Precipitation /1 | \\ eae Yryyyyyy —_ QNNY rity ves Snow ly 2, recipitation vyvyyyy Evaporation from ocean Pervious material 0= Evaporation from ocean 5 = Evaporation from water bodies 1=Raindrop evaporation 6 = Surface runoff 2=Interception 7=In‘iltration 3=Transpiration 8=Groundwater 4= Evaporation fromland 9=Deep percolation Fig. 1.1 The Hydrologic CycleThe hydrological cycle is the sum total of all Processes in which water moves from the land and ocean surface to the atmosphere and back in form of precipitation.lt is also known as the water cycle. The following are the important processes of hydrologic cycle: Evaporation: Evaporation is the primary pathway that water moves from the liquid state back into the water cycle as atmospheric water vapour. Condensation: Condensation is the change of the state of matter from the gas phase into the liquid phase, and is the reverse of vaporization. Precipitation: precipitation is any product of the condensation of atmospheric water vapour that falls under gravitational pull from clouds. Interception: interception refers to Precipitation that does not reach the soil, but is instead intercepted by the leaves, branches of plants and the forest floor. Infiltration: Infiltration happens when water soaks into the soil from the ground level. It Moves underground and moves between the soil and rocks. Percolation: Percolation is the Process of a liquid slowly Passing through a filter. Transpiration: Transpiration is the Process of water movement through a plant and its evaporation from aerial parts, such as leaves, stems and flowers. Runoff: Runoff occurs when there is more water than land can absorb. The excess liquid flows across the surface of the land and into nearby creeks, streams, or ponds. Storage: Storage is where water in the system resides or rests as it moves from one water reservoir to another.CHAPTER PRECIPITATION 2.1| INTRODUCTION | The term precipitation denotes all forms atmosphere must have moisture, (ii) there of water that reach the earth from the must be sufficient nuclei present to aid atmosphere. The usual forms are rainfall, condensation, (iii) weather conditions snowfall, hail, frost and dew. Of all these, — must be good for condensation of water only the first two contribute significant — vapour to take place, and (iv) the products amounts of water. Rainfall being the of condensation must reach the earth. predominant form of precipitation causing Under proper weather conditions, the stream flow, especially the flood flow ina water vapour condenses over nuclei to majority of rivers in India, unless otherwise form tiny water droplets of sizes less stated, the term rainfall is used in this than 0.1 mm in diameter. The nuclei book synonymously with preci are usually salt particles or products of The magnitude of precipitation varies combustion and are normally available with time and space. Differences in the in plenty. Wind speed facilitates the magnitude of rainfall in various parts of _ movement of clouds whil turbulence a country at a given time and variations retains the water droplets in suspension. of rainfall at a place in various seasons of || Water droplets in a cloud are somewhat the year are obvious and need no __ similar to the particles in a colloidal elaboration, It is this variation that suspension. Precipitation results when is responsible for many hydrological water droplets come together and coalesce problems, such as floods and droughts. _ to form larger drops that can drop down. A The study of precipitation forms a major _ considerable part of this precipitation gets portion of the subject ofhydrometeorology. evaporated back to the atmosphere. The In this chapter, a brief introduction is _ net precipitation at a place and its form given to familiarise the engineer with depend upon a number of meteorological important aspects of rainfall, and, in _ factors, such as the weather elements like particular, with the collection and analysis wind, temperature, humidity and pressure of rainfall data. in the volume region enclosing the clouds For precipitation to form: (i) the _ and the ground surface at the given place.18 | Engineering Hydrology 2.2 Forms of Precipitation ] ‘Some of the common forms of precipitation are rain, snow, drizzle, glaze, sleet and hail. 1. Rain It is the principal form of precipitation in India. The term rainfall is used to describe precipitations in the form of water drops of sizes larger than 0.5 mm. The maximum size of a raindrop is about 6 mm. Any drop larger in size than this tends to break up into drops of smaller sizes during its fall from the clouds. On the basis of its intensity, rainfall is classified as follows: ‘Type Inte 1. Light rain Trace to 2.5 mm/h 2. Moderate rain 2.5 mm/h to 7.5 mm/h 3. Heavy rain >7.5 mm/h 2. Snow Snow is another important form of precipitation. Snow consists of ice crystals which usually combine to form flakes, When fresh, snow has an initial density varying from 0.06 to 0.15 g/cm’ and it is usual to assume an average density of 0.1 g/cm’. In India, snow occurs only in the Himalayan regions. 3. Drizzle A fine sprinkle of numerous water droplets of size less than 0.5 mm and intensity less than | mm/h is known as drizzle. In this, the drops are so small that they appear to float in the air. 4. Glaze When rain or drizzle comes in contact with cold ground at around 0°C, the water drops freeze to form an ice coating called glaze or freezing rain. 5. Sleet It is frozen raindrops of transparent grains which form when rain falls through air at subfreezing temperature. In Britain, sleet denotes precipitation of snow and rain simultaneously. howery precipitation in the form of irregular pellets or lumps of ice of size more than 8 mm. Hails occur in violent thunderstorms in which vertical currents are very strong. 2.3 Weather Systems for Precipitation ] For the formation of clouds and subsequent precipitation, it is necessary that the moist air masses cool to form condensation. This is normally accomplished by adiabatic cooling of moist air through a process of being lifted to higher altitudes. Some of theterms and processes connected with weather systems associated with precipitation are given below. 1. Front A front is the interface between two distinct air masses. Under certain favourable conditions, when a warm air mass and cold air mass meet, the warmer air mass is lifted over the colder one with the formation of a front. The ascending warmer air cools adiabatically with the consequent formation of clouds and precipitation. 2. Cyclone A cyclone is a large low-pressure region with circular wind motion. Two types of cyclones are recognised: tropical cyclones and extratropical cyclones. (a) Tropical Cyclone A tropical cyclone, also called cyclone in India, hurricane in USA and typhoon in South-East Asia, is a wind system with an intensely strong depression with MSL pressures sometimes below 915 mbars. The normal areal extent of a cyclone is about 100-200 km in diameter. The isobars are closely spaced and the winds are anticlockwise in the northern hemisphere. The centre of the storm, called the eye, which may extend to about 10-50 km in diameter, will be relatively quiet. However, right outside the eye, very strong winds/reaching to as much as 200 kmph exist. The wind speed gradually decreases towards the outer edge. The pressure also increases outwards (Fig. 2.1). The rainfall will normally be heavy in the entire area occupied by the cyclone. ~ Rainfall intensity 1000 < 6 5 oa0 7 9 7 e — * Pressure Wind speed 3 § | 960 7 12578 at o- / ~S 100 + @ o aa \l y ~L oD 2 [940 U-- ‘bE Bre - ' 8 S 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 ~<+> Radial distance, km Fig. 2.1 Schematic Section of a Tropical Cyclone During summer months, tropical cyclones originate in the open ocean at around 5-10° latitude and move at speeds of about 10-30 kmph to higher latitudes in an irregular path. They derive their energy from the latent heat of condensation of ocean water vapour and increase in size as they move on oceans. When they move on land, the source of energy is cut off and the cyclone dissipates its energy very fast. Hence, the intensity of the storm decreases rapidly. Tropical cyclones cause heavy damage to life and property on their land path and intense rainfall and heavy floods in streams are its usual consequences. Tropical cyclones give moderate to excessive precipi over very large areas, of the order of 10° km’, for several days,20 | Engineering Hydrology (b) Extratropical Cyclone These are cyclones formed in locations outside the tropical zone. Associated with a frontal system, they possess a strong counter-clockwise wind circulation in the northern hemisphere. The magnitude of precipitation and wind velocities are relatively lower than those of a tropical cyclone. However, the duration of precipitation is usually longer and the areal extent also is larger. 3. Anticyclones These are regions of high pressure, usually of large areal extent. The weather is usually calm at the centre. Anticyclones cause clockwise wind circulations in the northern hemisphere. Winds are of moderate speed, and at the outer edges, cloudy and precipitation conditions exist. 