that
behavior. The types of model include the live model (actual person demonstrating the behavior)
and the symbolic model (person or action portrayed in other medium).

Components of Successful Modeling

These four conditions vary among individuals, so different people will reproduce the same
behavior in different ways.

1. Attention. The person must first pay attention to the model. The characteristics
of the model and the observer influence one’s attention to models. This explains why
teachers make use of bright colors or large fonts in their instructional aids for
modeling to get the attention of learners.
2. Retention. The observer must be able to remember the behavior that has been
observed using techniques like rehearsal. Paying attention to something should result in retention
that requires cognitively organizing, rehearsing, coding and transforming modeled information for
storage in memory. In a dance class for example, an observer counts 1-2-3-4 and 5 with
corresponding steps to store the dance steps in memory. Rehearsal without coding and coding
without rehearsal are less effective.
3. Production or Motor reproduction. The third condition is the ability to replicate the
behavior that the model has just demonstrated. To strengthen learning through observation, one
needs to translate the visual and symbolic conceptions into observable behavior. Production of this
behavior indicates an increase in learning. Bandura noted that observers refine their skills with
practice, corrective feedback and reteaching. A child may have a basic understanding on how to tie
shoelaces but is not able to translate that knowledge into behavior. Teachers who suspect that
students are having trouble demonstrating what they have learned may need to test students
in different ways.
4. Motivation. Learners must want to demonstrate what they have learned. Influencing
observational learning is motivation. Individuals perform actions they believe will
result in rewarding outcomes and avoid acting in ways they think will be responded to negatively
(Schunk, 1987). Persons also act based on their values, performing activities they value and
avoiding those they find unsatisfying, regardless of the consequence to themselves or others.
Motivation is a critical process of observational learning that teachers promote in various ways,
including making learning interesting, relating material to student interests, having students set
goals and monitor goal progress, providing feedback indicating increasing competence and
stressing the value of learning.
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