Subject: AI

Unit-1
1. What do you understand by the term “Intelligence”? Explain the goal of AI in modern
technology?
2. Write Heuristic search algorithm. Explain it with suitable example.
3. Explain A* algorithm in detail?
4. Explain the Best first search algorithm in detail?
5. List and explain the goals of Artificial Intelligence?
6. Write details of the AI production system,types & its characteristics?
7. Describe State Space search & solve water jug problem with mentioned terminologies?
8. Detailed description of heuristic search & its different techniques?
9. What is hill climbing method in AI?
10. What is the advantage of adaptive learning in AO*?
Unit-2
1. Explain resolution in Predicate logic?
2. Explain about resolution, refutation and deduction?
3. Write about semantic network used in artificial intelligence?
4. What are Probabilistic Reasoning Uncertainty & its causes?
5. What is Ontology in AI?
6. Explain how does predicate logic help in knowledge representation in AI?
7. Compare propositional and predicate logic?
8. Describe Propositional logic in detail?
9. What is monotonic and non-monotonic reasoning?
10. What is inference in AI with example?

1. What is Artificial Intelligence? Give an example of where AI is used on

a daily basis.
Artificial Intelligence (AI) is an area of computer science that emphasizes the creation of
intelligent machines that work and react like humans.” “The capability of a machine to imitate
intelligent human behavior.

Google’s Search Engine : One of the most popular AI Applications is the google search engine.
If you open up your chrome browser and start typing something, Google immediately provides
recommendations for you to choose from. The logic behind the search engine is Artificial
Intelligence.

AI uses predictive analytics, NLP and Machine Learning to recommend relevant searches to you.
These recommendations are based on data that Google collects about you, such as your search
history, location, age, etc. Thus, Google makes use of AI, to predict what you might be looking
for.

2. What are the different types of AI?

● Reactive Machines AI: Based on present actions, it cannot use previous experiences to form
current decisions and simultaneously update their memory.
Example: Deep Blue
● Limited Memory AI: Used in self-driving cars. They detect the movement of vehicles
around them constantly and add it to their memory.
● Theory of Mind AI: Advanced AI that has the ability to understand emotions, people and
other things in the real world.
● Self Aware AI: AIs that posses human-like consciousness and reactions. Such machines
have the ability to form self-driven actions.
● Artificial Narrow Intelligence (ANI): General purpose AI, used in building virtual
assistants like Siri.
● Artificial General Intelligence (AGI): Also known as strong AI. An example is the Pillo
robot that answers questions related to health.
● Artificial Superhuman Intelligence (ASI): AI that possesses the ability to do everything
that a human can do and more. An example is the Alpha 2 which is the first humanoid ASI
robot.

3. Explain the different domains of Artificial Intelligence.

● Machine Learning: It’s the science of getting computers to act by feeding them data so
that they can learn a few tricks on their own, without being explicitly programmed to do
so.
 ● Neural Networks: They are a set of algorithms and techniques, modeled in accordance
with the human brain. Neural Networks are designed to solve complex and advanced
machine learning problems.
● Robotics: Robotics is a subset of AI, which includes different branches and application
of robots. These Robots are artificial agents acting in a real-world environment. An AI
Robot works by manipulating the objects in it’s surrounding, by perceiving, moving and
taking relevant actions.
● Expert Systems: An expert system is a computer system that mimics the decision-
making ability of a human. It is a computer program that uses artificial intelligence (AI)
technologies to simulate the judgment and behavior of a human or an organization that
has expert knowledge and experience in a particular field.
● Fuzzy Logic Systems: Fuzzy logic is an approach to computing based on “degrees of
truth” rather than the usual “true or false” (1 or 0) boolean logic on which the modern
computer is based. Fuzzy logic Systems can take imprecise, distorted, noisy input
information.
● Natural Language Processing: Natural Language Processing (NLP) refers to the
Artificial Intelligence method that analyses natural human language

4. How is Machine Learning related to Artificial Intelligence?

Ans: Artificial Intelligence is a technique that enables machines to mimic human behavior.
Whereas, Machine Learning is a subset of Artificial Intelligence. It is the science of getting
computers to act by feeding them data and letting them learn a few tricks on their own, without
being explicitly programmed to do so.

