Linearisation
Chapter 84
84.1 The Need for Linearisation
84.2 Deviation Variables
84.3 The Process of Linearisation
84.4 Unsteady State Balances
84.5 Transfer Function Model
84.6 Worked Example
84.7 Nomenclature
Usually it is sufficient to have a qualitative feel for
the way a plant behaves.For example,decomposing
a system into its signals and elements, and being
able to articulate their relationships in the form of
a block diagram, even if the transfer functions are
not known,is often good enough.Sometimes,how-
ever, a deeper understanding is required, perhaps
because the plant is highly integrated or the process
has complex dynamics and is difficult to control.
In such circumstances it may be necessary to build
a quantitative model as a basis for design. Occa-
sionally, as in model predictive control, a model is
essential as it is an integral part of the strategy.
There are various categories of models: the em-
phasis in this and subsequent chapters is on first
principles, deterministic models. Other types of
model are covered later on: regression and statis-
tical models, time series models, knowledge based
models and so on. First principles models that ac-
curately represent the dynamic behaviour of plants
and processes are complex and time consuming to
develop. The key to successful modelling, there-
fore, is knowing how inaccurate a model you can
get away with. This is essentially a question of us-
ing the right type of model, and deciding what as-
sumptions can be made and what approximations
are valid.
There are many excellent texts in which pro-
cess modelling is covered including those by
Coughanowr (1991), Luyben (1990), Marlin (2000),
Ogunnaike and Ray (1994), Seborg (2004) and
Stephanopoulos (1984) to which the reader is re-
ferred for a more comprehensive treatment.
84.1 The Need for Linearisation
Most of the control techniques considered in Sec-
tion 9 of this Handbook are applicable to linear
systems only. Unfortunately, many items of plant
and control loop elements have nonlinear char-
acteristics. So, in order to be able to apply these
control techniques, the plant models have to be lin-
earised. This involves changing the structure of the
model into a linear form. The process of lineari-
sation is arguably the most important modelling
technique of all.
Using the characteristic of a control valve and a
simple level control system,this chapter introduces
a number of basic modelling techniques: the use
of deviation variables, the linearisation process,
lumped parameter dynamics,transfer function de-
velopment and integration of plant and control
system models. These techniques are further de-
veloped in subsequent chapters in which dynamic
models for a variety of plant items are established.
 702 84 Linearisation
84.2 Deviation Variables
The use of deviation variables provides the basis
for linearised models. Consider the control valve
depicted in Figure 84.1.
X ∂F
F ΔF
ΔPV
Fig. 84.1 Operating variables used to characterise a control valve
As described in Chapter 22, the absolute value of a
variable may be expressed in terms of its normal
value and some deviation, or perturbation, from
that norm:
F = F̄ + F
X = X̄ + X
PV = PV +  (PV )
where the bar denotes “normal” conditions. This is
a somewhat ambiguous phrase. For example, at the
design stage normal could be the specified condi-
tions. For an existing plant normal could mean the
average operating conditions.And in the context of
control systems, normal would relate to set points
or desired values. None of these are necessarily the
same thing.
84.3 The Process of
Linearisation
The process of linearisation essentially concerns
approximating some relationship with its tangent
at the point corresponding to normal conditions
and considering thereafter only deviations of the
variables about that point.
Referring again to the control valve, as ex-
plained in Chapter 20, its inherent characteristic
is the relationship between flow and stem position
assuming a constant pressure drop:
F = f(X)|PV =const
If PV = PV , then theinherent characteristic in-
herent characteristic may be as depicted in Fig-
ure 84.2.
F
ΔPV = ΔP V
slope =
∂X ΔP V , X
F
ΔX X
0 X
Fig. 84.2 Inherent characteristic of control valve
Clearly, for small changes in operating conditions
about the point F, X, the characteristic may be
approximated by the tangent to the curve at that
point:

