Z Plane Analysis

Chapter 77
77.1 S to Z Mapping
77.2 Stability Analysis
77.3 Modified Routh Test
77.4 Worked Example No 1
77.5 Pole Positions and Root Locus
77.6 Worked Example No 2
77.7 Pole Zero Cancellation
77.8 Worked Example No 3
77.9 Comments

Z plane analysis concerns the behaviour of sam- which yields in polar form:
pled data systems. There are many analogies be-
tween s-plane analysis, as described in Chap- |z| = e T
and ∠z = !T
ters 70–74, and z-plane analysis. Therefore, rather
Hence points in the s-plane may be mapped into
than developing the techniques of z-plane anal-
the z-plane. In particular, consider the “primary
ysis from first principles, they are established by
strip” of the s-plane as shown in Figure 77.1.
means of analogy. Arguably, the two most impor-
tant techniques are root locus for analytical pur-
s-plane jω
poses and pole-zero cancellation for design pur-
poses. This chapter, therefore, focuses on these two
techniques and the principles involved. Chapter 78
. π/
T

covers other means of designing impulse compen-

D C
B.
sators and their realisation. –∞
.
A 0 σ

G.
77.1 S to Z Mapping E .
F –π
/ T

From Equation 75.2:

Fig. 77.1 The primary strip in the s-plane
z = eTs
However, as seen in Table 71.2, for example, s is
By inspection this can be seen to map into the unit
itself a complex variable:
circle centred on the origin of the z plane, as shown
s= + j! in Figure 77.2.
where both and ! may be either positive or neg- The left hand half of the s plane may be con-
ative. Substituting gives: sidered to be made up of the primary strip and an
infinite number of complementary strips,as shown
+j! ).T
z = e( in Figure 77.3.
 638 77 Z Plane Analysis

z-plane Im The stability of such a system may be determined

from the location in the z-plane of the roots of the
B characteristic equation:
1 + GH(z) = 0
C D A Re For stability,all the roots of the characteristic equa-
F E tion must lie inside the unit circle, i.e.
|zi | < 1.0

G The closed loop system is unstable if any closed

loop pole lies outside the unit circle and/or any
multiple poles lie on the unit circle. Note that a
Fig. 77.2 The unit circle in the z-plane
single pole at z = 1 does not imply marginal stabil-
ity. The example later in this chapter demonstrates
that such a pole arises from the combination of an
jω integrator and a zero order hold device in the open
s-plane
3π
loop.
Complementary strip T

π
Primary strip T σ
77.3 Modified Routh Test
−π
Complementary strip T The Routh test,explained in Chapter 71,establishes
− 3π
whether or not any of the roots of a polynomial lie
T in the right half of a complex plane, and cannot be
used directly to determine where roots lie relative
Fig. 77.3 The primary and complementary strips of the left half
to the unit circle. However, the bilinear transform:
of the s-plane
r+1
z=
Again, by inspection, each of these complementary r−1
strips can be seen to map into the unit circle. Thus maps the interior of the unit circle in the z-plane
the whole of the left half of the s-plane maps into into the left half of the “r-plane” , to which the
the unit circle in the z-plane, the j! axis mapping Routh test may be applied in the usual way.
into the unit circle itself. Conversely, any point in-
side the unit circle in the z plane maps into a mul-
tiplicity of points in the left half of the s-plane. It is
usual to consider the primary strip only. 77.4 Worked Example No 1
Consider the system shown in Figure 77.4 for
K
which H(s) = 1 and G(s) = .
77.2 Stability Analysis s(s + 1)
Consider the sampled data system of Figure 77.4,
or similar: G (s)
+
Its closed loop pulse transfer function is: -
H (s)
G(z)
1 + GH(z) Fig. 77.4 Feedback system with sampled error signal
 77.5 Pole Positions and Root Locus 639