5. What are Bayesian Networks?

Ans: A Bayesian network is a statistical model that represents a set of variables and their
conditional dependencies in the form of a directed acyclic graph.

On the occurrence of an event, Bayesian Networks can be used to predict the likelihood that any
one of several possible known causes was the contributing factor.
For example, a Bayesian network could be used to study the relationship between diseases and
symptoms. Given various symptoms, the Bayesian network is ideal for computing the
probabilities of the presence of various diseases.

6. What are the types of AI?

Types of Artificial Intelligence:

Artificial Intelligence can be divided in various types, there are mainly two types of main categorization
which are based on capabilities and based on functionally of AI. Following is flow diagram which explain
the types of AI.

AI type-1: Based on Capabilities

1. Weak AI or Narrow AI:

Narrow AI is a type of AI which is able to perform a dedicated task with intelligence.The most common
and currently available AI is Narrow AI in the world of Artificial Intelligence.

Narrow AI cannot perform beyond its field or limitations, as it is only trained for one specific task. Hence
it is also termed as weak AI. Narrow AI can fail in unpredictable ways if it goes beyond its limits.

Apple Siriis a good example of Narrow AI, but it operates with a limited pre-defined range of functions.

IBM's Watson supercomputer also comes under Narrow AI, as it uses an Expert system approach
combined with Machine learning and natural language processing.

Some Examples of Narrow AI are playing chess, purchasing suggestions on e-commerce site, self-driving
cars, speech recognition, and image recognition.

2. General AI:

General AI is a type of intelligence which could perform any intellectual task with efficiency like
a human.

The idea behind the general AI to make such a system which could be smarter and think like a
human by its own.

Currently, there is no such system exist which could come under general AI and can perform any
task as perfect as a human.

The worldwide researchers are now focused on developing machines with General AI.
As systems with general AI are still under research, and it will take lots of efforts and time to
develop such systems.

3. Super AI:

Super AI is a level of Intelligence of Systems at which machines could surpass human

intelligence, and can perform any task better than human with cognitive properties. It is an
outcome of general AI.

Some key characteristics of strong AI include the ability to think, reason,solve puzzles, make
judgments, plan, learn, and communicate on their own.

Super AI is still a hypothetical concept of Artificial Intelligence. Development of such systems

in real life is still a world changing task.

Artificial Intelligence type-2: Based on functionality

1. Reactive Machines

Purely reactive machines are the most basic types of Artificial Intelligence. Such AI systems do
not store memories or past experiences for future actions. These machines only focus on current
scenarios and react to them as per possible best action. IBM's Deep Blue system is an example of
reactive machines. Google's AlphaGo is also an example of reactive machines.

2. Limited Memory

Limited memory machines can store past experiences or some data for a short period of time.
These machines can use stored data for a limited time period only. Self-driving cars are one of
the best examples of Limited Memory systems. These cars can store the recent speed of nearby
cars, the distance of other cars, speed limit, and other information to navigate the road.

3. Theory of Mind

Theory of Mind AI should understand human emotions, people, beliefs, and be able to interact
socially like humans. These types of AI machines are still not developed, but researchers are
making lots of efforts and improvements for developing such AI machines.

4. Self-Awareness

Self-aware AI is the future of Artificial Intelligence. These machines will be super intelligent,
and will have their own consciousness, sentiments, and self-awareness. These machines will be
smarter than the human mind. Self-Awareness AI does not exist in reality still and it is a
hypothetical concept.
Strong AI: Strong AI is about creating real intelligence artificially, which means a human-made
intelligence that has sentiments, self-awareness, and emotions similar to humans. It is still an
assumption that has a concept of building AI agents with thinking, reasoning, and decision-
making capabilities similar to humans.

Weak AI: Weak AI is the current development stage of artificial intelligence that deals with the
creation of intelligent agents and machines that can help humans and solve real-world complex
problems. Siri and Alexa are examples of Weak AI programs.