4. Convective Precipitation In this type of precipitation, a packet of air which is warmer than the surrounding air due to localised heating rises because of its lesser density. Air from cooler surroundings flows to take up its place, thus setting up a convective cell. The warm air continues to rise, undergoes cooling and results in precipitation. Depending upon the moisture, thermal and other conditions, light showers to thunderstorms can be expected in convective precipitation. Usually, the areal extent of such rains is small, being limited toa diameter of about 10 km. 5. Orographic Precipitation ‘The moist air masses may get lifted up to higher altitudes due to the presence of mountain barriers and consequently undergo cooling, condensation and precipitation. Such a precipitation is known as orographic precipitation. Thus, in mountain ranges, the windward slopes have heavy precipitation and the leeward slopes have light rainfall. Characteristics of Precipitation in India | From the point of view of climate, the Indian subcontinent can be considered to have two major seasons and two transitional periods as ‘¢ South-west monsoon (June-September) (Summer Monsoon) Transition-I, post-monsoon (October-November) © Winter season (December-February) © Transition-II, Summer (Pre-monsoon). (March-May) ‘The chief precipitation characteristics of these seasons are given below. 2.4.1 South-West Monsoon (June-September) (Summer Monsoon) The south-west monsoon (popularly known as monsoon) is the principal rainy season of India when over 75% of the annual rainfall is received over a major portion of the country. Excepting the south-eastern part of the peninsula and Jammu and Kashmir, for the rest of the country, the south-west monsoon is the principal source of rain with July as the month which has maximum rain. The monsoon originates in the Indian ocean and heralds its appearance in the southern part of Kerala by the end of May. The onset of monsoon is accompanied by high south-westerly winds at speeds of 30-70 kph and low-pressure regions at the advancing edge. The monsoon winds advancePrecipitation | 21 across the country in two branches: (i) the Arabian sea branch, and (ii) the Bay of Bengal branch. The former sets in at the extreme southern part of Kerala and the latter at Assam, almost simultaneously in the first week of June, The Bay branch first covers the north-eastern regions of the country and turns westwards to advance into Bihar and UP. The Arabian sea branch moves northwards over Karnataka, Maharashtra and Gujarat. Both the branches reach Delhi around the same time by about the fourth week of June. A low-pressure region, known as monsoon trough, is formed between the two branches. The trough extends from the Bay of Bengal to Rajasthan and the precipitation pattern over the country is generally determined by its position. The monsoon winds increase from June to July and begin to weaken in September. The withdrawal of the monsoon, marked by a substantial rainfall activity, starts in September in the northern part of the country. The onset and withdrawal of the monsoon at various parts of the country are shown in Fig. 2.2(a) and Fig. 2.2(b). The monsoon is not a period of continuous rainfall. The weather is generally cloudy with frequent spells of rainfall. Heavy rainfall activity in various parts of the country owing to the passage of low-pressure regions is common. Depressions formed in the Bay of Bengal at a frequency of 2-3 per month move along the trough causing excessive precipitation of about 100-200 mm per day. Breaks of about a week in which the rainfall activity is the least is another feature of the monsoon. The south-west monsoon rainfall over the country is indicated in Fig. 2.3. As seen from this figure, the heavy rainfall areas are Assam and the north-eastern region with 200-400 cm, west coast and Western Ghats with 200-300 cm, West Bengal with 120-160 cm, UP, Haryana and the Punjab with 100-120 cm. The long-term average monsoon rainfall over the country is estimated as 87.7 cm. 2.4.2 Post-Monsoon (October-November) As the south-west monsoon retreats, low-pressure areas form in the Bay of Bengal and a north-easterly flow of air that picks up moisture in the Bay of Bengal is formed. This air mass strikes the east coast of the southern peninsula (Tamil Nadu) and causes rainfall. Also, in this period, especially in November, severe tropical cyclones form in the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian sea. The cyclones formed in the Bay of Bengal are about twice as many as in the Arabian Sea. These cyclones strike the coastal areas and cause intense rainfall and heavy damage to life and property. 2.4.3 Winter Season (December-February) By about mid-December, disturbances of extra tropical origin travel eastwards across Afghanistan and Pakistan. Known as western disturbances, they cause moderate to heavy rain and snowfall (about 25 cm) in the Himalayas, and Jammu and Kashmir. Some light rainfall also occurs in the northern plains. Low-pressure areas in the Bay of Bengal formed in these months cause 10-12 cm of rainfall in the southern parts of Tamil Nadu. 2.4.4 Summer (Pre-monsoon) (March-May) There is very little rainfall in India in this season. Convective cells cause some thunderstorms mainly in Kerala, West Bengal and Assam. Some cyclone activity, dominantly on the east coast, also occurs.types of naln wauges 1, Non-Recording Type Rain Gauge Example - Symons Rain Gauge Non-recording type rain gauge is most common type of rain ‘gauge used by meteorological department. It consists of a cylindrical vessel 127mm in diameter ‘with a base enlarged to 210mm diameter. Atits tp section, funnel is provided with cireular brass rim whieh is 127mm exactly so that it ean fit into vessel well. This funnel shank is inserted in the neck ofa receiving bottle which is 75 to 100mm high from the base section and thinner than the cylinder, placed into it to receive rainfall, pee) Pa. Fig: Symons Rain gauge with graduated glass of accuracy 0.1mm. A Receiving bottle has capacity of 160mm and during heavy rainfall, amount of rain is frequently exceeded, 50 the reading should be measured 3 to 4 times in a day, Water contained in this receiving bottle is measured by a graduated measuring glass with an accuracy up to 0. Imm. For uniformity the rainfall is measured every day at 8:30Am IST and is recorded as rainfall of the day. Proper care, maintenance and inspection of rain gauge especially during dry ‘weather is necessary to keep the instrument free form dust and dirt, so that the readings are accurate. 2. Recording Type Rain Gauges ‘There are three types of recording rain gauges a) Weighing bucket type b) Tipping bucket type © Floating or natural syphon type rain gauge 2.1 Weighing Bucket Type Rain Gauge Weighing bucket type rain gauge is most common self-recording rain gauge. It consists of a receiver bucket supported by a spring or lever balance or some other weighing mechanism. The ‘movernent of bucket due to its increasing welght is transmitted to a pen which traces record or ‘some marking on a clock driven chart, Weighing bucket type rain gauge instrument gives a plot of the accumulated (increased) rainfall values against the elapsed time and the curve so formed is called the mass curve, Funnel! and Collecting bucket Balance linkase facchaniamn Pen arm Rotating chart Extension spring, Fig: Weighing Bucket Type Rain Gauge2.2 Tipping Bucket Type Rain Gauge Tipping bucket type rain gauge is a 30cm sized circular rain gauge adopted for use by US weather bureau. It has 30cm diameter sharp edged receiver and at the end of the receiver is provided a funnel. Pair of buckets are pivoted under this funnel in such a manner that when one bucket receives 0.25mm of precipitation (rainfall),it tips discharging its rainfall into the container, bringing the other bucket under the funnel. - Fig: Tipping Bucket Rain Gauge Tipping of bucket completes an electric circuit causing the movement of pen to mark on clock driven receiving drum which carries a recorded sheet. These electric pulses generated are recorded at the control room far away from the rain gauge station. This instrument is further suited for digitalizing the output signal.2.3 Floating or Natural Syphon Type Rain Gauge ‘The worl ing of this type of rain gauge is similar to weighing bucket rain gauge. A funnel receives the water which is collected in a rectangular container. A float is provided at the bottom of container, and this float raises as the water level rises in the container. Its movement being recorded by a pen moving on a recording drum actuated by a clock work. Fig: Natural Syphon or Float Type Rain Gauge Pinon Rtating Oram Graph Fine eas on Drum Float Rod Rectangular Box Siphon Fig. 2.5. Recording type rain-gauge Fig: Natural Syphon or Float Type Rain Gauge Details When water rises, this float reaches to the top floating in water, then syphon comes into operation and releases the water outwards through the connecting pipe, thus all water in box is drained out. This rain gauge is adopted as the standard recording rain gauge in India and the curve drawn using this data is known as mass curve of rain fall.2.5.2 Snowfall ‘Snowfall asa form of precipitation difers from rainfall in that it may accumulate ‘over a surface for sometime before it melts and causes runot. Further, evaporation from the surface of accumulated snow surface i factor to be considered in analysis, dealing with snow. Wate equivalent of snowll is ineluded in the total precipitation amounts ofa sation to prepare seasonal and annul precipitation records, 1. Depth of Snowfall, Depth of snowfall is an important indicator for many engineering applications and sn hydrology iti useful for seasonal precipitation and long-term runoff forecasts. ‘A graduated stick or staf is used to measure the depth of snow a a