CHAPTER FIVE RESERVOIR CAPACITY DETERMINATION 5.0 Introduction A reservoir is a large, artificial lake created by constructing a dam across a river. Broadly speaking, any water pool or a lake may be termed a reservoir. However, the term reservoir in water resources engineering is used in a restricted sense for a comparatively large body of water stored on the upstream of a dam constructed for this purpose. Thus a dam and a reservoir exist together. The discharge in a river generally varies considerably during different periods of a year. If a reservoir serves only one purpose, it is called a single-purpose reservoir. On the other hand, if it serves more than one purpose, it is termed a mniltipurpose reservoir. The various purposes served by a multipurpose reservoir include Trrigation Municipal and industrial water supply, Flood control Hydropower, Navigation, Recreation, Development of fish and wild life, Soil conservation and Pollution control etc. ANNAN ARNAS ‘Types of Reservoirs Depending upon the purpose served, the reservoirs may be broadly classified into five types: Storage (or conservation) reservoirs Flood control reservoirs Multipurpose reservoirs Distribution reservoirs Balancing reservoirs ve 6 Storage reservoirs: Storage reservoirs are also called conservation reservoirs because they are used to conserve water. Storage reservoirs are constructed to store the water in the rainy season and to release it later when the river flow is low. Storage reservoirs are usually constructed for irrigation, municipal water supply and hydropower. Although the storage reservoirs are constructed for storing water for various purposes, incidentally they also help in moderating the floods and reducing the flood damage to some extent on the downstream. However, they are not designed as flood control reservoirs. Flood control reservoirs: a flood control reservoir is constructed for the purpose of flood control. It protects the areas lying on its downstream side from the damages due to flood. However, absolute protection from extreme floods is not economically feasible. A flood control reservoir reduces the flood damage, and it is also known as the flood-mitigation reservoir.Sometimes, it is called flood protection reservoir. In a flood control reservoir, the floodwater is discharged downstream till the outflow reaches the safe capacity of the channel downstream. When the discharge exceeds the safe capacity, the excess water is stored in the reservoir. The stored water is subsequently released when the inflow to reservoir decreases. Care is, however, taken that the discharge in the channel downstream, including local inflow, does not exceed its safe capacity. A flood control reservoir is designed to moderate the flood and not to conserve water. However, incidentally some storage is also done during the period of floods. Flood control reservoirs have relatively large sluice-way capacity to permit rapid drawdown before or after the occurrence of a flood. Multipurpose Reservoirs: A multipurpose reservoir is designed and constructed to serve two or more purposes. Most of the reservoirs are designed as multipurpose reservoirs to store water for irrigation and hydropower, and also to effect flood control. Distribution Reservoir: A distribution reservoir is a small storage reservoir to tide over the peak demand of water for municipal water supply or irrigation. The distribution reservoir is helpful in permitting the pumps to work at a uniform rate. It stores water during the period of lean demand and supplies the same during the period of high demand. As the storage is limited, it merely helps in distribution of water as per demand for a day or so and not for storing it for a long period. Water is pumped from a water source at a uniform rate throughout the day for 24 hours but the demand varies from time to time. During the period when the demand of water is less than the pumping rate, the water is stored in the distribution reservoir. On the other hand, when the demand of water is more than the pumping rate, the distribution reservoir is used for supplying water at rates greater than the pumping rate. Distribution reservoirs are rarely used for the supply of water for irrigation. These are mainly used for municipal water supply. Balancing reservoir: A balancing reservoir is a small reservoir constructed downstream of the main reservoir for holding water released from the main reservoir. The reservoir capacity is a term used to represent the reservoir storage capacity. Its determination is performed using historical inflow records in the stream at the proposed dam site. There are several methods to determine a reservoir storage capacity. The most common ones are presented below. 