∂F 
F = F + F ≈ F + .X (84.1)
∂X PV ,X
The extent to which this approximation is valid de-
pends on the curvature of the characteristic at the
operating point and on the size of the deviation X.
Some judgement is required. Typically, if the cur-
vature is strong, deviations of up to ±10% can be
accommodated. For weak curvatures, deviations of
±20% or more can be accommodated. Remember
that the feedback nature of a control system inher-
ently minimises the magnitude of the deviation of
its signals so, for design purposes, it is not unrea-
sonable to assume a-priori that the deviations will
be small if the system functions effectively.
It is common practice, for modelling purposes,
to shift the origin to the normal operating point, as
depicted in Figure 84.3. Thus the axes become F
vs X and the variables are the deviations.
The inherent characteristic thus becomes:

∂F 
F ≈ .X
∂X PV ,X
It is conventional, at this stage, to drop the  nota-
tion. This is clearly a potential source of confusion
(20.1) but, with experience, it is easy to distinguish be-
 84.4 Unsteady State Balances 703

F According to the principle of superposition,the net

ΔF change in flow may be approximated by the sum of
∂F the individual affects of changing the valve open-
slope =
∂X ΔP V , X ing assuming a constant pressure drop, and chang-
ing the pressure drop assuming constant valve
0 ΔX opening. Thus combining Equations 84.2 and 84.3
gives:
X  
∂F  ∂F 
F≈ .X + .PV (84.4)
Fig. 84.3 Inherent characteristic with variables in deviation form ∂X PV ,X ∂PV PV ,X

tween models whose variables are in absolute and where the variables are in deviation form. The sig-
deviation form. Thus: nificance of this becomes apparent when incorpo-
 rated in the model of a plant.
∂F 
F≈ .X (84.2)
∂X PV ,X

where it is understood that both F and X represent 84.4 Unsteady State Balances
deviation variables.
Consider again the simple level control system, as
Similarly, the relationship between flow and
depicted in Figure 84.5, which was analysed from
pressure drop, assuming a constant stem position,
a steady-state point of view in Chapter 22.
may be plotted as shown in Figure 84.4.
F1
F LC
∂F
slope =
∂ΔP ΔP V , X
X=X h
ΔF X F0
F
Δ (Δ P ) Fig. 84.5 Schematic of simple level control system
ΔP
Unsteady state balances, whether for mass, energy
0 ΔP
or whatever, are always of the general form:
Fig. 84.4 Flow vs pressure drop for fixed valve opening
Rate of Accumulation = Input − Output
This too may be linearised about the point cor-
responding to normal conditions, again assuming An unsteady state volume balance for the liquid
deviation variables: inside the vessel provides the basis for the plant
 model:
∂F 
F≈ .PV (84.3)
∂PV PV ,X d 1
m3 min−1
(Ah) = (F1 − F0 )
dt 
In practice, of course, as the valve opening changes
so too does the pressure drop across it resulting in Recognising that A is a constant, this may be rear-
the installed characteristic: ranged:
dh
F = f (X, PV ) (20.2) A = F1 − F0 (84.5)
dt
 704 84 Linearisation

The variables may now be put into deviation form: corresponding to normal conditions, and may be
  treated as constants, Equation 84.9 may be Laplace
d h + h transformed:
A = F1 + F1 − F0 + F0
dt A (sh(s) − h0 ) =
 
Since h is the normal level which may be assumed ∂F0  ∂F0 
F1(s) − .X(s) − .h(s)
to be constant: ∂X h,X ∂h h,X
dh Assuming zero initial conditions, i.e. the level
A = F1 + F1 − F0 + F0 (84.6)
dt started at its set point, such that h0 = 0 for t ≤ 0,
then:
However, under normal conditions, at steady state,  
there is no accumulation: ∂F0  ∂F0 
Ash(s) = F1(s) − .X(s) − .h(s)
∂X h,X ∂h h,X
0 = F1 − F0 (84.7)
which may be rearranged to give:
Subtracting Equation 84.7 from Equation 84.6 ⎛ ⎞
yields:
dh ⎜ A ⎟
A = F1 − F0 ⎜  s + 1⎟
⎜ ⎟ h(s) = (84.10)
dt ⎝ ∂F0  ⎠
It is this subtraction of the steady state that shifts 
∂h h,X
the origin to the normal operating conditions and 
∂F0 
establishes the model in deviation form. Dropping
the  notation yields: 1 ∂X h,X
 F1(s) −  .X(s)
∂F0  ∂F0 
A
dh
= F1 − F0 (84.8) ∂h h,X ∂h h,X
dt
which is of the general form:
Note that Equations 84.5 and 84.8, in which the
variables are in absolute and deviation form re- (TP s + 1) h(s) = KL .F1 (s) − KP X(s) (84.11)
spectively, appear identical. This happens to be the
case for the plant considered but is not usually so, where TP , KL and KP are defined by Equation 84.10.
as demonstrated in subsequent chapters. Clearly the dynamics of the tank are first order
Substituting for F0 from Equation 84.4, which with a time constant of TP , and may be represented
is already in deviation form, yields: by transfer functions, as depicted in Figure 84.6.
   