selected place. Average of several measurements in an reais taken asthe depth of snow ina snowfall, event, Snow stakes are permanent graduated posts used to measure total depth of accumulated snow at a place. ‘Snow boards are 40 cm side square boards used to collect snow samples. These ‘boards ae placed horizontally ona previous accumulation of sow and after snowfall, ‘event, the snow samples are cut off from the board and depth of snow and water ‘equivalent of snow are derived and recorded 2. Water Equivalent of Snow Water equivalent of snow is the depth of water that would reslt in melting of a unit ‘of snow, Ths parameter is important in assessing the seasonal water resources of & catchment as well as in estimates of stream flow and floods due to meting of snow. ‘The amount of water present in a known depth of snow could be estimated ifthe information about the density of snow is available. The density of snow, however, ‘ares quite considerably. Freshly fallen snow may havea density inthe range of 07 10.15 with an average value of about 0.10. The accumulated snow, however, causes and in regions of high accumulation, densities as high as 0.4 to 06 is not is usual to assume the density of ‘Water equivalent of snow i obtained in two ways: {a) Snow Gauges Like rain gauges, snow gauges are receptacles to catch ‘precipitation ast fll ina specified sampling area. Here a large cylindrical receiver, 203 mm in diameter, is used to collect the snow as it fll. The height ofthe cylinder Preewiaton | 29 ‘depends upon the snow storage needed a the spot as a consequence of accessibility ete, and may range from 60cm to several metres The receiver is mounted ona tower to keep the rim ofthe gauge above the anticipated maximum depth of accumulated sow inthe area, The top of the cylinder is usually a funnel lke fuleram of one with side slopes not less than 1H: 6 V, to minimise deposits of ice onthe exterior ofthe ‘ug. Also, a Windshield is provided atthe top. Melting agents or heating systems are sometimes provided in the emote snow gauges to reduce the size of the containers. ‘The snow collected in the cylinder is brought into a warm room and the sow melted by adding a pre-measured quantity of hot water. Through weighing or by volume ‘measurements the water equivalent of snow i ascertained and recorded. {b) Snow Tubes. Water equivalent of accumulated snow is measured by means of ’snow tubes which are essentially ast of telescopic metal tubes, While a tube size of 40 mm diameter isin normal use, higher sizes upto 90 mm diameter ar also in use. “The main tubes provided with cuter edge fr easy penetration as well as to enable «extracting of core sample. Additional lengths of tube canbe attached to the main tube depending upon the depth of snow. “Toextracta sample, the tube is driven nto the snow deposit ili eaches the bottom ‘ofthe deposit and then twisted and turned to cut a core. The core is extracted carelly and studied forts physical properties and then meltedt obtain water equivalent ofthe snow core, Obviously, large number of samples are needed to obian representative valves for a large area deposit. Usually the sampling is done along an established route with specified locations called snow courte,2.7 Preparation of Data ] Before using the rainfall data in application, it is necessary to first check the data for continuity and consistency. The continuity of record may be broken with missing data due to many reasons such as damage or fault in the raingauge during a period. If the conditions of installation of a raingauge undergo a change, the records of the period before and after the change would be inconsistent. Methods of pre-cleaning the records forsuch problems of continuity and consistency are indicated in the following sections. 2.7.1 Estimation of Missing Data In the estimation of missing data from a raingauge station, performance of a group of neighbouring stations including the one with missing data are considered. A comparison of the recordings of these stations are made by using their normal rainfall as standard of comparison. The normal rainfall is the average value of rainfall ata particular date, month or year over a specified 30-year period. The 30-year normal is recomputed every decade. Thus, the term normal annual precipitation at a station A means the average 32 | Engineering Hydrology annual precipitation at station A based on a specified 30-year of record. Insertion of missing data to a station record must be done sparingly. If oo many data are estimated, the quality of the total data set may be diluted due to interpolation, sometimes, if too many gaps exist in a record, it may be worthwhile to neglect that station than to have a station record with too much of interpolated data. A WMO guideline states that not more than 5 to 10% of a record should have interpolated data. A commonly used procedure for estimating missing data of a station is given below, Procedure of Missing Data Estimation (a) Statement of the Missing Data Problem Given the annual precipitation values P,, P, P,...P,, at neighbouring M stations 1, 2, 3, .... M respectively, it is required to find the missing annual precipitation P_ ata station X not included in the above M stations. Further, the normal annual precipitations N,, N.,...\V,...at each of the above (M+) stations, including station X, are known. {b) Procedure (i) If the normal annual precipitations at various stations are within about 10% of the normal annual precipitation at station X then a simple arithmetic average procedure is followed to estimate P,, Thus, P+Pyt.+P,] (24) (i) If the normal annual precipitations vary considerably then P, is estimated by weighing the precipitation at various stations by the ratios of normal annual precipitations. This method, known as the normal ratio method, gives P, as Ne) A P=} 2.5} aE 25)Precipitation | 37 2.8 Presentation Of Rainfall Data | A few commonly used methods of presentation of rainfall data which have been found to be useful in interpretation and analysis of such data are given as follows: 2.8.1 Mass Curve of Rainfall The mass curve of rainfall is a plot of the accumulated precipitation against time, plotted in chronological order. Records of float-type and weighing bucket-type gauges are of this form. A typical mass curve of rainfall at a station during a storm is shown. in Fig. 2.9. Mass curves of rainfall are very useful in extracting the information on the duration and magnitude of a storm. Also, intensities at various time intervals in a storm can be obtained by the slope of the curve. For nonrecording raingauges, mass curves are prepared from a knowledge of the approximate beginning and end of a storm and by using the mass curves of adjacent recording gauge stations as a guide. 14 12 10 (10 em) st 18 storm | itation (cm) TIT 44 Accumulated pret ona 1 2 3 4 Time (days) Fig. 2.9 Mass Curve of Rainfall 2.8.2 Hyetograph A hyetograph is a plot of the intensity of rainfall against the time interval. The hyetograph is derived from the mass curve and is usually represented as a bar chart (Fig. 2.10). It is a very convenient 1 1 1 1 1 way of representing the ° 8 16 characteristics of a storm and is particularly important in the development of design storms to predict extreme floods. The area under a hyetograph represents the total Precipitation received in the period. The time interval used depends on the purpose, in urban-drainage problems small durations are used while in flood-flow computations in larger catchments the intervals are of about 6h. Hyetograph of the First Storm in Fig. 2.9 |_ Total depth = 10.0 cm |. Duration of Storm = 56h 24 32 40 48 56 Time( hours) > Fig. 2.10 Ayetograph of a StormMean Precipitation Over An Area | As indicated earlier, raingauges represent only point sampling of the areal distribution of a storm. In practice, however, hydrological analysis requires aknowledge of the rainfall over an area, such as over a catchment. To convert the point rainfall values at various stations into an average value over ‘catchment, the following three methods are in use: (i) Arithmetical-mean method, (Gi) Thiessen-polygon method, and (ii) Isohyetal method. 2.9.1 Arithmetical-Mean Method When the rainfall measured at various stations in a catchment show litte variation, the average precipitation over the catchment area is taken as the arithmetic mean of the station values. Thus, if P,, Py... By .-.P, ate the rainfall values in a given period in N stations within catchment then the value of the mean precipitation P over the catchment by the arithmetie-mean method is PA Pytint tnt Py P en N In practice, this method is used very rarely 2.9.2 Thiessen-Mean Method In this method, the rainfall recorded at each station is given a weightage on the basis of an area closest to the station. The procedure of determining the weighing area is as Preciitation | 41 ‘A-=total catchment area ‘Bounded Station) by | Area_| Weightago| T | aed A, | AJA 2 | kade | a | aya 3 | edegt | A | AYA 4 | ton A | AIA 5 | hoo | A] AYA 6 | pak | A | aya Fig. 2.13 Thiessen Polygons follows: Consider the catchment area as in Fig. 2.13 containing six raingauge stations. ‘There are three stations outside the catchment but ints neighbourhood. The catchment area is drawn to scale and the positions of the six stations marked on it. Stations 110 6 are joined to form a network of triangles. Perpendicular bisectors for each of the sides ofthe triangle are drawn, These bisectors form a polygon around each station, ‘The boundary of the catchment, i it cuts the bisectors is taken as the outer limit of, the polygon. Thus for station 1, the bounding polygon is abed. For station 2, kade is taken as the bounding polygon. These bounding polygons are called Thiessen polygons. ‘The areas ofthese six Thiessen polygons are determined either with a planimeter oF by using an overlay grid. If P, P,,... ,P, are the rainfall magnitudes recorded by the stations 1, 2,...,6 respectively, and A,,Ay-...A, are the respective areas ofthe Thiessen polygons then the average rainfall ver the catchment P is given by RiAvt Prd tnt ods (A + Ay tot Ag)‘Thus, in general, for M stations, 28) 4, The ratio “L iscalled the weightage factor foreach station ‘The Thiessen-polygon method of calculating the average percipitation over an area is superior tothe arithmetic-average method as some weightage is given to the various, stations on a rational basis. Further, the raingauge stations outside the catchment are also used effectively. Once the weightage factors are determined, the calculation of P is relatively easy for a fixed network of stations. 