5.1 Mass curve (ripple's) method: A mass curve (or mass inflow curve) is a plot of accumulated flow in a stream against time. As indicated below a mass curve can be prepared from the flow hydrograph of a stream for a large number of consecutive previous years. Figure 5.1 (a) shows a typical flow hydrograph of a stream for six consecutive years. The area under the hydrograph from the starting year (ie., 1953) up to any time tl (shown by hatching) represents the total quantity of water that has flown through the stream from 1953 up to time t] and hence it is equal to the ordinate of the mass curve at time tl. The ordinates of mass curve corresponding to different times are thus determined and plotted at the respective times to obtain the mass curve as shown in fig. 5.1(a). A mass curve continuously rises as it shows accumulated flows. The slope of the curve at any point indicates the rate of flow at that particular time. If there is no flow during certain period the curve will be horizontal during that period.TRAP EF! IENCY Reservoir sedimentation is measured in terms of Trap Efficiency. Trap efficiency is defined as the ratio of sediment deposited in the reservoir to the sediment brought by the water into reservoir, ic., Trap Efficiency (n) = Total Sediment deposited in Reservoir Total Sediment inflow in Reservoir In most of the reservoirs, 9 is 95 to 100% of the sediment load flowing into them. Even if various silt control measures are adopted it has not been possible to reduce this trap efficiency below 90% or so. RESERVOIR SEDIMENTATION All the rivers carry certain amount of silt eroded from the catchment area during heavy rain. The extent of erosion and hence the sill load in the stream depends upon: @ Nature of soil of catchment area Topography of catchment area Vegetation cover Intensity of rainfall ‘The sediment transported by rivers can be divided into two heads a) Bed load (b) Suspended load The bed load is dragged along the bed of rivers. The suspended load is kept in suspension because of vertical component of eddies formed due to friction of flowing water against bed. Bed load is normally 10-15% of suspended load. When stream approaches the reservoir, the velocity is very much reduced. Thus coarser particles settle in the head reaches of the reservoir while the finer particles are kept in suspension for sufficient time till they settle just to the U/S side of the dam, Some fine particles may pass through sluiceways, turbines or spillways. flow Rati It is the ratio of reservoir capacity to the total inflow of water annually. Trap efficiency is the function of capacity-inflow ratio n= f (Capacity / Inflow) Graphically, it is shown as follows.RESERVOIR SEDIMENT CONTROL Following are some of methods used for the control of silting of reservoii (1) Proper selection of reservoir site A stream collecting water from a catchment area having loose or soft soil and having steep slopes may carry more silt load. Ifa certain tributary of the main stream carries more silt, the dam should be constructed to the U/S of that tributary. (2) Control of sediment Inflow Small check dams may be constructed across those tributaries which carry more silt. Increase of vegetal cover over the catchment area also decreases the soil erosion and hence sediment inflow is reduced. (3) Proper designing and reservoir planning A small reservoir on a big river has lesser trap efficiency. Hence if a dam is constructed lower in the first instance and is being raised in stages the life of the reservoir will be very much increased.During the floods, the sediment carried by the stream is the maximum. Hence sufficient outlets should be provided in the dam at various elevations so that the floods can be discharged to the d/s without much silt deposit. (4) Construction of Underslu Dam ‘The dam is provided with openings in its base so as to remove the more silted water on the dis side. Sluices are located at level of higher sediment concentration. Sometimes water dig channels behind sluices leaving most of sediment undisturbed so mechanical loosening and scouring of sediment is required sinmultaneously. But providing large sluices near bottom of dam is againa structural problem so use of this method is limited. (5) Remov of Post Flood Water ‘The sediment content increases just after floods therefore attempts are generally made not to collect this water. Hence the provision should be made to remove the water entering the reservoir at this time. (6) Mechanical Stirring of Sediment ‘The deposited sediment is scoured and disturbed by mechanical means so as to a moving state and thus help in pushing it towards the sluices. keep (8) Erosion control and Soil conservation This includes all those methods to reduce soil erosion to make it more and more stable. This is because when soil erosion is reduced, the sedimentation is reduced automatically. But the methods of treating the catchment in order to minimize erosion are very costly. The methods of soil conservation are provision of control bunds, checking gully formation by providing small embankments, afforestation, regrassing and control of grazing etc. Provision of vegetation screen helps in reducing the sheet erosion. RESERVOIR LOSSES ‘The important reservoir losses are:- VAP ‘These losses mainly depend upon the reservoir surface area. The other factors influencing these losses are temperature, wind velocity, relative humidity. Standard pan evaporation can be measured and when multiplied by pan coefficient gives the