7. Describe some real-world applications of AI.

There are various real-world applications of AI, and some of them are given below:

Google Search Engine: When we start writing something on the google search engine, we immediately
get the relevant recommendations from google, and this is because of different AI technologies.

Ridesharing Applications: Different ride-sharing applications such as Uber uses AI and machine learning
to determine the type of ride, minimize the time once the car is hailed by the user, price of the ride, etc.

Spam Filters in Email: The AI is also used for email spam filtering so that you can get the important and
relevant emails only in your inbox. As per the studies, Gmail successfully filters 99.9% of spam mails.

Social Networking: Different social networking sites such as Facebook, Instagram, Pinterest, etc., use the
AI technology for different purposes such as face recognition and friend suggestions, when you upload a
photograph on Facebook, understanding the contextual meaning of an emoji in Instagram, and so on.

Product recommendations: When we search for a product on Amazon, we get the recommendation for
similar products, and this is because of different ML algorithms. Similarly, on Netflix, we get
personalized recommendations for movies and web series.

8. What are the different areas where AI has a great impact?

Following are some areas where AI has a great impact:

● Autonomous Transportation
● Education-system powered by AI.
● Healthcare
● Predictive Policing
● Space Exploration
● Entertainment, etc.

9. What are the different software platforms for AI development?

 a. Google Cloud AI platform
b. Microsoft Azure AI platform
c. IBM Watson
d. TensorFlow
e. Infosys Nia
f. Rainbird
g. Dialogflow

10. Describe various searching algorithms in AI (Very Important question)

1. Breadth First Search

2. Depth First Search
3. Depth Limited Search
4. Uniform Search
5. Heuristic Search: How heuristics are calculated like with Euclidean distance
6. Best First Search
7. A*
8. AO*

11. What is a heuristic function, and where is it used?

The heuristic function is used in Informed Search, and it finds the most promising path. It takes
the current state of the agent as its input and produces the estimation of how close the agent is
from the goal. The heuristic method, however, might not always give the best solution, but it
guaranteed to find a good solution in a reasonable time. Heuristic function estimates how close a
state is to the goal. It is represented by h(n), and it calculates the cost of an optimal path between
the pair of states. The value of the heuristic function is always positive. Hence heuristic cost
should be less than or equal to the estimated cost.

12. Why are searching algorithms used in AI? Applications of search

algorithms in AI. (IMP)

Path finding application etc.

13. Detail the steps for A* algorithm (IMP)

A* algorithm is the popular form of the Best first search. It tries to find the shortest path using
the heuristic function with the cost function to reach the end node. The steps for A* algorithms
are given below:

Step 1: Put the first node in the OPEN list.

Step 2: Check if the OPEN list is empty or not; if the list is empty, then return failure and stops.

Step 3: Select the node from the OPEN list which has the smallest value of evaluation function
(g+h), if node n is goal node then return success and stop, otherwise

Step 4: Expand node n and generate all of its successors, and put n into the closed list. For each
successor n', check whether n' is already in the OPEN or CLOSED list; if not, then compute
evaluation function for n' and place into Open list.

Step 5: Else if node n' is already in OPEN and CLOSED list, then it should be attached to the
back pointer, which reflects the lowest g(n') value.

Step 6: Return to Step 2.

14. What is knowledge representation in AI?

Knowledge representation is the part of AI, which is concerned with the thinking of AI agents. It
is used to represent the knowledge about the real world to the AI agents so that they can
understand and utilize this information for solving the complex problems in AI.

Following elements of Knowledge that are represented to the agent in the AI system:

● Objects
● Events
● Performance
● Meta-Knowledge
● Facts
● Knowledge-base

15. What are the various techniques of knowledge representation in AI?

(IMP)

Knowledge representation techniques are given below:

● Logical Representation
● Semantic Network Representation
● Frame Representation
● Production Rules

16. What is the inference engine, and why is it used in AI?

In artificial intelligence, the inference engine is the part of an intelligent system that derives new
information from the knowledge base by applying some logical rules.