2.9.3 Isohyetal Method ‘An isohyer is a line joining points of equal rainfall magnitude. In the isohyetal method, the catchment area is drawn to scale and the raingauge stations are marked. ‘The recorded values for which areal average P is to be determined are then marked on the plot at appropriate stations. Neighbouring stations outside the catchment are Engineering Hycrology Isohyotals ke pea 7 - aa “station aintall Fig. 2.14 Isohyetols of a Storm also considered. The isohyets of various values are then drawn by considering point rain-falls as guides and interpolating between them by the eye (Fig. 2.14). The proce dure is similar to the drawing of elevation contours based on spot levels, ‘The area between two adjacent isohyets are then determined with a planimeter. If the isohyets go out of catchment, the catchment boundary is used as the bounding line. ‘The average value of the rainfall indicated by two isohyets is assumed to be acting over the inter-isohyet area. Thus, P,, P, ..., Pate the values of isohyets and if a, a, 4, , are the inter-isohyet areas respectively, then the mean precipitation over the catchment of area A is given by {tat oft3A)enn fas") ‘The isohyet method is superior tothe other two methods especially when the stations are large in number.3.2_Evaporation Process } Evaporation isthe process in which aliquid changes wo the gaseous state athe free surface, below the boiling point through the ranfer of heat energy. Consider a body ‘of water in a pond, The molecules of water are in constant motion with a wide range: ‘of instantancous velocities. An addition of heat causes this range and average spoed to increase. When some molecules possess sufficient kinetic energy, they may cross over the water surface. Similarly, the atmosphere in the immediate neighborhood of the ‘water surface contains water molecules within the water vapour in motion and some of them may penetrate the wate surface, The net escape of water molecules from the liguid statto the gaseous state constitutes evaporation, Evaporation i cooling process in that the latent heat of vaporization (at about 585 cal/g of evaporated water) must be provided by the water boul. The rate of evaporation is dependent on() the vapour 74 | EninewingHycrolgy pressures the Water surface and ar above, (i air and water temperatures i speed, (iv) atmospheric pressure, (¥) quality of water, and (vi) size ofthe waterbody. 1. Vapour Pressure ‘The rate of evaporation is proportional to the difference between the saturation vapour Pressure atthe water temperature ¢, andthe actval vapour pressure inthe ate, Thus, F,=Cee,-e,) BD “where £, = te of evaporation (mmiay) and C'= a constant ¢, and ¢, are in mm of ‘mercury. Equation (3.1) is known as Dalton’s law of evaporation after John Dalton (1802) who firs recognised this law. Evaporation continues till ¢,, = ¢ Ie, > condensation takes place, 2. Temperature Other factors remaining the same, the rate of evaporation inereases with am increase im the water temperature. Regarding air temperature, although there is a general increase in the evaporation rate with increasing temperature, a high correlation between evaporation rate and air temperature doesnot exist. Thus, forthe same mean ‘monthly temperature it is possible to have evaporation to diferent degrees in lake in different months 3. Wind Wind ids in removing the evaporated water vapour from the zone of evaporation and consequently creates greater scope for evaporation. However, ifthe wind velocity is large enough to remove all the evaporated water vapour, any further increase in wind velocity does not influence the evaporation. Thus, the rate of evaporation increases with the wind speed up to a ertical speed beyond which any further increase inthe Wind speed has no influence on the evaporation rate. This critical wind:-speed value is A function ofthe size ofthe water surface. Fo large water bodies, high-speed turbulent wind 3. Atmospheric Pressure (Other factors remaining same, a decrease inthe barometric pressure, asin high altitudes, increases evaporation 4, Soluble Salts When a solute is dissolved in water, the vapour pressure ofthe solution is less than that of pure water and hence causes reduction inthe rate of evaporation. The percent reduction in evaporation approximately corresponds to the percentage inerease inthe specific gravity. Thus, for example, under identical conditions, evaporation from sea Water is about 2-89 less than that from fresh water. 5. Heat Storage in Water Bodies Deep water bxies have more heat storage than shallow ones. A deep lake may store radiation energy received in summer and release it in winter causing less evaporation in summer and more evaporation in winter compared to a shallow lake exposed to a similar situation. However, the effect of heat storage is essentially 19 change the Seasonal evaporation rates and the annual evaporation rate is seldom affected.Estimation / Measurement of Evaporation This is done by the fotowing methods + Using evaporimeters + Using empirical equations + By analytical methods Types of Evaporators Evaporimeter ‘These are pans containing water which are exposed to the atmosphere. Loss of water by evaporation from these pans are measured at regular intervals (daly). Meteorological data such as humidity, wind velocity, alr and water temperatures, and precipitation are also measured and noted along with evaporation, (1) USWB Class A Evaporation Pan + Apan of ameter 210mm and depth 255mm + Depth of water Is maintained between 8 and 20em +The pan ls made of unpainted Gt sheet +The pan is placed on.a wooden platform of height 1sem above ground lvel to alow fre aircircultion below the pan + Evaporation l measured by measuring the depth of water in a sting well witha hook. gauge support (SQ) Figure: USGS Claes A Evaporation Pan (2) ISI Standard Pan + Specified by 1S:597S and known as the modified Class A Pan + Apan of diameter 1220mm and depth 255mm + The pan is made of copper sheet 0.3mm thick, tinned inside and painted white outside + The pan is placed on a square wooden platform of width 1225mm andl height 10omm above ground level tallow fre al elcalation below the pan + A fixed point gauge indieates he level of water + Water is added fo or removed from the pan to maintain the water level ata fixed mark using a calibrated cylindrical measure + The top of the pan is covered with a hexagonal wire net of GI to protect waterin the pan from birds + Presence of the wire mesh makes the temperature of water more uniform during the day and night + Evaporation from this pan is about} Jower as compared to that from an unscreened pan = QO <Figure: ISI Evaporation Pan (3) Colorado Sunken Pan + 920mm square pan made of unpainted GI sheet, 460mm deep, and buried into the ground within 100mm of the top + Main advantage of this pan ~ its aerodynamic and radiation characteristics are similar to that of alake + Disadvantages ~ difficult to detect leaks, expensive to install, extra care is needed to keep the surrounding area free from tall grass, dust ete (4) USGS Floating Pan + A square pan of 900mm sides and 450mm deep + Supported by drum floats in the middle of a raft of size 4.25m x 4.87m, it is set afloat in a lake with a view to simulate the characteristics of a large body of water + Water level in the pan is maintained at the same level as that in the lake, leaving a rim of 75mm + Diagonal baffles are provided in the pan to reduce surging in the pan due to wave action + Disadvantages ~ High cost of installation and maintenance, difficulty in making measurementsPan Coefficient Evaporation pans are not exact models of large reservoirs. Their major drawbacks are the following: ~ They differ from reservoirs in the heat storage capacity and heat transfer characteristics from the sides and the bottom (sunken and floating pans aim to minimise this problem). Hence evaporation from a pan depends to some extent on its size (Evaporation from a_pan of about 3m dia is almost the same as that from a large lake whereas that from a pan of about Im dia is about 20% in excess of this). - The height of the rim in an evaporation pan. affects wind action over the water surface in the pan. Also it casts a shadow of varying size on the water surface. ~ The heat transfer characteristics of the pan material is different form that of a reservoir. Hence evaporation measured from a pan has to be corrected to get the evaporation from a large lake under identical climatic and exposure