reservoir evaporation losses.Reservoirs are vital components of water management, playing a crucial role in the storage and distribution of water for varlous purposes, These artificial lakes, created by darnming rivers or streams, come in different types based on thelr primary functions. The classification mcludes potable water reservoirs, designed for supplying drinking water to communities, and agricultural reservoirs, which serve the irrigation needs of farmlands. The storage zone of a reservolr is the volume of water that can he stored in the reservoir. ‘This blog shall discuss all the different storage zones of reservoir. This topic is important for all the upcoming civil engineering examinations, including SSC JE CE and RRB JE Civil. Storage Zones of Reservoir Fig 1: Storage zones of reservoir ‘The different Storage zones of reservor are Full Reservoir Level (FRL): ‘The FRL encompasses both active and Inactive storage, including flood storage, if incorporated. It represents the highest attainable reservoir level that can be maintained without the need for spillway discharge or slulce-way operation Minimum Draw-down Level (MDDL): ‘The MDDL signiftes the minimum water level below wh{ch draw-dowwn is restricted to maintain the requisite head for power projects, Dead Storage Level (DSL): Below the DSL, there are no outlets for gravity drainage, leading to silt accumulation over the design lifespan. Maximum Water Level (MWL) or High Flood Level (HFL)/High Reservoir Level (HRL): ‘The MWL Is the level likely to be reached during the design flood, serving as a crucial reference point for flood management, Live Storage: This represents the volume of water available between the dead storage level and the full supply level at any given time. ‘The minimum operating level should prevent vortex formation and air entrainment. Dead Storage: Total storage below the inverted level of the lowest discharge outlet, remaining unusable under ordinary operating conditions. Outlet Surcharge of Flood Storage: This required storage between FRL and the maximum water level helps contain flood peaks when storage capacity below TRL Is insufficient. Buffer Storage: Storage above the dead storage level up to the minimum draw-down level, Releases ftom this zone during dry periods cater to essentlal requirements only. Dead storage and buffer storage together constitute Inactive Storage,Reservoir A reservoir generally means an enlarged natural or artificial lake, storage pond created using a dam to store water. Reservoir can be created by controlling a stream that drains an existing body of water. Geological investigation for dam site & reservoir + Topography: Topography in large measures dictates a first choice of Gaurav Srivastava, Civil Engg. Deptt., FoET, LU dams. Generally a dam site is ideal where a valley is constricted with steep rock slopes. A narrow stream flowing between high, rock walls would naturally suggest a concrete overflow dam whereas a low, rolling plain would suggest an earth-fill dam. + Geology and foundation condition: Foundation condition depend upon the geological character and thickness of the strata which are to carry the weight of the dam, their inclination, permeability and relation to underlying strata, existing faults and fissures. + Foundations are better on igneous rocks and hard metamorphic rocks like granite, gneiss, quartzite etc. than on sedimentary rocks like shale, phyllite, slate and schist etc. + The removal of disintegrated rocks and sealing of seams and fractures by grouting will frequently be necessary. + Rocks like limestone are usually cavernous with numerous solution channels. These channels not only provide path for water percolation but also may collapse and destabilize the setting. + Weathered rock pose serious problems of instability and require special treatment. The weathering of rocks give rise to formation of clays and gritty soils where the weathering is complete.. Gravel Foundation, if well compacted, are suitable for earth-fill, rock-fill and low concrete gravity dam. + Silt or fine sand foundation can be used for the support of low concrete gravity dam but not rock-fill dam. The main problem is settlement, excessive percolation loss, and need of protection of the foundation at the downstream toe from erosion. + Poorly consolidated sediments like silt, sand and gravel have low bearing strength and become weaker still when moistened. + Clay foundation can be used for the support of earth-fill dam but require special treatment. There may be considerable settlement of the dam if the clay isSelection of site for a Reserve A goof site for a reservoir should have the following characteristics Large storage Capacity: ‘The topography ofthe proposed site shouldbe such that the reser water has « large capacity for storing the Suitable site for the dam: As table site for the proposed dam should he available on the downstream side the reservoir with very {g00d foundation. The reservoir basin should have a narrow opening inthe valley. So that the length of the dam is small, Watertightness of the reservoir: Geology atthe proposed