The open loop pulse transfer function is found as 77.5 Pole Positions and Root
follows:
  Locus
K 1 1
G(s) = =K − The impulse response of a sampled data system is
s(s + 1) s s+1
 z z 
determined by the position of its dominant closed
G(z) = K − loop poles in the z-plane: the response for various
z − 1 z − e−T pole positions is as depicted in Table 77.2.
K(1 − e−T ).z The techniques for plotting the root locus of
= 2
z − (1 + e−T ).z + e−T continuous systems, explained in Chapter 74, may
The characteristic equation is formed thus: be applied directly to sampled data systems. Con-
sider the system whose closed loop pulse transfer
K(1 − e−T ).z function is as follows:
1 + G(z) = 1 + = 0
z2 − (1 + e−T ).z + e−T G(z)
2 −T −T −T
z + K(1 − e ) − (1 + e ) .z + e = 0 1 + GH(z)

Make the bilinear transform: The behaviour of such a system, as its effective
  forward path gain increases from 0 to ∞, may be
r+1 2 found from a plot of the roots of its characteristic
+
r−1 equation:
 
r+1 1 + GH(z) = 0
K(1 − e−T ) − (1 + e−T ) + e−T = 0
r−1
according to the magnitude and angle criteria:
Expansion and rearrangement gives:
|GH(z)| = 1.0
2 2(1 + e−T ) ∠GH(z) = − (1 ± 2n)  for n = 0, 1, 2, . . .
K.r + 2 r + −K=0
(1 − e−T )
which simply requires a knowledge of its open loop
from which the Routh array may be developed (Ta-
pulse transfer function GH(z). The rules for con-
ble 77.1).
struction of root locus in the z-plane are exactly
the same as the Evans’ rules detailed in Chapter 74.
Table 77.1 Routh array for Worked Example No 1
The root loci of some simple systems are shown
2(1 + e−T ) in Table 77.3. Note that they all consist of straight
r2 K −K 0 lines and circular segments only.
(1 − e−T )

r1 2 0 –

2(1 + e−T )
77.6 Worked Example No 2
r0 −K 0 –
(1 − e−T ) Consider the system shown in Figure 77.4 for
which H(s) = 1 and the open loop pulse transfer
The criterion for stability is thus: function is:

2(1 + e−T ) 2(1 + e−T ) K (z + 0.9)

− K > 0, that is K < . G(z) =
(1 − e−T ) (1 − e−T ) (z − 1) (z − 0.4)

For example, if the sampling period T = 1 s, the The root locus is constructed using Evan’s rules as
limiting value of K is 4.32. appropriate.
 640 77 Z Plane Analysis

Table 77.2 Impulse response vs dominant closed loop pole positions in z-plane

Pole positions in s-plane Pole positions in z-plane Transient response

a)
1

b)

c)

d)

e)

f)

g)
 77.6 Worked Example No 2 641

Table 77.2 Impulse response vs dominant closed loop pole positions in z-plane (Continued)

Pole positions in s-plane Pole positions in z-plane Transient response

h)

i)

j)

1. G(z) is already in the correct form. 11. Rearrange the characteristic equation to find
2. There is one open loop zero at z = −0.9 and the limiting value of K:
two open loop poles at z = 1 and z = 0.4.
z2 + (K − 1.4)z + 0.9K + 0.4 = 0
3. There are two branches.
4. The real axis is part of the root locus for Make the bilinear transform and rearrange:
0.4 < z < 1 and −∞ < z < −0.9. 1.9K.r2 + (1.2 − 1.8K)r + 2.8 − 0.1K = 0
6. The breakpoints are found from the character-
istic equation: from which the Routh array may be developed
(Table 77.4).
K (z + 0.9) Table 77.4 Routh array for Worked Example No 2
1+ =0
(z − 1) (z − 0.4)
r2 1.9K 2.8 − 0.1K 0
Rearrange and differentiate: r1 1.2 − 1.8K 0 –
0
r 2.8 − 0.1K 0 –
(z − 1)(z − 0.4) −z2 + 1.4z − 0.4
K = − = The system becomes unstable when K is in-
(z + 0.9) z + 0.9
creased to a value such that either:
dK −z2 − 1.8z + 1.66
= 2 1.2 − 1.8K = 0 or 2.8 − 0.1K = 0
dz z + 1.8z + 0.81
for which the corresponding values are K =
The breakpoints occur when:
0.667 and K = 28. Clearly K = 0.667 is the
limiting value.
−z2 − 1.8z + 1.66 = 0.
The root locus is of the form depicted in Ta-
Solution gives z = 0.6716 or z = −2.472. ble 77.3(VI).
 642 77 Z Plane Analysis