conditions. Lake Evaporation = Pan Coefficient (C, )x Pan Evaporation Table: Values of Pan Coefficients C , Sl.No. ‘Types of Pan Average Value Range 1 Class A Land Pan 070 0.60 - 0.80 2 ISI Pan (Modified Class A) 0.80 0.65 ~ 1.10 3 Colorado Sunken Pan o7s 0.75 - 0.86 4 USGS Floating Pan 0.80 0.70 - 0.82 Evaporation pans are normally located at stations where other hydro-meteorological data are collected Evaporation Stations WMO recommends the following values of minimum density of evaporimeters + Arid Zones ~ 1 station for every 30,000 sq.km + Humid Temperate Zones - 1 station for every 50,000 sq.km * Cold regions - 1 station for every 1,00,000 sa.km Atypical hydro-meteorological station has the following: + Recording rain gauge and non-recording rain gauge + Stevenson box with maximum, minimum, wet, and dry bulb thermometers + Wind anemometer and wind vane + Pan evaporimeter + Sunshine Recorder eteEMPIRICAL EQUATIONS Most of the available empirical equations for estimating lake evaporation are a Dalton type equation of the general form Kf (u)(e,- 2) lake evaporation (mm / day) Saturation vapour pressure at the water surface temperature (mm of merucry) = actual vapour pressure of the overlying air ata specified height (mm of merucry) f (u)= wind speed correction function K = coefficient e, is measured at the same height at which wind speed (u) is measured (1) Meyer’s Formula E,=Ky @-«)[1+ 2 E,, = lake evaporation (mm / day) e, = Saturation vapour pressure at the water surface temperature (mm of merucry) actual vapour pressure of the overlying air at a specified height (mm of merucry) ug = monthly mean wind velocity (kmph) at a height of 9m above the ground Ky = coefficient accounting for other factors (0.36 for large deep waters and0.50 for small shallow lakes) (2) Rohwer’s Formula Accounts for the effect of pressure in addition to the wind speed effect Ey = 0.771 (1.465 ~ 0.000732 p, )(0.44 + 0.0733 up )(e, - e2) Pa = mean barometric pressure (mm of mercury) Up = mean wind velocity in kmph at ground level (taken as the wind velocity at 0.6m height above the ground) E,,¢,,and e, areas mentioned earlier Wind Velocity In the lower part of the atmosphere, up to a height of about 500m above the ground level, wind velocity follows the one-seventh power law as , cnt =w ind velocity (in kmph) at a height h (in m) above ground level C=constant 4 wy Analytical Methods of Evaporation Estimation 1. Water Budget Method 2. Energy Budget Method3.5.2 Energy-Budget Method “The encrgy-budget method isan application of the law of conservation of energy: The energy available for evaporation is determined by considering the incoming enerey, ‘outgoing energy and energy stored in the water body over a known time interval ‘Considering the water body as in Fig. 34, the energy balance to the evaporating surface in a period of one day is give by Hy=H,+He+H,+H, +H, G8) where Back radiation Heat loss to air He He Solar radiation *Retlocted He He Evaporation (0H. «Water Heat Stored Advection 4, ground, Fig. 3.4 Energy Balance in a Water Body in which H,(1 ~) = incoming solar radiation into a surface of reflection coefficient (albedo) r Hi, = back radiation (long wave) from water body ensible heat transfer from water surface 10 ait yeat energy used up in evaporation = pLE,, where p = density of water, L = latent heat of eat stored in water body yet heat conducted out of the system by water flow (advected energy) All the energy terms are in calories per square mm per day. Ifthe time periods are short, the terms HY, and H, can be neglected as negligibly small. All the terms except H, can either be measured or evaluated indirectly. The sensible heat term H, which ‘cannot be readily measured is estimated using Bowen's ratio B given by the expression tT, 1 eat 1x10 x, Pe, Peeme, ‘where p, = atmospheric pressure in mm of mercury, ¢, = saturated vapour pressure in G9) strats trom Preciitation | 8 tual vapour pressure of air in mm of mercury, 7, = temperature °C and 7, = temperature of air in °C. From Eqs (3.8) and (3.9) E;, ‘mm of mercury, of water surface ccan be evauated as pe Ha He — 3.10) pL(i+ By a Estimation of evaporation in a lake by the energy balance method has been found togive satisfactory results, with erorsof the order of 5% when applied to periods ess than week. Further details of the energy-budget method are available in Refs 2,3 and 5.3.5.1 Water-Budget Method The water-budget method is the simplest of the three analytical methods and is also the least reliable. It involves writing the hydrological continuity equation for the lake and determining the evaporation from a knowledge or estimation of other variables. Thus, considering the daily average values for a lake, the continuity equation is written as P+ Vis + Vig = Vas + Vig tE, + AS + Ty, (3.6) where —P = daily precipitation V,, = daily surface inflow into the lake Vi, = daily groundwater inflow V,, = daily surface outflow from the lake V, = daily seepage outflow = daily lake evaporation AS = increase in lake storage in a day T;, = daily transpiration loss All quantities are in units of volume (m*) or depth (mm) over a reference area. Equation (3.6) can be written as E,,= P+ (Vis — Vas) + (Vig — Vog) — T, - AS (3.7) In this, the terms P, V,, V,, and AS can be measured. However, it is not possible to measure Vj,. V,, and 7, and therefore these quantities can only be estimated. fog Transpiration Tosses can be considered to be insignificant in some reservoirs. If the unit of time is kept large, say weeks or months, better accuracy in the estimate of E, is possible. In view of the various uncertainties in the estimated values and the possibilities 80 | Engineering Hydrology of errors in measured variables, the water-budget method cannot be expected to give very accurate results. However, controlled studies such as at Lake Hefner in USA (1952) have given fairly accurate results by this method.82 | Engineering Hydrology 3.6 Reservoir Evaporation and Methods for its Reduction | Any of the methods mentioned above may be used for the estimation of reservoir evaporation. Although analytical methods provide better results, they involve parameters that are difficult to assess or expensive to obtain. Empirical equations can at best give approximate values of the correct order of magnitude. Therefore, the pan measurements find general acceptance for practical application. Mean monthly and annual evaporation data collected by [MD are very valuable in field estimations. The water volume lost due to evaporation from a reservoir in a month is calculated as. Ve=A Epm Cp @.11) where —_V;, = volume of water lost in evaporation in a month (m3) A = average reservoir area during the month (m7) Em = pan evaporation loss in metres in a month (m) = E, in mm/day x No. of days in the month x 10° C, = relevant pan coefficient Evaporation from a water surface is a continuous process. Typically, under Indian conditions, evaporation loss from a water body is about 160 cm ina year with enhanced values in arid regions. The quantity of stored water lost by evaporation in a year is indeed considerable as the surface area of many natural and human-made lakes in the country are very large. While a small sized tank (lake) may have a surface area of about 20 ha, large reservoirs such as Narmada Sagar have a surface area of about 90,000 ha. Table 3.2 (a) indicates surface areas and capacities of ten largest Indian3.6.1 Methods to Reduce Evaporation Losses Various methods available for reduction of evaporation losses can be considered in three categories: 1. Reduction of Surface Area Since the volume of water lost by evaporation is directly proportional to the surface area of the water body, the reduction of surface area wherever feasible reduces evaporation losses. Measures like having deep reservoirs in place of wider ones and elimination of shallow areas can be considered under this category, 2. Mechanical Covers Permanent roofs over the reservoir, temporary roofs and floating roofs such as rafts and lightweight floating particles can be adopted wherever feasible. Obviously, these ‘measures are limited to very small water bodies such as ponds, ete. 3. Chemical Films ‘This method consists of applying a thin chemical film on the water surface to reduce evaporation. Currently this is the only feasible method available for reduction of evaporation of reservoirs up to moderate size. Certain chemicals such as cetyl alcohol (hexadecanol) and stearyl alcohol (octadecanol) form monomolecular layers on a water surface. These layers act as evaporation inhibitors by preventing the water molecules to escape past them. The thin film formed has the following desirable features: 84 | Engineering Hydrology — 1. The film is strong and flexible and does not break easily due to wave action. 2. If punctured due to the impact of raindrops or by birds, insects, etc., the film closes back soon after. 3. Itis pervious to oxygen and carbon dioxide; the water quality is therefore not affected by its presence. 