dh ∂F0  ∂F0  F1(s) KL
A ≈ F1 − .X + .h (84.9)
dt ∂X h,X ∂h h,X TP s + 1

where it is assumed that the pressure drop across +

the valve is the liquid head in the tank.
84.5 Transfer Function Model
Noting that the two partial differentials are simply
coefficients, i.e. the slope of two curves at the point
X(s) − KP + h(s)
TP s + 1
Fig. 84.6 Transfer function model of the process
Note the significance of the signs associated with
KL and KP . The positive sign of the load gain KL
indicates that following an increase in flow F1 the
 84.6 Worked Example 705

F1(s) KL
TP s + 1
+
r(s) e(s) 1 u(s) p(s) X(s) − KP + h(s)
− KC 1+ KI KA
+ TRs TP s + 1
-

KM

Fig. 84.7 Process model integrated into block diagram of control system

level goes up, whereas the negative sign of the pro- Substitute into Equation 84.10 gives:
cess gain KP indicates that following an increase in
1
valve opening X the level goes down.These transfer KL =  = 6.66 × 10−3 m min kg−1 .
∂F0 
functions may be incorporated in a block diagram
for the level control system as a whole, as depicted ∂h  h,X
in Figure 84.7. Now suppose that the flow through the valve, as-
Note that a reverse acting PI controller is as- suming a constant head loss of 1 m, is related to its
sumed, and that the dynamics of all the other con- stem position by the equation:
trol loop elements are ignored on the basis that
they are fast compared with the process and load. F0 = 60e3.22X
Note that substituting X = 0.5 into this equation
84.6 Worked Example also gives F0 = F1 = 300 kg min−1 .
The slope of the valve characteristic is:
The level in a tank is controlled as depicted in Fig-

ure 84.5. The tank is 1 m in diameter and 2 m ∂F0 
= 60 × 3.22e3.22X
tall and is normally half full. The valve has an ∂X h
equal percentage characteristic and is normally
half open. whence: 
∂F0 
Thus normal conditions are h = 1 m and = 967.
X = 0.5. ∂X h,X
Suppose that the flow through the half open Substitute into Equation 84.10 gives:
valve is related to the head in the tank by the equa- 
∂F0 
tion: √ ∂X h,X 967
F0 = 300 h Kp =  = = 6.66 m.
∂F0  150
Substitute for h into the tank characteristic gives ∂h h,X
F0 = F1 = 300 kg min−1 .
The slope of the tank characteristic is: .l2
The cross sectional area A = = 0.785 m2 and
 4
∂F0  300 the density  = 1000 kg m−3 .
= √
∂h X 2 h Whence the time constant, also from Equation
84.10:
whence: 
∂F0  TP = A..KL = 0.785 × 1000 × 6.66 × 10−3
= 150.
∂h h,X = 5.23 min
 706 84 Linearisation

84.7 Nomenclature
A cross sectional area m2
of the tank
h level of liquid m
F mass flow rate through kg min−1
the valve
K gain
 liquid density kg m−3
P pressure drop bar
X fractional opening –
of the valve
T time constant min
t time min

Subscripts
A actuator
C controller
I I/P converter
L load
P process
V valve or variable resistance
0 outlet stream
1 inlet stream