reservoir site should be such thatthe entire reservoir basin is watertight, The site ‘with previous cocks are not suitable The reservoir basins having shales, scales. schists gneiss, granite et. ane generally suitable Good hydrological conditions: The hydrolog al conditions of the river at the reservoir should give high yield. Evaporation, transpiration and infiltration losses should be minimum, Deep reservoir: ‘The proposed site should be such that a deep reservoirs formed after the dam construction, ‘Small submerged area: ‘Atthe proposed site the submerged area should be minimum and should not affect the ecology Minimum silt inflows ‘The life of reservoir defined by the quantity of silt inflow, and hence i is necessary to select the reservoir site a such a place, where the silt inflow is minimum No objectionable minerals: ‘The proposed site should be free from soluble and objectionable salts which my poltute the reservoir Construction cost: “The overall cost ofthe project should be minimum in terms of dam construction, land acquisition for buildings, reservoir, roads ete.Types Of Reservoir The types of reservoir are as follows: 1. Valley-dammed reservoir or Storage reservoir 2. Flood control reservoirs 3. Service reservoirs or Distribution reservoir 1. Valley Dammed Reservoir Valley-dammed reservoirs are formed in valleys in the middle of the mountains. There is often an existing lake or water, and the sides of the mountain are used as reservoir walls to hold water. A dam or artificial tank wall is built at the narrowest point to hold water. Before constructing Valley-dammed reservoirs, the water flow or river must be diverted. The dam construction process involves laying the foundations for the dam, and then the concrete cladding Is laid and the construction of the dam can proceed. The construction of the dam usually takes many years, but when it is finished, valley ponds and a large water source can be used to serve the purpose of irrigation, hydropower generation, domestic and industrial water supply. 2. Flood Control Reservoir This type of reservoir, also known as a flood mitigation reservoir, is built to store the floodwater from a high flow water stream to reduce flooding in protected areas or populated areas. The entire stream entering the water storage is discharged until the outflow reaches the safe capacity of the lower channel. The excess inflow is stored in the reservoir, and the stored water is gradually resealed to create a storage capacity for the next flood. There are two types of flood control reservoirs: 1. Storage Reservoir 2, Retarding Reservoir i) Storage Reservoir Areservoir where gates and valves are installed at its spillways and sluice outlets is known as a storage reservoir. This reservoir requires a manual operation to open and close the gate, which gives complete control over the amount of water discharged.li) Retarding Reservoir Areservoir that has ungated outlets and the flow is uncontrolled is known as retarding reservoir or retarding basin. The retarding reservoir has some advantages over the storage reservoir, such as no necessity of installing gates at sluiceways and spillway crests. During maximum floods, the water present in the land is submerged temporarily and driven out in a few days after the flood is controlled or minimized. 3. Distribution Reservoir or Service Reservoir Distribution Reservoir connected to the main water supply channels(pipelines). The main purpose of this type of reservoir is to serve or supply water to consumers according to changing demands or requirements of the local population. It also serves as local storage in the event of an emergency. Here the water is stored in the reservoir by pumping at a specific rate, and later, this stored water can be used or supplied at a rate higher than the inflow rate during high demands. The main advantage of this type of reservoir is it can store water during the demand period and supply water during the demand period. Distribution reservoirs mainly depend on the population’s demand for water at a particular period. Multi-purpose Reservoirs As the name suggests, these reservoirs are built to store and supply the water to meet more than one purpose; hence they are known as Multipurpose Reservoirs. For Example, multi-purpose reservoirs are designed for irrigation, flood control, power generation, etc. In India, Bhakra Dam and Nagarjun Sagar Dam are examples of important multi-purpose projects that serve more than two purposes.* Retarding Reservoirs: 4 retarding reservoir is provided with spillways and sluiceways which are ungated. The retarding reservoir stores a portion of the flood when the flood is rising and teleases il later when the flood is receding. * Detention Reservoirs : A detention reservoir slores excess walter during floods and releases |t afler the flood. Lis similar to a storage reservolr butis provided with large gated spillways and siulcaways lo permil flexibility of operation.The different types of yields of a reservoir are as follows: 1. Yield of the Reservoir + Itis the amount of water that can be supplied by the reservoir in a specified interval of time. ie. it is the outflow demand of the reservoir. + The specified time interval may vary from a day for a small distribution reservoir to a month or year for large conservation reservoirs. + Itis dependent upon the inflow and thus varies from time to time. 2. Safe Yield: + Itis the maximum quentity of water that can be supplied from the reservoir with a full guarantee during the worst dry period. + Itis also known as firm yield. 