It mainly works in two modes:

Backward Chaining: It begins with the goal and proceeds backward to deduce the facts that
support the goal.

Forward Chaining: It starts with known facts, and asserts new facts.

17. What is market basket analysis and how can Artificial Intelligence be used
to perform this?

Market basket analysis explains the combinations of products that frequently co-occur in
transactions.

For example, if a person buys bread, there is a 40% chance that he might also buy butter. By
understanding such correlations between items, companies can grow their businesses by giving
relevant offers and discount codes on such items.

Market Basket Analysis is a well-known practice that is followed by almost every huge retailer
in the market. The logic behind this is Machine Learning algorithms such as Association Rule
Mining and Apriori algorithm:

● Association rule mining is a technique that shows how items are associated with each
other.
● Apriori algorithm uses frequent itemsets to generate association rules. It is based on the
concept that a subset of a frequent itemset must also be a frequent
itemset.

For example, the above rule suggests that, if a person buys item A then he will also buy item B.
In this manner the retailer can give a discount offer which states that on purchasing Item A and
B, there will be a 30% off on item C. Such rules are generated using Machine Learning. These
are then applied on items in order to increase sales and grow a business.

18. Which algorithm does Facebook use for face verification and how does it
work?

Facebook uses DeepFace for face verification. It works on the face verification algorithm,
structured by Artificial Intelligence (AI) techniques using neural network models.
Input: Scan a wild form of photos with large complex data. This involves blurry images, images
with high intensity and contrast.

Process: In modern face recognition, the process completes in 4 raw steps:

● Detect facial features

● Align and compare the features
● Represent the key patterns by using 3D graphs
● Classify the images based on similarity

Output: Final result is a face representation, which is derived from a 9-layer deep neural net

Training Data: More than 4 million facial images of more than 4000 people

Result: Facebook can detect whether the two images represent the same person or not

19. How can AI be used in detecting fraud?

Ans: Artificial Intelligence is used in Fraud detection problems by implementing Machine

Learning algorithms for detecting anomalies and studying hidden patterns in data.

The following approach is followed for detecting fraudulent activities:

Data Extraction: At this stage data is either collected through a survey or web scraping is
performed. If you’re trying to detect credit card fraud, then information about the customer is
collected. This includes transactional, shopping, personal details, etc.

Data Cleaning: At this stage, the redundant data must be removed. Any inconsistencies or
missing values may lead to wrongful predictions, therefore such inconsistencies must be dealt
with at this step.

Data Exploration & Analysis: This is the most important step in AI. Here you study the
relationship between various predictor variables. For example, if a person has spent an unusual
sum of money on a particular day, the chances of a fraudulent occurrence are very high. Such
patterns must be detected and understood at this stage.

Building a Machine Learning model: There are many machine learning algorithms that can be
used for detecting fraud. One such example is Logistic Regression, which is a classification
algorithm. It can be used to classify events into 2 classes, namely, fraudulent and non-fraudulent.

Model Evaluation: Here, you basically test the efficiency of the machine learning model. If
there is any room for improvement, then parameter tuning is performed. This improves the
accuracy of the model.

20. What is NLP? Explain the components of NLP?

Human language is spread with intricacies that make it complicated to decipher. Obtaining
intended meaning from speech or text is even more difficult, especially when software is used.
Natural Language Processing (NLP), a part of Information Retrieval, breaks down speech and
text to help software understand what is happening.

