THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE

Materials in Architecture

02 SEM B.ARCH I 11 MAY 2015 I DSSA, BANGALORE

Glass is an Material - Glass
amorphous, hard,
brittle, transparent
or translucent
super cooled liquid
of infinite viscosity,
having no definite
melting point
obtained by fusing
a mixture of a
number of metallic
silicates or borates
of Sodium,
Potassium, Calcium
and Lead.

It possess no
definite formula
or crystalline
structure. “An
inorganic product
of fusion which has
cooled to a rigid
condition without
crystallizing”
Raw Materials Used In Manufacturing Glass Glass - Composition

Sodium as Na2Co3 (used in soft glass).

Potassium as K2Co3 (used in Hard Glass).
Calcium as lime stone, chalk and lime.
Lead as litharge, red lead (flint glass).
Silica arc quartz, white sand and ignited flint.
Zinc is zinc oxide (Heat and shock proof glass).
Borates are borax, Boric acid (Heat and shock proof glass).
Cullets or pieces of broken glass to increase fusibility.
Manufacturing Steps: Glass - Manufacture

Melting
Forming and Shaping
Annealing
Finishing

Melting process:
Raw materials in proper
proportions are mixed with
cullets. It is finely powdered
and intimate mixture called
batch is fused in furnace at
high temperature of 1800°C
this charge melts and fuses
into a viscous fluid.

After removal of CO2

decolorizers like MnO2 are
added to remove traces of
ferrous compounds and
Carbon. Heating is continued
till clear molten mass is free
from bubbles is obtained and it
is then cooled to about 800°C.
Forming, Shaping Glass - Manufacture
and Annealing

Forming and
Shaping: The
viscous mass
obtained from
melting is poured
into moulds to get
different types of
articles of desired
shape by either
blowing or pressing
between the rollers.

Annealing:
Glass articles are
then allowed to
cool gradually at
room temperature
by passing through
different chambers
with descending
temperatures. This
reduces the internal
Strain in the glass.
Finishing: Glass - Manufacture
Finishing is the last step in
glass manufacturing. It
involves following steps.

Cleaning
Grinding
Polishing
Cutting
Sand Blasting
Glass - Types
Properties / Characteristics of Glass: Glass - Properties
1. Solid and hard material
2. Disordered and amorphous structure
3. It has highly shining appearance and takes good polish.
4. It is not affected by temperature except in some exceptional cases.
5. It is fire retardant.
6. It provides heat insulation.
7. It also ensures transmission of light, transparent to visible light
8. It is available in various varieties.
9. It transmits light but also provide privacy by obstructing vision.
10. Glass blocks provide heat and sound proof properties.
11. Fragile and easily breakable into sharp pieces
12. Inert and biologically inactive material.
13. Glass is 100% recyclable and one of the safest packaging materials due to its
composition and properties
14. These properties can be modified and changed by adding other compounds or heat
treatment.
15. Fracture / failure of glass - Glass does not have crystal lattice structure hence it
breaks. Fracture is caused by small imperfections, flaws and irregularity on the surface
of the glass. Flaws are very fine cracks cause concentration of stress and the crack
proceeds quickly causing a fracture.
USES OF GLASS: Glass - Uses

(1) Glass is extensively used in

building construction since
long time for glazing doors
and windows.

(2) It is also used for decoration.

(3) It is also used for sound

insulation purposes.

(4) It is used for cut glass work,

electric bulbs (leadglass).

(5) It is used for manufacturing of

laboratory equipments and
cooking utensils (Boro-silicate
glass).

(6) It is used for partition walls.

(7) It is used for cabinets, show

cases, shop fronts.

(8) It is also used as fire retarder.

Glass - Uses
Two-sided Structural Glazing System Glass - Uses
Two opposite glass edges are bonded to
the load bearing framework. The two
other edges are fixed mechanically by
securing profiles. The bonding can occur
vertically as well as horizontally. The
dynamic loads will be absorbed from
the Structural Glazing Silicone whereas
the dead load will be transferred to the
securing profiles.