3. Design Yield: + There Is the possibility that sometimes the minimum natural flow in the reservoir may even fall short of guaranteed yield. The yield whose value is smaller than the safe or guaranteed yield is known as design yieid. « In the case of reservoirs used for irrigation purposes, the design yield may be taken slightly more than the safe yield as crops can tolerate some deficiency of water during the dry season. 4, A Secondary Yield: + The quantity of water available in excess of safe yield is known as secondary yield. + This yield is available during periods of high inflows. * This secondary yield of the reservoir can be used either to generate extra hydroelectric power of for irrigation of extra lands. 5. Average Yield: « The arithmetic average of the safe yield and the secondary yield considered for a number of years is known as the average yield.Feature Purpose Functions Design Criteria Flexibility Reservoir Size Construction Cost Environmental Impact Examples Single-Purpose Reservoir Designed for a specific function (e.g., water supply, hydropower) ‘Typically serves only one primary function Tailored specifically to optimize performance for the designated purpose Limited flexibility in adapting to different uses Size may be optimized for the specific function, potentially smaller May have lower construction costs due to focused design Impact may be more localized and specific to the designated purpose Water supply reservoirs, hydropower reservoirs Multipurpose Reservoir Designed to serve multiple functions simultaneously (e.g., water supply, hydropower, irrigation, flood control) Can serve multiple functions, such as irrigation, water supply, hydropower, flood control, and recreation Balanced design to accommodate various needs and optimize multiple functions Higher flexibility to adapt to changing demands and priorities Larger size to accommodate multiple purposes, often with a larger surface area Tends to have higher construction costs due to the complexity of accommodating multiple functions May have a broader environmental impact due to multiple functions and larger area Large dams with multiple functions, such as the Three Gorges Dam in China or the Hoover Dam in the United StatesFeature Primary Function Focus on Flooding Water Release Patterns Reservoir Size Construction Cost Environmental Impact Examples Flood Control Reservoir Mitigate and contro! flooding by regulating river flows and storing excess water during heavy rainfall or snowmelt Emphasis on preventing or minimizing flood damage by managing water levels and release rates Rapid release of water during flood events to create storage capacity for incoming flows Sized to accommodate floodwaters and reduce downstream flood risk Typically lower construction costs compared to multipurpose reservoirs due toa more focused design Focus on mitigating flood impact with localized environmental considerations Many small to medium-sized reservoirs designed primarily for flood control, such as those along rivers prone to flooding Multipurpose Reservoir Serve multiple functions, which may include flood control along with other purposes like water supply, hydropower, irrigation, and recreation While flood control is a component, the reservoir also addresses various other needs Controlled and varied release patterns to meet the demands of different functions, considering factors like irrigation schedules, power generation, and environmental considerations Larger in size to handlle diverse functions, potentially with a greater capacity to store floodwaters Can have higher construction costs due to the complexity of accommodating multiple functions and potential additional infrastructure Broader environmental impact due to various functions and potentially larger areaaffected Multipurpose projects that incorporate flood control, such as the Aswan High Dam in Egypt or the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) projects in the United States1. Mass curve (ripple's) method A mass curve (or mass inflow curve) is a plot of accumulated flow in a stream against time. A mass curve can be prepared from the flow hydrograph ofa stream for a large number of consecutive previous years. The area under the hydrograph from the starting up to any time t represents the total quantity of water that has flowed through the stream from the start of the plot to that specific time t. Cont... = FLOW HYDROGRAPH ce Za we 8 = 5 AREA(AI)UPTO THE TiME t_ \ BS =ORDINATE OF MASS CURVE AT TIME,t S 1st |= TIME (YEAR) & Ss = = pa MASS INFLOW CURVE = | Al = y [time (year)Reservoir Capacity Determination = The reservoir capacity is a term used to represent