Table 77.3 Root loci of some simple sampled data systems

One real pole One real pole and

one real zero

(I) (II)

Two real poles Two complex

poles

(III) (IV)

Two real poles

and one zero

(V) (VI)

Two complex poles

and one real zero

(VII) (VIII)

Two real poles

and two real zeros

(XI) (X)

Two complex Two complex

poles and two poles and two
real zeros complex zeros

(XI) (XII)

77.7 Pole Zero Cancellation
This is a design method.Consider the sampled data
system depicted in Figure 77.5.
d K
+ C(z)G(z) =
r e u +
C(s) G (s)
+ T T
- The root locus will thus be a vertical line whose
Fig. 77.5 Sampled data controller with plant in feedback loop
The objective is to find the impulse compensator
C(z) for a given plant G(z) to produce a specified
impulse response. The method normally assumes
that a second order response is required of the
closed loop system to a step input. The positions of
the desired dominant closed loop poles are speci-
fied and the compensator designed to ensure that
the root locus passes through them.
Step 1. Specify the form of response required in
terms of damping factor and natural frequency.Re-
member that for a system that is second order, or
may be considered to be so by virtue of a pair of
dominant roots, and !n are interrelated as shown
in Figure 74.11.
If the desired response is articulated in terms
of rise time,settling time,overshoot,etc.,these may
be converted into and !n using the formulae in
Table 72.1.
Step 2. Map the desired closed loop pole posi-
tions into the z-plane using:
z = eTs = ˛ ± jˇ
Note that a value for the sampling period T must
be specified at this stage.
Step 3. Find the pulse transfer function of the
plant G(z).
Step 4. Specify any compensator C(z) such that
the root locus of:
1 + C(z)G(z) = 0
77.7 Pole Zero Cancellation 643
passes through z = ˛ + jˇ. The simplest design is
to choose a C(z) such that cancellation of poles and
zeros with G(z) results in a C(z)G(z) which has two
open loop poles only and no zeros, i.e.
y z + p1 z + p2
breakaway point is halfway between the open loop
poles z = −p1 and z = −p2 . By appropriate choice
of p1 and p2 , that is:
p1 + p2 = 2˛
all the closed loop poles of the locus will have:
Re(z) = ˛
thereby ensuring that the locus passes through the
desired dominant pole positions.
Note that by specifying one of the open loop
poles to be on the unit circle, say p1 such that
z = −p1 = 1.0 which corresponds to an integrator,
ensures that the closed loop response has integral
action and eliminates offset. Also, placing one of
the open loop poles on the unit circle maximises
the distance between the two open loop poles: this
increases the range of K values along the real axis
which makes the design less sensitive to changes
in controller gain.
Step 5. Find the forward gain K required to com-
plete the compensator design. Since for any point
on the root locus:
|C(z)G(z)| = 1.0
then at the desired dominant closed loop pole po-
sitions:
K
   = 1.0
˛ + jˇ + p1  ˛ + jˇ + p2 
whence K. Note that the pole zero cancellation
method must be used with care due to the numer-
ical sensitivity of z-plane analysis. Thus the effects
of any inaccuracy in G(z), say due to modelling er-
rors or due to changes in the system’s parameters
 644 77 Z Plane Analysis

during operation, must be carefully considered at Whence:

the design stage. There are many ways in which
the compensator design may be refined and, in- G(z) = 1 − z−1
 