Four-sided Structural Glazing System

All four sides of the glass elements are

bonded to a frame which will be
subsequently attached to the
substructure onsite. Depending on the
construction the dead load will be
transferred either mechanically or
through the Structural Glazing Silicone.
With a four-sided Structural Glazing
system, no mounting will be visible
from the outside. The result is an
aesthetically pleasing all-glass facade.
Glazing System Glass - Uses
In butt-joint glazing, the head and sill of the
glass sheets are supported conventionally in
metal frames, but the vertical joints
between sheets of glass being made by the
injection of a clear silicone sealant.

In structural silicone flush glazing, the metal

mullions are entirely inside the glass, with
the glass adhered to the mullions by silicone
sealant.

The outside skin of the building is therefore

completely flush, unbroken by protruding
mullions.

Horizontal strip windows that need to appear

mullionless only from the exterior can be
created by adhering the glass to interior
mullions with structural silicone sealant. The
sill and head are conventionally glazed,
using snap-on aluminum covers to hold the
interior glazing gaskets. Either single
glazing, as shown or double glazing can be
used with this type of system.
Sodalime or Soft Glass Glass - Types

About 90% of all glass is

soda-lime glass made
with silica (sand),
Calcium carbonate and
soda ash.

They are low cost,

resistant to water but
not to acids.

They can melt easily

and hence can be hot
worked.

Uses:
Window glass, Electric
bulbs, Plate glass,
Bottles, Jars, cheaper
table wares, test tubes,
reagent bottles etc
Potash Lime / Hard Glass - Types
Glass

Potash lime glass is

made with silica
(sand), Calcium
carbonate and
potassium carbonate.
They posses high
melting point, fuse
with difficulty and are
less acted upon by
acids, alkaline and
other solvents than
ordinary glass.

Uses:
These glasses are
costlier than soda lime
glass and are used for
chemical apparatus,
combustion tubes and
glassware which are
used for heating
operations.
Lead Glass / Flint Glass Glass - Types

It is made up of lead oxide

fluxed with silica and K2CO3
is used instead of sodium
oxide.

To get dense optical glasses

about 80% lead oxide is used.
Lead glasses has a lower
softening temperature than
soda glass and higher
refractive index and good
electrical properties. It is
bright lustrous and possess
high specific gravity.

Uses:
High quality table wares,
optical lenses, neon sign
tubing, cathode ray tubes,
electrical insulators, crystal
art objects or cut glass,
Windows and Shields for
protection against X-rays and
Gamma rays in medical and
atomic energy fields etc.
Borosilicate / Pyrex / Glass - Types
Jena Glass

It is common hard
glass containing silica
and boron with small
amount of alumina
and less alkaline
solids.

These glass have low

thermal coefficient of
expansion, and high
chemical resistance
i.e..shock proof.

Uses:
Industrially used for
pipeline of corrosive
liquids, gauge glasses,
superior laboratory
apparatus, kitchen
wares, chemical
plants, television
tubes, electrical
insulators etc.
Alumino-Silicate Glass Glass - Types

This type of glass possess exceptionally

high softening temperature.

Uses:
It is used for high pressure mercury
discharge tubes, chemical combustion
tubes and certain domestic equipments.

96% Silica Glass

It is translucent, the coefficient of

thermal expansion is very low hence it
has high resistance to thermal shock,
have high chemical resistance to
corrosive agents and are corroded only
by Hydrofluoric acid, hot phosphoric
acids and concentrated alkaline
solutions.

Uses:
Used only where high temperature
resistance is required (800°C). They are
used in construction of chemical plants,
laboratory crucibles, induction furnace
lining and electrical insulators.
99.5% Silica Glass / Glass - Types
Vitreosil

It contains pure silica

heated to its melting point.
It is translucent, the
coefficient of thermal
expansion is very low hence
it has high resistance to
thermal shock, have high
chemical resistance to
corrosive agents.

If Vitreosil glass is heated

above its melting point, it
becomes transparent and is
known as clear silica glass.

Uses:
They are used in
construction of chemical
plants, laboratory
crucibles, induction
furnace lining, electrical
insulators and heaters and
have high light transmission
properties.
 Glass - Types
Safety Glass

It is made by fusing two to three flat sheets

of glass and in between them alternate thin
layer of vinyl plastic is introduced. It is
heated where both the layers merge
together and glass is toughened.