the reservoir storage capacity. = Its determination is performed using historical inflow records in the stream at the proposed dam site. = There are several methods to determine a reservoir storage capacity. The most common ones are: 1 .Mass curve (ripple's) method 2 .Sequent-peak algorithm 3 .Using flow duration curve ~” ‘Setscribdulthoutads, 1. Mass curve (ripple's) method A mass curve (or mass inflow curve) is a plot of accumulated flow in a stream against time. A mass curve can be prepared from the flow hydrograph of a stream for a large number of consecutive previous years. The area under the hydrograph from the starting up to any time t represents the total quantity of water that has flowed through the stream from the start of the plot to that specific time t.Cont... FLOW HYDROGRAPH AREA(AI)UPTO THE TIME t. ORDINATE OF MASS CURVE AT TIME,t DISCHARGE INFLOW —— RATE tO tet y (YEAR) MASS INFLOW CURVE Al MASS INFLOW ——* TIME (YEAR) Cont... A mass curve continuously rises as it shows accumulated flows. The slope of the curve at any point indicates the rate of flow at that particular time. If there is no flow during certain period the curve will be horizontal during that period.Flow Cont... inlaw Mass curve anlysis =S— outtow| 70.00 60.00 + 50.00 + 40.00 + 30.00 4 20.00 4 10.00 4 0.00 o s 8 65 7 ss 3 2-8 2 § 2 8 & § 3 * 226 8 3 g 264 set setbaatbotads, Cont... uo: CPT. ATWHICH RESERVOIR 1s FULL, MAX OROINATE B22 90 = 1950 HA-MIS. STWRTER SPILLEO 2600 HA- MTS TAT WHICH RESR.IS FULL MAX ORDINATE BxCy =1500 HA-MTS. ——— NASS INFLOW (IN 100 HA-MTS) 3 1950 st wz 19S 195L SSS 1OSE. ee ee = Fig. 18.10.Cont... The reservoir capacity required for a specified yield or demand may be determined by using mass curve and demand curve using the following steps. A mass curve is prepared from the flow hydrograph for a number of consecutive years selected from the available stream flow record such that it includes the most critical or the driest period. Corresponding to the given rate of demand, a demand curve is prepared. Cont... Lines are drawn parallel to the demand curve and tangential to the high points Al, A2 etc, of the mass curve to represent the rate of withdrawal from the reservoir and; Assuming the reservoir is full when the demand intersect the mass curve and; The maximum departure b/n the two curves represent the maximum reservoir capacity just required to satisfy the demand. The maximum vertical intercepts B,C,, ByC;, ete between the tangential lines drawn in step 3 and the mass curves are measured.Cont... 5. The largest of the maximum vertical intercepts B,C,, B,C, ete, determined in step 4 represents the reservoir capacity required to satisfy the given demand. * + However, the requirement of storage so obtained would be the net storage that must be available for utilization and it must be increased by the amount of water lost by evaporation and seepage. > This graphical solution of the mass method can also be done in tabular calculation easily using computer spreadsheet programs. 2. Sequent-peak algorithm The procedures are as follows: 1. Convert the monthly inflows into the volume units for the period of the available data. 2. Estimate the monthly volumes of all the outflows from the reservoir. This should include losses (evaporation, seepage and other losses). 3. Compute the cumulative values of inflows 4. Compute the cumulative values of outflows 5. Compute the values of cumulative inflows minus cumulative outflows ; [0 Inflow - 0 Outflow].6. Plota graph by taking months (time) on X- axis, and 0 (1-O) of step (5) on Y- axis, on an ordinary graph paper 7. The data will plot peaks and troughs. The second and subsequent peaks are called sequent peaks 8. The maximum difference between any sequent peak and just following trough is the maximum storage requirement for the reservoir. The difference between the first peak and the trough following it is the storage requirement under normal inflows. —Demand) [— = (Intlow Time in Months ——e Fig. 18.15. Sequent Peak Algorithm.= (Peak 3) (Peak 2) Sequent 2 Sequent pe Cum. (Supply - Demand) Required storage = Max.S, Get Seribd without ads, 3. Flow Duration Curve(FDC) It is well-known that the stream flow varies over a year. One of the popular methods of studying this stream flow variability is through flow-duration curves (FDC). A flow-duration curve of a stream is a plot of discharge against the percent of time the flow was equaled or exceeded. Since the area under the curve represents the volume of flow, the storage will affect the flow duration curve.> FDC has considerable use in WRPD activities. These includes: In evaluating various flows in the planning of WRE projects, In evaluating the characteristics of the hydropower potential of a river, In the design of drainage systems, in flood-control studies In computing the sediment load and dissolved solids load of a stream, and In comparing the adjacent catchments with a view to extend the stream flow data. ~” et Scribd without ads, Cont... Flow Duration Curve (FDC) 1400 Q(m3/sec) 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 % Exceeded or Equalied