The components of NLP are as follows:

● Speech Recognition
Recognizing speech and being able to convert it reliably to text. There are various
components of speech itself, along with multiple accents globally, which makes this a
challenge.
● PoS Tagging
Differentiation of the parts of a sentence to help tag the parts of speech such as noun,
verb, adjective, etc.
● Word sense disambiguation
Semantic analysis to determine the correct meaning of the word being used
● Naming Entity Recognition
Identify proper nouns as entities as a part of the sentence, such as name, location, etc.
● Coreference resolution
Identify if pronouns refer to the same object. For instance, the question "How old is
Obama?" And the follow-up question of how tall is he? should provide the correct
answer if the coreference resolution is configured correctly
● Sentiment Analysis
Understanding the tone of the speech or text based on subjective qualities or words used.
This is used in social media to better gauge sentiments towards an event or a product.
● Natural Language Generation
This gives power to the algorithm to make sentences that would make sense to humans.
This is currently a hot area of research along with NLU (Natural Language
Understanding)

21. What is NLP? What are the various components of NLP?

NLP stands for Natural Language Processing, which is a branch of artificial intelligence. It
enables machines to understand, interpret, and manipulate the human language.

Components of NLP:

There are mainly two components of Natural Language processing, which are given below:

a. Natural Language Understanding (NLU):

It involves the below tasks:
a. To map the input to useful representations.
b. To analyze the different aspects of the language.
b. Natural Language Generation (NLG)
a. Text Planning
b. Sentence Planning
c. Text Realization

22. Explain some NLP use-cases.

● Understanding customer sentiment: Analysing multiple touchpoints to understand
customers’ pain points can lead to quicker, more accurate resolution. This reduction in
friction can lead to higher sales.
● Multi-lingual Support: As businesses go global, reducing the barrier of language with the
help of multi-lingual support can play a big role in scaling companies and products.
● Entity Extraction: Understanding the relevant parts of the sentence along with intent
classification can aid in analyzing specific demographics
● Automation of receipt and invoice processing: Automation of invoice processing with the
help of textual analysis and fraud detection can help reduce operational costs
tremendously
● Content classification: Classification of inappropriate content can save companies cost
and time. Classification of relevant content in a domain-specific manner can help build
contextual relationship graphs.

23. What are the different components of the Expert System?

An expert system mainly contains three components:

a. User Interface: It enables a user to interact or communicate with the expert system to
find the solution for a problem.
b. Inference Engine: It is called the main processing unit or brain of the expert system. It
applies different inference rules to the knowledge base to draw a conclusion from it. The
system extracts the information from the KB with the help of an inference engine.
c. Knowledge Base: The knowledge base is a type of storage area that stores domain-
specific and high-quality knowledge.
24. Explain the minimax algorithm along with the different terms.
Minimax algorithm is a backtracking algorithm used for decision making in game theory. This
algorithm provides the optimal moves for a player by assuming that another player is also
playing optimally.

This algorithm is based on two players, one is called MAX, and the other is called the MIN.

Following terminologies that are used in the Minimax Algorithm:

● Game tree: A tree structure with all possible moves.

● Initial State: The initial state of the board.
● Terminal State: Position of the board where the game finishes.
● Utility Function: The function that assigns a numeric value for the outcome of the game.

25. What are some misconceptions about AI?

There have been lots of misconceptions about artificial intelligence since starting its evolution.
Some of these misconceptions are given below:

● AI does not require humans

● AI is dangerous for humans
● AI has reached its peak stage
● AI will take your job
● AI is new technology

26. What are the difficulties when it comes to scaling implementations of AI?
If leveraging and scaling AI was so easy, every company would have done it. It is difficult to
Scale AI. Here are the top 5 difficulties that companies face when they attempt to Scale AI:

1. Technical Performance: When AI models are moved from development/testing to production,

many new issues become unstable. When AI is scaled, technical problems are imminent.

2. Data Volumes and Veracity: Data volume and quality decide how fast the AI System is ready
to scale. The larger the set of predictions and usage, the larger is the implications of Data in the
workflow.

a. Complex Technology Implications at Scale

b. Onerous Data Cleansing & Preparation Tasks

3. Business Processes & People: People are the biggest surprise element in any AI
Implementation. Companies want to be AI-first, but as they realize, AI is not just about training
users but rather about amending processes, updating policies and putting in the right kind of
business support.

a. Internal, company-level changes

b. Customer-facing changes

4. Unexpected Behavior: When dealing with a machine with multiple moving parts and
complexities, it is challenging to pinpoint precisely where the error has occurred if the machine
stops. Similarly, testing AI implementations is not just about unit testing with the appropriate
data, but rather designing for all use-cases to deal better when there are unexpected errors.