Uses:
It is used as wind shield in automobiles and
airplanes. On breaking it pieces does not fly
apart because of the presence of the plastic
layer in between the glass layers.

Optical / Crook’s Glass

It contains Phosphorus, PbCO3, silicates and

Cerium oxide which has the property to
absorb harmful ultra-violet light. This glass
is given through homogeneity by heating it
for a prolonged period of time. These
glasses have low melting point and are
relatively soft.

Uses:
They are used for making optical lenses.
Poly-Crystalline Glass Glass - Types

It is new type of glass which is produced by

adding nucleating agents to a conventional
glass batch and then shaped into desired
form. It is then subjected to heating where
nucleating agents forms large number of
micro crystallites. It is not ductile. It exhibits
high strength and considerable hardness.

Uses:
For making specialized articles.

Toughened Glass

It is made by dipping articles still hot in an oil

bath, so that chilling takes place. This results
in outer layer of articles shrink and acquire a
state of compression while inner layer are in
state of tension. Such glass is more elastic to
mechanical and thermal shock. It breaks into
a fine powder.

Uses:
For making window shields of fast moving
vehicles, windows of furnace and automatic
opening doors.
Glass - Types
Wired Glass Glass - Types

Wired glass does not fall

apart into splinters when it
breaks and is fire resistant. It
is made by fusing wire in
between the two glass
layers.

Uses:
For making fire resistant
doors, roofs, skylights and
windows

Fibre Glass

It is transformed into a fine

thread of filament and has
got a high tensile strength.

Uses:
Found extensive use for the
manufacture of fabric,
reinforcing plastics and
production of thermal
insulation materials etc
Photosensitive Glass Glass - Types

These are glasses by which a

colored picture may be
developed by exposing the glass
to black and white negative in
ultra violet light. The
appropriate proportions of
potash-alumina glass, mixed with
LiSO3, cerium and Silver salts
have also been used as
photosensitive glass.

Uses:
Photographic development

Glass Wool

Glass wool consists of tiny fibers

formed by action of steam jets
on dripping molten glass down
from very fine hole.

Uses:
Heat Insulation, for filtration of
Corrosive chemicals, sound
insulation etc
Photo-chromic Glass Glass - Types

The three dimensional

silicate network contains
large no. of microscopic
particles of silver halide
which on exposure to light
produce color.

Uses:
In making tinted car
glasses and goggles.

Neutral Glass

These glasses are highly

resistant to chemical
attacks and they are
specialized soda lime glass
where alkali has been
replaced by alumina,
boron oxide and zinc
oxide.

Uses:
Making Syringes, Injection
Ampoules and vials etc.
Laminated Glass Glass - Types

The sheets of glass fiber or glass

wool are soaked in a solution of
thermosetting plastic like
phenol formaldehyde resin and
placed one above the other and
then cured under heat or
pressure. It is strong as steel.
Non flammable and insulating.
In bullet resistant glass vinyl
resins are added in alternate
layers.

Uses:
Shatter, shock and Bullet proof
Glass

Insulating Glass
Two or more plates of glass are
filled with dehydrated air and
the edges are sealed air-tightly.

Uses:
Provides thermal insulating and
so houses remain cool in summer
and warm in winter.
Concrete is a composite material in Material - Concrete
which a binding material mixed in
water, on solidification binds the inert
particles of well graded fine and
coarse aggregates.

Cement and lime are generally used as

binding materials, whereas sand is
used as fine aggregates and crushed
stones, gravel, broken bricks, are used
as coarse aggregates. The cement and
water form a paste that hardens and
bonds the aggregates together.

Concrete is one of the most commonly

used building materials.

Concrete is a versatile material that

can easily be mixed to meet a variety
of special needs and formed to
virtually any shape and texture.

The most widely used construction

material in the world. The ready-mix
concrete producer has made concrete
an appropriate construction material
for many application
Ingredients Of Concrete - Composition & Properties
Concrete

The concrete
consisting of cement,
sand and coarse
aggregates mixed in a
suitable proportions in
addition to water is
called cement
concrete.