4, Itis colourless, odourless and nontoxic. Cety! alcohol is found to be the most suitable chemical for use as an evaporation inhibitor. I is a white, waxy, crystalline solid and is available as lumps, flakes or powder. It can be applied to the water surface in the form of powder, emulsion or solution in mineral turpentine, Roughly about 3.5 N/hectare/day of cetyl alcohol is needed for effective action, The chemical is periodically replenished to make up the losses due 10 oxidation, wind sweep of the layer to the shore and its removal by birds and insects. Evaporation reduction can be achieved to a maximum if a film pressure of 4 10 N/m is maintained. Controlled experiments with evaporation pans have indicated an evaporation reduction of about 60% through use of cetyl alcohol. Under field conditions, the reported values of evaporation reduction range from 20 to 50%. It appears that a reduction of 20-30% can be achieved easily in small size lakes ($1000 hectares) through the use of these monomolecular layers. The adverse effect of heavy wind appears to be the only major impediment affecting the efficiency of these chemical films.Types Of Evapotranspiration Potential Evapotranspiration (PET) Propunded by Thomthwaite (1948), PET is cheracterized as the evapotranspiration from a sizable vegetated land surface with constant access to sufficient moisture. As there ae no restrictions on moisture availabilty, PET relies on the available energy. Its the maximum allowable Evapotrenspiration occurring fora crop ina particular climate or the maximum allowable Evapotranspiration that would occur ina well-watered agricultural area ‘Actual Evapotranspiration (AET) AET refers to the actual evapotranspiration that takes place in a specific situation. Ifthe plant has an appropriate water supply, the ratio of AET to PET shall be equal to 1 end soil moisture will be at field capacity, If the plant's water supply is insufficient, the AET to PET ratio will be less than 1 In clayey soils, AET/PET is almost equal to 1 up to a 50% decrease in moisture availability [AET tends to be O when the soll moisture reaches the threshold of irreversible wilting,Definition Factors considered Measurement Application Variability Units Evapotranspiration (ET) ‘Actual water loss through evaporation/transpiration from the Earths surface, ‘Actual water availabilty, climate, vegetation cover, and land surface characteristics. Can be directly measured using various methods such as lysimeters, eddy covariance towers, and soil moisture sensors, Important for water management, agriculture, hydrology, ‘and understanding ecosystem dynamics, Varies spatially and temporally based on local conditions ‘and factors influencing water availability and plant activity. Expressed in units of length (¢.g,, millimeters, inches) or 48 a rate (e.g, millimeters per day, inches per year) Difference between Evapotranspiration and Transpiration Definition Components Sources of water Influence Measurement Evapotranspiration (ET) ‘The combined process of evaporation and transpiration Includes both evaporation (water loss from soil, water bodies, etc.) and transpiration (water loss from plant leaves). Water can come from various sources, including soil moisture, water bodies, and precipitation, Influenced by both environmental factors (temperature, humidity, ‘wind, ete.) and plant characteristics (leaf area, stomatal conductance, etc). Can be measured directly or estimated using methods such as lysimeters, eddy covariance towers, and soil moisture sensors, Potential Evapotranspiration (PET) Maximum possible water loss through ‘evaporation/transpiration under ideal conditions without water limitations. ‘Temperature, solar radiation, humidity, wind speed, and ‘vegetation. Estimated using empirical formulas and meteorological data such as temperature, solar radiation, wind speed, and ‘humidity Used for water resource planning, irrigation scheduling, {and determining water requirements of crops and plants. Represents the upper limit of water loss and does not ‘consider actual imitations, such as water scarcity or plant. stress. Expressed in units of length (e.g, milimeters, inches) or as rate (eg, milimeters per day. inches per yee). ‘Transpiration The process by which water is lost through plant leaves, Specifically refers to water loss through plant leaves, Water is primarily sourced from the plant's roots and absorbed through its vascular system, Primatily influenced by plant characteristics, such as leaf area, stomatal conductance, and plant species. Measured using techniques like sap flow sensors, orometers, and lysimeters, specifically targeting Plant water loss,What is Evapotranspiration? © The total quantity of water utilized by the plants for transpiration and evaporation taking place from the nearby soils at any given moment is known as evapotranspiration. Evapotranspiration is this the sum total of transpiration and evaporation from the earth's surface. The term "consumptive use" also refers to evapotranspiration. o Evapotranspiration is measured in millimeters (mm). °Evapotranspiration Process Evapotranspiration is a kind of process in which water is transferred from the Earth's surface to the atmosphere through the combined processes of plant transpiration and evaporation. Evaporation happens when liquid water converts to vapor, while transpiration refers to water loss from plant leaves. This process plays a important role in the Earth's water cycle, influencing climate, energy balance, and ecosystem dynamics3.9 _Measurement of Evapotranspiration | ‘The measurement of evapotranspiration for a given vegetation type can be carried out in two ways: either by using [ysimeters or by the use of field plots. 3.9.1 Lysimeters A lysimeter is a special watertight tank containing a block of soil and set in a field of growing plants. The plants grown in the lysimeter are the same as in the surrounding field. Evapotranspiration is estimated in terms of the amount of water required to maintain constant moisture conditions within the tank measured either volumetric ally or gravimetrically through an arrangement made in the lysimeter. Lysimeters should be designed to accurately reproduce the soil conditions, moisture content, type and size of the vegetation of the surrounding area. They should be so buried that the soil is at the same level inside and outside the container. Lysimeter studies are time-consuming and expensive. 3.9.2 Field Plots In special plots all the elements of the water budget in a known interval of time are measured and the evapotranspiration determined as Evapotranspiration = [Precipitation + Irrigation input — Runoff — Increase in soil storage—groundwater loss] Measurements are usually confined to precipitation, irrigation input, surface runoff and soil moisture, Groundwater loss due to deep percolation is difficult to measure and can be minimised by keeping the moisture condition of the plot at the field capacity. This method provides fairly reliable results. 3.10 Evapotranspiration Equations | The lack of reliable field data and the difficulties of obtaining reliable evapotranspiration. data have given rise to a number of methods to predict PET by using climatological data. Large number of formulae are available: they range from purely empirical ones to those backed by theoretical concepts. Two useful equations are given below. 3.10.1 Penman’s Equation Penman’s equation is based on sound theoretical reasoning and is obtained by a combination of the energy-balance and mass-transfer approach, Penman’s equation, incorporating some of the modifications suggested by other investigators is AH, + E,Y Aty PET (3.13) where PET = daily potential evapotranspiration in mm per dayee A = slope of the saturation vapour pressure vs temperature curve at the mean air temperature, in mm of mercury per °C (Table 3.3) H,, = net radiation in mm of evaporable water per day E,, = parameter including wind velocity and saturation deficit psychrometric constant = 0.49 mm of mercury/°C The net radiation is the same as used in the energy budget [Eq. (3.8)] andis estimated by the following equation: H, =H, (1-1) (aso) - 6 TS (0.56 - 0.092 fe, \(0.10+ 0.90) (3.14) where H, = incident solar radiation outside the atmosphere on a horizontal surface, expressed in mm of evaporable water per day (it is a function of the latitude and period of the year as indicated in Table 3.4) a= aconstant depending upon the latitude @ and is given by a = 0.29 cos @ b = a constant with an average value of 0.52 n= actual duration of bright sunshine in hours N= maximum possible hours of bright sunshine (it is a function of latitude as indicated in Table 3.5) r= reflection coefficient (albedo). Usual ranges of values of rare given below. Surface eam rd Close ground corps 0.15-0.25 Bare lands / 0.05-0.45 Water surface 0.05 Snow _ 045-095 o= Stefan-Boltzman constant = 2.01 x 10° mm/day T,, = mean air temperature in degrees kelvin = 273 + °C e, = actual mean vapour pressure in the air in mm of mercury The parameter £, is estimated as uy E,, = 0.35 (+ 2 Nee, e,) (3.15) ty = mean wind speed at 2 m above ground in km/day + = Saturation vapour pressure at mean air temperature in mm of mercury (Table 3.3) ¢,,= actual vapour pressure, defined earlier For the computation of PET, data on n, e,, #2, mean air temperature and nature of surface (i.e. value of r) are needed. These can be obtained from actual observations or through available meteorological data of the region. Equations (3.13), (3.14) and in which3.10.2 Reference Crop Evapotranspiration (ET,) In irrigation practice, the PET is extensively used in calculation of crop-water requirements. For purposes of standardisation, FAO recommends’ a reference crop evapotranspiration ot reference evapotranspiration denoted as ET, The reference surface is a hypothetical grass reference crop with an assumed crop height of 0.12 m, a defined fixed surface resistance of 70s m and an albedo of 0.23. The reference surface closely resembles an extensive surface of green, well-watered grass of uniform, height, actively growing and completely shading the ground. The defined fixed surface resistance 70 sm ' implies a moderately dry soil surface resulting from about a weekly inrigation frequency. The FAO recommends a method called FAO Penman-Monteith ‘method to estimate ET, by using radiation, air temperature, air humidity and wind speed data. Details of FAO Penman-Monteith method are available in Ref. 3. ‘The potential evapotranspiration of any other crop (E7) is calculated by multiplying the reference crop evapotranspiration by a coefficient K, the value of which changes with stage of the crop. Thus, ET = K(ET,) 3.16) ‘The value of K varies from 0.5 to 1.3. Table 3.7 gives average values of K for some selected crops. 