5. Data Security and Governance: These vulnerabilities can make or break AI Systems at Scale.
As businesses grow to rely on an AI-first approach, complete transparency and control over the
system are critical. One breach in Data Security can break the reputation of the stakeholder. AI
Governance is the most critical component in this entire piece.

27. Which programming language is used for AI?

Below are the top five programming languages that are widely used for the development of
Artificial Intelligence:

● Python
● Java
● Lisp
● R
● Prolog

Among the above five languages, Python is the most used language for AI development due to
its simplicity and availability of lots of libraries, such as Numpy, Pandas, etc.

28. Describe Bayes Theorem in AI

Bayes' theorem is also known as Bayes' rule, Bayes' law, or Bayesian reasoning, which
determines the probability of an event with uncertain knowledge.

In probability theory, it relates the conditional probability and marginal probabilities of two
random events.

Bayes' theorem was named after the British mathematician Thomas Bayes. The Bayesian
inference is an application of Bayes' theorem, which is fundamental to Bayesian statistics.

It is a way to calculate the value of P(B|A) with the knowledge of P(A|B).

Bayes' theorem allows updating the probability prediction of an event by observing new
information of the real world.

Example: If cancer corresponds to one's age then by using Bayes' theorem, we can determine the
probability of cancer more accurately with the help of age.

Bayes' theorem can be derived using product rule and conditional probability of event A with
known event B:

As from product rule we can write:

1. P(A ⋀ B)= P(A|B) P(B) or

Similarly, the probability of event B with known event A:

1. P(A ⋀ B)= P(B|A) P(A)

Equating right hand side of both the equations, we will get:

The above equation (a) is called as Bayes' rule or Bayes' theorem. This equation is basic of
most modern AI systems for probabilistic inference.

P(A|B) is known as posterior, which we need to calculate, and it will be read as Probability of
hypothesis A when we have occurred an evidence B.

P(B|A) is called the likelihood, in which we consider that hypothesis is true, then we calculate
the probability of evidence.

P(A) is called the prior probability, probability of hypothesis before considering the evidence

P(B) is called marginal probability, pure probability of an evidence.

29. Give detail description of Probabilistic reasoning

Probabilistic reasoning is a form of knowledge representation in which the concept of probability
is used to indicate the degree of uncertainty in knowledge. In AI, probabilistic models are used
to examine data using statistical codes. It was one of the first machine learning methods. To this
day, it's still widely used. The Naive Bayes algorithm is one of the most well-known algorithms in
this group.
How does it work?

Probabilistic modelling provides a framework for accepting the concept of learning. The
probabilistic framework specifies how to express and deploy model reservations. In scientific
data analysis, predictions play a significant role. Machine learning, automation, cognitive
computing, and artificial intelligence all rely heavily on them.

AI makes use of probabilistic reasoning:

When we are uncertain about the premises

When the number of possible predicates becomes unmanageable
When it is known that an experiment contains an error.

30. What is the resolution graph in Ai? What is it used for? What are the
main steps to draw these graphs?
Answer in presentation given as notes.

31. Comparison of Propositional Logic with Predicate logic

Propositional Logic

Predicate Logic

Propositional logic is the logic that deals with a collection of declarative statements which have
a truth value, true or false. Predicate logic is an expression consisting of variables with a
specified domain. It consists of objects, relations and functions between the objects.
2

It is the basic and most widely used logic. Also known as Boolean logic. It is an extension of
propositional logic covering predicates and quantification.
3

A proposition has a specific truth value, either true or false. A predicate’s truth value depends on
the variables’ value.
4

Scope analysis is not done in propositional logic.Predicate logic helps analyze the scope of the subject
over the predicate. There are three quantifiers : Universal Quantifier ( ∀) depicts for all, Existential
Quantifier (∃) depicting there exists some and Uniqueness Quantifier ( ∃!) depicting exactly one.
5
Propositions are combined with Logical Operators or Logical Connectives like Negation(¬),
Disjunction(∨), Conjunction(∧), Exclusive OR(⊕), Implication(⇒), Bi-Conditional or Double
Implication(⇔). Predicate Logic adds by introducing quantifiers to the existing proposition.
6

It is a more generalized representation. It is a more specialized representation.