In this type of concrete

cement is used as a
binding material, sand
as fine aggregates and
gravel, crushed stones
as coarse aggregates.

Properties Of Fresh
Concrete

Workability
Consistency
Bleeding
Setting time
Uniformity
Advantages and Disadvantages Concrete - Pros and Cons

As a construction material Concrete

has the following advantages:
1. Economical
2. Durable
3. Fire resistant
4. Energy efficient
5. On-site fabrication
6. Concrete can handle the
compression stresses 10 times
more than the tension.
7. Concrete is a brittle material
which gives the advantage to
make a rigid structure.
8. Easy to handle- plants that give
you ready mix concrete.

The disadvantages:
1. Concrete is weak in handling
tension.
2. Because concrete is a brittle
material the strength upon shear
must be checked.
3. Needs another material to reinforce
it against excessive shear and
tension
Qualities of Good Concrete
Concrete - Properties

STRENGTH: The concrete should be able to

withstand the stresses that it is subjected to. It is
quite strong in compression but weak in tension.

DURABILITY: It should be durable enough to resist

the effect of weathering agents.

DENSITY: the concrete should be well compacted

so that there are no voids or hollows left. It
should weigh 3000 kg/cu.m

WATER TIGHTNESS: when used for construction of

water retaining structures such as dams, elevated
tanks and water reservoirs then this property of
concrete becomes very important. Otherwise the
moisture inside the RCC would corrode steel and
leakage would start resulting in the ultimate
failure of the structure.

WORKABILITY: It should be easily workable.

RESISTANCE TO WEAR AND TEAR: when used in

floors and in the construction of roads the
concrete should be able to withstand abrasive
forces.
Strength and Durability Concrete - Properties

Used in the majority of buildings,

bridges, tunnels and dams for its
strength

Not weakened by moisture or mould

Concrete structures can withstand

natural disasters such as earthquakes
and hurricanes

Versatility (Usefulness)

Concrete is used in buildings, bridges,

dams, tunnels, sewerage systems
pavements, runways and even roads

Low Maintenance

Concrete, being , compact and non-

porous, does not attract mould or lose
its key properties over time

Fire-resistance Being naturally fire-

resistant concrete forms a highly
effective barrier to fire spread
Affordability Concrete - Properties
Compared to other comparable building
materials, concrete is less costly to
produce and remains extremely
affordable

Thermal mass

Concrete walls and floors slow the

passage of heat moving through,
reducing temperature swings .This
reduces energy needs from heating or
air-conditioning.

Locally produced and used

Very little cement and concrete is

traded and transported internationally.
This saves significantly on transport.

Compactness(Density)

Concrete must be sufficiently dense

Compacted
Minimum shrinkage
Economical for desired strength
Sophisticated appearance
Concrete - Properties
Workability Of Concrete - Properties
Concrete

It is the amount of
work required to
place concrete
and to compact it
thoroughly.

Workability of
concrete increases
with the addition
of water but it
reduces the
strength that’s
why it is not a
desirable way of
increasing the
workability.

Use of aggregates
which are round
and have smooth
surfaces increases
the workability.
Compaction Of Concrete Concrete - Properties

Compaction of concrete is very

important in developing qualities like
strength, durability, imperviousness by
making the concrete dense and free
from voids.

In case of RCC compaction is done by

pinning with an iron rod or even with
trowel blade.

Excess tamping should be avoided as

otherwise water, cement and finer
particles would come to the surface
and results in non uniform concreting.

In case of important and big works,

compaction of concrete is done with
vibrator. Use of vibrator is best and the
most efficient way of compacting
concrete. It gives very dense concrete.

Care should be taken not to make

excessive use of vibrators otherwise
the concrete becomes non
homogeneous
Curing Of Concrete Concrete - Properties
The process of keeping concrete
wet to enable it to attain full
strength is known as curing.

The objective of curing is to

prevent loss of moisture from
concrete due to evaporation or
because of any other reasons.

Curing should be done for a period

of three weeks but not less then 10
days.

To do curing, any one of the

following method can be used: The
surface of concrete is coated with a
layer of bitumen or similar other
waterproofing compound which gets
into the pores of concrete and
prevent loss of water from
concrete.