3.10.3 Empirical Formulae A large number of empirical formulae are available for estimation of PET based on climatological data. These are not universally applicable to all climatic areas. They should be used with caution in areas different from those for which they were derived. 1. Blaney-Criddle Formula This purely empirical formula is based on data from arid western United States. This formula assumes that the PET is related to hours of sunshine and temperature, which are taken as measures of solar radiation at an area. The potential evapotranspiration in a crop-growing season is given by Eyp=2.54 KF and. F =EP,T/100 3.17) where ET in a crop season in em coefficient, depends on the type of the crop and stage of ‘growth Abstractions from Precipitation | 91 F = sum of monthly consumptive use factors for the period ,, = monthly percent of annual day-time hours, depends on the latitude of the place (Table 3.6) and T; = mean monthly temperature in °F ‘Values of K depend on the month and locality. Average value for the season for selected crops is given in Table 3.7. The Blaney—Criddle formula is largely used by irrigation engineers to calculate the water requirements of crops, which is taken as the difference between PET and effective precipitation. The Blaney-Morin equation is another empirical formula similar to Eq. (3.17) but with an additional correction artié. Inorntnwane rormura ‘This formula was developed from data of eastern USA and uses only the mean monthly temperature together with an adjustment for day-lengths. The PET is given by this formula as zy east, (22 } 3.18) 1, where £,= monthly PET in cm L,= adjustment for the number of hours of daylight and days in the month, related to the latitude of the place (Table 3.8)Factors That Affect Evapotranspiration The rate of evapotranspiration at any location on the Earth's surface is controlled by several factors: ¢ Energy availability. The more energy available, the greater the rate of evapotranspiration. It takes about 600 calories of heat energy to change 1 gram of liquid water into a gas. ¢ The humidity gradient away from the surface. The rate and quantity of water vapor entering into the atmosphere both become higher in drier air. ¢ The wind speed immediately above the surface. The process of evapotranspiration moves water vapor from ground or water surfaces to an adjacent shallow layer that is only a few centimeters thick. When this layer becomes saturated evapotranspiration stops. However, wind can remove this layer replacing it with drier air which increases the potential for evapotranspiration. Winds also affect evapotranspiration by bringing heat energy into an area. A 5-mile-per-hour wind will increase still-air evapotranspiration by 20 percent; a 15-mile- per-hour wind will increase still-air evapotranspiration by 50 percent. Water availability. Evapotranspiration cannot occur if water is not available. Physical attributes of the vegetation. Such factors as vegetative cover,plant height, leaf area index and leaf shape and the reflectivity of plant surfaces can affect rates¢ Physical attributes of the vegetation. Such factors as vegetative cover,plant height, leaf area index and leaf shape and the reflectivity of plant surfaces can affect rates of evapotranspiration. For example coniferous forests and alfalfa fields reflect only about 25 percent of solar energy, thus retaining substantial thermal energy to promote transpiration; in contrast, deserts reflect as much as 50 percent of the solar energy, depending on the density of vegetation. ¢ [Stomatal resistance]. Plants regulate transpiration through adjustment of small openings in the leaves called stomata. As stomata close, the resistance of the leaf to loss of water vapor increases, decreasing to the diffusion of water vapor from plant to the atmosphere. ¢ Soil characteristics. Soil characteristics that can affect evapotranspiration include its heat capacity, and soil chemistry and albedo. Seasonal trends of evapotranspiration within a given climatic region follow the seasonal declination of solar radiation and the resulting air temperatures. Minimum evapotranspiration rates generally occur during the coldest months of the year. Maximum rates generally coincide with the summer season. However since evapotranspiration depends on both solar energy and the availability of soil moisture and plant maturity the seasonal maximum evapotranspiration actually may precede or follow the seasonal maximum solar radiation and air temperature by several weeks.Effect of Meteorological Factors on Evapotranspiration: Weather plays an important role in determining ET. Weather parameters which influence evapotranspiration are given below: 1. Heat Energy: AveRTIseMENTs: There are two sources of energy which are used during evapotranspiration process. One is radiant energy and the other is the sensible energy received from the air which is warmer than the crop. Solar radiation generates both the energy sources. The relationship between energy sources and energy consumers is given helow: Rn+H+S+LE+PS+M=0 Where, Rn is net radiation - major energy supplier ADVERTISEMENTS: His sensible heat flux ~ significant source of energy Sis soil heat flux LE is latent heat flux ~ major heat supplier when water is present PS & M represents photosynthesis and miscellaneous energy exchange ADVERTISEMENTS: 2. Net Radiation: Itis the major supplier in humid regions, where daily Rn is a good measure of LE when potential evaporation conditions prevail (Ritchie, 1971). 3. Humidity: Evaporation from wet soil and water surface, and transpiration are all influenced by the vapour pressure of the nearby air. When the air is saturated, there will be no evaporation. When the vapour pressure gradient from the evaporating surface to the air increases, the rate of evapotranspiration also increases. Vapour pressure gradient develops when there is an increase in the difference4, Temperature: Evaporation is greatly influenced by the temperature of the air and that of the evaporating surface. Higher the temperature, higher is the rate of evapotranspiration. Warmer the air, stronger the temperature gradient and higher the rate of evapotranspiration. If the evaporating surface is warmer, then it will extract less sensible heat from the air, resulting in reduced evapotranspiration. ADVERTISEMENTS: Sometimes, warm humid air moving over a cool surface may reduce the evapotranspiration, because the vapour pressure of the humid air is more than that of the evaporating water surface. Exchange of heat between cool surface and the overlying warm humid air causes the air to be cooled to its dew point. This leads to the condensation of water vapours of the humid air. Stomatal aperture is influenced by the temperature. In general, stomatal aperture increases with increasing temperature. Types of Evapotranspiration: Evapotranspiration may be classified as: 1. Potential evapotranspiration (PET). ADVERTISEMENTS: 2. Actual evapotranspiration (AET). 1. Potential Evapotranspiration: It is the loss of water from a large area, uniformly covered with actively growing short green crop when water is not a limiting factor. It is considered to be the upper limit of evapotranspiration for a crop ina given time. Potential evapotranspiration can not exceed evaporation from the surface of free water under the same weather conditions. This is applicable under humid conditions. ‘The rate of potential evapotranspiration depends upon evaporative power of the air as determined by temperature, humidity, wind and radiation. Potential evapotranspiration is not affected by soil and plant factors.2. Actual Evapotranspiration / Seasonal Consumptive Use: The term consumptive use is used to designate the water consumed in ET and that used by the plant for its metabolic activities. Since the water used in metabolic activities is insignificant (about 1% of ET or less), the term consumptive use is generally taken as equivalent to evapotranspiration. Hence, the total amount of water used in evaporation and transpiration by a crop during the entire growth season is called AET or seasonal CU. So AET is the ET as governed by the availability of water to plants. ADVERTISEMENTS: Actual evapotranspiration remains less than maximum evapotranspiration, when the available soil moisture is limited. If sufficient water is available to the crop, then the actual evapotranspiration becomes equal to maximum evapotranspiration.Abstract and Figures climate and water availability Climate is a very decisive factor in water resource availability of a region. Warming of the climate system in recent decades is evident from increase in global average air and ocean temperatures, widespread melting of snow and ice, and rising global sea level. The hydrological cycle is intimately linked with changes in