7

It cannot deal with sets of entities. It can deal with set of entities with the help of quantifiers.

32. Describe reasoning and its types in AI

GEEKSFORGEEKS
Types of Reasoning in Artificial Intelligence
In today’s modern world with the advancement of technology we can process the thoughts of
humans, the machines are been designed which can think like humans and mimic their actions,
thus the overall procedure of design of the machine which can act like humans is called Artificial
Intelligence. Some of the applications of artificial Intelligence is expert systems, Natural
language processing, Speech Recognition, Computer Vision.

Reasoning:
Reasoning plays a great role in the process of artificial Intelligence. Thus Reasoning can be
defined as the logical process of drawing conclusions, making predictions or constructing
approaches towards a particular thought with the help of existing knowledge. In artificial
intelligence, reasoning is very important because to understand the human brain, how the brain
thinks, how it draws conclusions towards particular things for all these sorts of works we need
the help of reasoning.

Methods of Reasoning:
The reasoning is classified into the following types:

Deductive Reasoning: Deductive Reasoning is the strategic approach that uses available facts,
information or knowledge to draw valid conclusions. It basically beliefs in the facts and ideas
before drawing any result. Deductive reasoning uses a top-down approach. In deductive
reasoning, the arguments can be valid or invalid based on the value of the premises. If the value
of the premises is true, then the conclusion is also true. Deductive reasoning helps in scanning
the generalized statement into a valid conclusion. Some of the examples are
People who are aged 20 or above are active users of the internet.
Out of the total number of students present in the class, the ratio of boys is more than the girls.
Inductive Reasoning: Inductive reasoning is completely different from the deductive reasoning
approach because Inductive reasoning is associated with the hypothesis-generating approach
rather than drawing any particular conclusion to the facts at the beginning of the process.
Inductive reasoning help in making generalization from specific facts and knowledge. Inductive
reasoning is the bottom-up process. In inductive Reasoning even if the premises are true there
is no chance that the conclusion will also be true because it depends upon the inductive
argument which can be either strong or weak. Some of the examples are:
All the students present in the classroom are from London.
Always the hottest temperature is recorded in Death Valley.
Common Sense Reasoning: Common sense reasoning is the most occurred type of reasoning
in daily life events. It is the type of reasoning which comes from experiences. When a human
face a different situation in life it gain some knowledge.So whenever in the next point of time it
faces a similar type of situation then it uses its previous experiences to draw a conclusion to do
situation. Some of the examples are:
when a bike crosses the traffic signal when it is red then it learns from its mistakes and next
time the bike is aware of the signal and actions.
While overtaking someone on the road what all ideas should be kept in mind.
Monotonic Reasoning: It is the type of reasoning which follows a different approach towards the
thinking process it uses facts, information and knowledge to draw a conclusion about the
problem but the major point is its conclusion remain fixed permanently once it is decided
because even if we add new information or facts to the existing one the conclusion remains the
same it doesn’t change. Monotonic reasoning is used mainly in conventional reasoning systems
and logic-based systems. Some Examples of monotonic are:
The Sahara desert of the world is one of the most spectacular deserts.
One of the longest rivers in the world is the Nile River.
Abductive Reasoning: Abductive Reasoning is a type of reasoning which acts differently from all
the above reasoning strategies. It begins with an incomplete set of facts, information and
knowledge and then proceeds to find the most deserving explanation and conclusion. It draws
conclusions based on what facts you know at present rather than collecting some outdated facts
and information. It mostly plays a great role in the daily life decision-making process. Some of
the examples are:
Doctor drawing conclusions regarding your health based on test reports.
A bowl of soup is kept and vapour evaporating from it which draws the conclusion that the bowl
is hot in nature