Concrete surface is covered with

waterproof paper or with a layer of
wet sand. It could also be covered
with gunny bags.
 Concrete - Types
Green Concrete & Set Concrete

Freshly prepared concrete till it has

not yet set is called wet or green
concrete. After it has thoroughly set
and fully hardened it is called set
concrete or just concrete.

Types Of Concrete
Concrete are classified into different
types:
1. According to binding material
used in concrete.
2. According to design of concrete.
3. According to purpose of
concrete.
 Concrete - Types

According To Binding
Material: According to
binding material used
concrete are classified
into two types.

(1) Cement concrete

(2) Lime concrete.

In cement concrete useful

proportions of its
ingredients are 1 part
cement:1-8 part sand:2-16
parts coarse aggregates.

USES: Cement concrete is

commonly used in
buildings and other
important engineering
works where strength and
durability is of prime
importance.
Lime Concrete Concrete - Types

The concrete consisting of lime, fine

aggregates, and coarse aggregates mixed
in a suitable proportions with water is
called lime concrete.

In this type of concrete hydraulic lime is

generally used as a binding material,
sand and cinder are used as fine
aggregates and broken bricks, gravel can
be used as coarse aggregates.

Placing of concrete shall be completed

within three hours of adding water in
case of concrete is prepared with
hydraulic lime.

Concrete should be well cured for a

period of atleast 10 days.

USES: Lime concrete is generally used

for the sake of economy in foundation
works, under floors, over roof and where
cement is not cheaply and easily
available in required quantity.
According To Design Of Concrete - Types
Concrete

(1) Plain cement concrete.

(2) Reinforced cement
concrete(RCC).
(3) Pre-stressed cement
concrete.

Plain Cement Concrete

The cement concrete in

which no reinforcement
is provided is called
plain cement concrete
or mass cement
concrete. This type of
concrete is strong in
taking compressive
stresses but weak in
taking tensile stresses.

Uses: plain cement concrete

is commonly used in for
foundation work and
flooring of buildings.
Reinforced Cement Concrete - Types
Concrete(RCC)

The cement concrete in which

reinforcement is embedded for
taking tensile stress is called
reinforced cement concrete.

In this type of concrete the steel

reinforcement is to be used
generally in the form of round
bars,6mm to 32mm dia.

This concrete is equally strong in

taking tensile, compressive and
shear stresses.

Usual proportions of ingredients

in a reinforced concrete are 1
part of cement:1-2parts of sand:
24parts of crushed stones or
gravel.

USES: RCC is commonly used for

construction of slabs, beams,
columns, foundation, precast
concrete.
Pre-stressed Cement Concrete - Types
Concrete

The cement concrete in

which high compressive
stresses are artificially
induced before their
actual use is called pre-
stresses cement concrete.
in this type of cement
concrete, the high
compressive stresses are
induced by pre-tensioning
the reinforcement before
placing the concrete, and
the reinforcement is
released when final setting
of the concrete take place.

Uses : This concrete can

take up high tensile and
compressive stresses
without development of
cracks. The quantity of
reinforcement can be
considerably reduced by
using this concrete.
According To Purpose Concrete - Types
concrete is classified
into following types.

a. Vacuum Concrete:

The cement concrete

from which entrained
air and excess water is
removed after placing
it, by suction with the
help of vacuum pump
is called vacuum
concrete.

In this concrete the

excess water which is
added to increase
workability but not
required for the
hydration of cement
of concrete is
removed by forming
vacuum chamber
b. Air Entrained Concrete - Types
Concrete

The concrete
prepared by mixing
aluminum in it is
called air
entrained, cellular
or aerated
concrete.

In this concrete
bubbles of hydrogen
gas are liberated
which forms cell
and make the
concrete cellular.

USES: This concrete

is used for lining
walls and roofs for
heat and sound
insulation purpose.
c. Light Weight Concrete - Types
Concrete

The concrete
prepared by using
coke breeze, cinder
or slag as coarse
aggregate is called
light weight
concrete.

The concrete is
light in weight and
posses heat
insulating
properties.

USES This concrete

is used in making
precast structural
units for partition
and wall lining.
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