atmospheric temperature and radiation balance. A warmer climate may lead to intensification of the hydrological cycle, resulting in higher rates of evaporation and increase of liquid precipitation. These processes, in association with a shifting pattern of precipitation, may affect the spatial and temporal distribution of runoff, soil moisture, groundwater reserves etc. and may increase the frequency of droughts and floods. Agricultural demand, particularly for irrigation water is considered more sensitive to climate change. A change in field-level climate may alter the need and timing of irrigation. Increased dryness may lead to increased demand, but demand may be reduced if soil moisture content rises at critical times of the year. It is projected that most irrigated areas in India would require more water around 2025 and global net irrigation requirements would increase relative to the situation without climate change by 3.5- 5% by 2025, and 6-8% by 2075. The effect of climate change on water resources may be mitigated through better water harvesting through the creation of micro- storage facilities in watersheds. These would not only provide supplemental irrigation but also recharge the groundwater aquifers.Water balance is a method of book keeping used to summarize the amount of water cycling from the atmosphere, across land surfaces, into the ground, through plants, into the ocean, and back the atmosphere. It provides a good framework for understanding hydrologic processes. Water balances can vary year to year in a given location, but a water balance can provide a picture of how water is moving across the earth’s surface, where transmission losses occur, and how much is evaporating back to the atmosphere. Determining a water balance requires looking at the following components: 1. Total Precipitation 2. Surface Detention and Infiltration - how much precipitation stayed ina given area 3. On-site runoff - the excess incoming precipitation that is not able to be intercepted or infiltrate the land surface. 4. Evaporation and Transpiration - determined based on potential evaporation for a site and the equivalent to the amount infiltrated at a site5. Surface Runoff - the amount of water that leaves the watershed 6. Channel Losses/Transmission Losses - the amount that infiltrates channel beds Typically, quantities for ground water recharge and evaporation and transpiration of channel losses are not determined because they can be difficult to calculate and are often site specific. Transmission Losses Transmission losses, called abstractions, refer to the water that infiltrates into channel beds and banks during stream flow. As flow travels through a normally dry channel, water that infiltrates into the channel reduces the runoff volume and the peak rate of flow downstream. Water lost to this infiltration can contribute to groundwater recharge, and at a minimum will affect soil moisture distribution in the surface sediment layers. Groundwater recharge can be seen as increases in water levels in wells in and adjacent to channels following flood events. Runoff losses to this type of infiltration can be large. Ephemeral channel transmission losses play an important role in groundwater/surface waterdynamics, especially in the southwestern United States. However, identifying the processes driving these dynamics is difficult. Quantifying recharge with greater certainty is a critical need for managing basins whose primary source of water supply is derived from groundwater. Factors Affecting Water Balance The geology along and beneath the stream channel creates some reaches that are underlain by impervious material, whereas in other locations, a channel may extend to regional groundwater reservoirs, allowing for considerable recharge. In areas where a channel may be underlain by an impermeable material, riparian aquifers connected to the channel can become saturated, supporting several organisms such as phreatophytes.5:55 PM| 30.2KB/s¥ ¥ Figure 1. Flooding occurs when large amounts of precipitation and runoff exceed the amount that can infiltrate a land surface in a given amount of time. Photo by Brian Lockhard, USDA Forest Service courtesy of forestryimages.org. Although the destructive effects of floods in eroding and reshaping channels receives much attention, floods provide critical out-of-bank deposits in riparian areas that replenish nutrient supplies. Floods occur on both local and regional scales. Local floods occur with greater frequency, largely in response to large sudden amounts of precipitation. Flood occur due to the cumulative effects of precipitation and runoff across many small watersheds. Precipitation lasting for several days and covering large areas causes runoff over large areas that accumulates as flow travels through the channel network. Although floods are more dramatic in their suddenness and destruction, the persistence of droughts can cause more severe consequences. Droughts may initially be associated with a lack of precipitation, but long- term consequences such as soil moisture deficit, reduced surface water flow, and a drop in groundwater level have severe impacts onWhat is water availability? Water availability refers to how much water is physically accessible (water quantity) and whether that water is safe to use (water quality). The differences in water quantity and quality across the landscape, and how they change through time, determine whether there is enough water for human and ecosystem needs. The amount and quality of available water is influenced by human activities, like using water for agriculture, drinking water supplies, and thermoelectric power generation, and by natural events like fires, tropical cyclones, and drought. Understanding water supply and demand will support better and more efficient water management for economic growth, protection of aquatic ecosystems, agriculture and energy production, and human population growth. Because the concept of water availability is broad, many groups have made more specific definitions of water availability. Most include aspects of water quantity, water quality, and water timing (when water is available throughout the year). Some definitions of water availability focus on human water use, while others recognize the tradeoffs between human and ecological water needs. Other definitionsaddress the idea that even though water may be physically present, it may not be accessible to people or ecosystems that need it. The USGS Water Resources Mission Area defines water availability as the spatial and temporal distribution of water quantity and quality, as related to human and ecosystem needs, as affected by human and natural influences. In other words, we define water availability as how water quantity and quality change through time and space, while considering who needs the water and what might be affecting the quantity and quality of the water. This definition is consistent with the SECURE Water Act (more on this below) and aligns with the scope of water science in the USGS. Assessing water availability is difficult because the things that affect water quantity, water quality, and water use (the removal of water for human needs) are complex. Because of this complexity, most research focuses on one part of water availability at a time. For example, one research group might study how the timing of snowmelt affects the amount of water in reservoirs, and another team might investigate how nutrients from agriculture influence toxic algal blooms. These studiesDefinition of Evaporation IG> Blaney Criddle & Hargreaves Method of Measuring Evaporation quantity It is defined as the transfer of liquid water into vapor state to the atmosphere. It involves the conversion of water from liquid to vapor state and then again return to the atmosphere in the form of liquid or solid precipitation that reaches the earth surface. The most important form of evaporation is probably that one which takes place from sea, ocean or other water surfaces. Evaporation may also take place from bare soil surface but in a very small amount of total quantity. Evaporation causes cooling. Precipitation deposited on vegetation also evaporates reducing the quantity of water reaching the soil surface. Other evaporation mechanism to be considered is Transpiration by plants. Process of evaporation - How Does Evaporations Work Evaporation occurs naturally if an input of energy either directly from the sun or indirectly from the atmosphere itself. In simplified terms the6:11 PM|0.1KB/s % % Bal GD Evaporation occurs naturally if an input of energy either directly from the sun or indirectly from the atmosphere itself. In simplified terms the molecules are in constant motion. (PEvaporation Measurement | ? Ask Questions about Evaporation | PEvaporations Calculations Adding heat to water causes molecules to become increasingly energized and they start moving more rapidly, resulting in increase in distance between the liquid molecules and weakening of the forces between them. At high temperature, therefore, more of the molecules near the water surface will tend to fly off into lower layers of the overlying air. At the same time, water vapor molecules in the lower air layers are also in continuous motion and some of them penetrate into underlying mass of water. Rate of evaporation at any given time depends on number of molecules leaving the water surface minus the number of molecules returning to water surface due to condensation. Generally, evaporation from a given surface is greatest in