deed, other approaches to design, some of which 2z 10z 10z
. − +
are described in Chapter 78. (z − 1)2 (z − 1) (z − e−0.2 )
0.1873. (z + 0.9354)
=
(z − 1) (z − 0.8187)
77.8 Worked Example No 3
Step 4. Design the compensator:
With reference to Figure 77.5, consider a plant
whose transfer function is: Choose one open loop pole such that z = −p1 = 1.0.
If ˛ = 0.6153 then the other open loop pole should
1 − e−2s 1 be at z = −p2 = 0.2306.
G(s) =
s s (10s + 1) Specify:
where the time delay and lag have units of sec- K
C(z)G(z) = .
onds. Design an impulse compensator C(z), with a z + p1 z + p2
sampling period of 2 s, such that the closed loop
response to a step input has a damping factor of Thus:
0.7 and a settling time of 20 s (±2% criterion). C(z).0.1873. (z + 0.9354) K
=
(z − 1) (z − 0.8187) (z − 1) (z − 0.2306)
Step 1. Specify the form of response required: Hence:
= 0.7 5.339.K. (z − 0.8187)
C(z) =
4 (z + 0.9354) (z − 0.2306)
ts ≈ = 20 Hence !n = 0.2857.
!n
Step 5. Find the controller gain required.
In Cartesian co-ordinates the desired dominant At the desired dominant closed loop pole positions:
closed loop pole positions are thus: K
   
0.6153 + j.0.266 − 1.0  .  0.6153 + j.0.266 − 0.2306
s = −0.20 ± j.0.204
= 1.0

Step 2. Map these pole positions into the z-plane: Hence the forward gain required is:
K = 0.2188
z = e2s = e2(−0.2±j.0.204)
= 0.6703∠ ± 23.38◦ The impulse compensator designed is thus:
= 0.6153 ± j.0.266 1.168. (z − 0.8187)
C(z) =
(z + 0.9354) (z − 0.2306)
Step 3. Determine the pulse transfer function of
the plant: Check. That the response is of the correct form
can be checked as follows.
1 − e−2s 1 Analysis of Figure 77.5 yields the closed loop
G(s) = . pulse transfer function for disturbances:
s s. (10s + 1)
 
1 10 100 1
= 1 − e−2s − + y(z) = .d(z)
s2 s (10s + 1) 1 + C(z)G(z)
 77.9 Comments 645

Assume a unit step disturbance, for which d(z) = Once the transients have decayed away, the com-
z pensator should have rejected the disturbance and
.
(z 1)
− the steady state output reduced to zero. This can be
Substitute for C(z) and G(z): confirmed by applying the final value theorem:
z Lim
(z − 1) y(∞) = (z − 1) .y(z)
y(z) = z→1
1.168. (z − 0.8187) 0.1873. (z + 0.9354)
1+ . Lim z. (z − 0.2306)
(z + 0.9354) (z − 0.2306) (z − 1) (z − 0.8187) = (z − 1) . 2
z→1 (z − 1.231z − 0.4494)
z. (z − 0.2306)
= 2 = 0
(z − 1.231z + 0.4494)
1 − 0.2306z−1 The fact that there is no offset is to be expected
=
1 − 1.231z−1 + 0.4494z−2 since an integrator was explicitly built into the
= 1 + z−1 + 0.7812z−2 + 0.5119z−3 compensator design of Step 4 by virtue of the (z−1)
in the denominator of the open loop pulse transfer
+ 0.2788z−4 + 0.1131z−5 + . . .
function C(z)G(z).
the inverse transform of which is:

y(0) y(T) y(2T) y(3T) y(4T) y(5T) y(nT)

1.0 1.0 0.7812 0.5119 0.2788 0.1131
This step response is depicted in Figure 77.6. It is
evident that the feedback cannot have any effect
until n ≥ 2 because of the inherent delay of T
s in the zero order hold. Otherwise, the output y
rapidly converges on the set point. If the power se-
ries expansion for y in terms of z−1 were continued
further,it would be seen that the response is indeed
that of an underdamped second order system.
– 77.9 Comments
Compensator design by means of root locus and
pole cancellation can only be justified when the
sampling period T is greater than say 0.1 to 0.2
times the system’s dominant time constant. The
two obvious scenarios where this is likely to oc-
cur are with digital controllers when the plant’s
response is fast and with analysers when the sam-
pling period is long.

t
0 T 2T 3T 4T 5T
Fig. 77.6 Step response of system for Worked Example No 3