33. Give the explanation of Alpha-Beta pruning game playing technique.

Prerequisites: Minimax Algorithm in Game Theory, Evaluation Function in Game Theory
Alpha-Beta pruning is not actually a new algorithm, rather an optimization technique for minimax
algorithm. It reduces the computation time by a huge factor. This allows us to search much
faster and even go into deeper levels in the game tree. It cuts off branches in the game tree
which need not be searched because there already exists a better move available. It is called
Alpha-Beta pruning because it passes 2 extra parameters in the minimax function, namely alpha
and beta.
Let’s define the parameters alpha and beta.
Alpha is the best value that the maximizer currently can guarantee at that level or above.
Beta is the best value that the minimizer currently can guarantee at that level or above.
Pseudocode :
function minimax(node, depth, isMaximizingPlayer, alpha, beta):

if node is a leaf node :

return value of the node

if isMaximizingPlayer :
bestVal = -INFINITY
for each child node :
value = minimax(node, depth+1, false, alpha, beta)
bestVal = max( bestVal, value)
alpha = max( alpha, bestVal)
if beta <= alpha:
break
return bestVal

else :
bestVal = +INFINITY
for each child node :
value = minimax(node, depth+1, true, alpha, beta)
bestVal = min( bestVal, value)
beta = min( beta, bestVal)
if beta <= alpha:
break
return bestVal

// Calling the function for the first time.

minimax(0, 0, true, -INFINITY, +INFINITY)
Let’s make above algorithm clear with an example.

34. Describe Refutation, Substitution, and Unification in AI

35. Describe the types of ambiguity in Natural Language Understanding

Ambiguity is an intrinsic characteristic of human conversations and one that is particularly

challenging in natural language understanding(NLU) scenarios by ambiguity, w are essentially
referring to sentences that have multiple alternative interpretations.

Ambiguity is one of those areas of cognitive sciences that doesn’t have a well-defined solution.
The spectrum of what can be considered ambiguous on any language varies greatly depending
on the speaker. From a technical standpoint, any sentence in a language with a large-enough
grammar can have alternative interpretations. However, most native speakers only recognize
the primary interpretation when hearing a phrase while alternative representations may be more
obvious to non-native speakers whom, cognitively speaking, need to rewire their brains in order
to lean a new language. If humans find it difficult to deal with ambiguity in conversations, just
imagine the challenge for NLU systems.

Types of Ambiguity

Technically defining ambiguity can, well, ambiguous. However, there are different forms of
ambiguity that are relevant in natural language and, consequently, in artificial intelligence(AI)
systems.

Lexical Ambiguity: This type of ambiguity represents words that can have multiple assertions.
For instance, in English, the word “back” can be a noun ( back stage), an adjective (back door)
or an adverb (back away).

Syntactic Ambiguity: This type of ambiguity represents sentences that can be parsed in multiple
syntactical forms. Take the following sentence: “ I heard his cell phone rin in my office”. The
propositional phrase “in my office” can e parsed in a way that modifies the noun or on another
way that modifies the verb.

Semantic Ambiguity: This type of ambiguity is typically related to the interpretation of sentence.
For instance, the previous sentence used in the previous point can be interpreted as if I was
physically present in the office or as if the cell phone was in the office.

— Metonymy: Arguably, the most difficult type of ambiguity, metonymy deals with phrases in
which the literal meaning is different from the figurative assertion. For instance, when we say
“Samsung us screaming for new management”, we don’t really mean that the company is
literally screaming (although you never know with Samsung these days ;) ).

Metaphors

Metaphors are a specific type of metonymy on which a phrase with one literal meaning is used
as an analogy to suggest a different meaning. For example, if we say: “Roger Clemens was
painting the corners”, we are not referring to the former NY Yankee star working as a painter.

Metaphors are particularly difficult to handle as they typically include references to historical or
fictitious elements which are hard to place in the context of the conversation. From a conceptual
standpoint, metaphors can be seen as a type of metonymy on which the relationship between
sentences is based on similarity