Chapteter One - Introduction

THERMAL UNIT OPERATION T
ChEng 3113
January Semester 2023
Dr. Sintayehu Mekuria Hialegiorgis

Mr.Ibsa Neme
Department of Chemical Engineering

Addis Ababa Science and Technology University
4/11/2023 Dr.Sintayehu Mekuria Hailegiorgis and Mr. Ibsa Neme 0

Outline
Chapter 1: Introduction and Basic Concepts
 Chemical engineering and Unit operion
 Classification of Unit operation
 Mass Transfer and heat transfer operations
 Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer
 Heat Transfer Mechanisms
 Heat Tranfer equations in different geometries.
 Heat transfer resistance concept
 Application of Heat Transfer in Process Industries
 Summary.
Note: Active learning Techniques used

• Advanced Organizer
• Intermittent Discussion
• Closure Focused Discussions
Lesson Outcomes (LO):
At the end of this topic the students are able to:
Explain the concept/importance of unit opertion in process industries.
1. Able to identify different unit operation processes and the concept
of thermal unit operation.
2. Understand how thermodynamics and heat transfer are related to
each other.
3. Understand the basic mechanisms of heat transfer, which are
conduction, convection, and radiation, and Fourier's law of heat
conduction, Newton's law of cooling, and the Stefan–Boltzmann law
of radiation.
4. Understand conduction in different geometries, the corresponding
temperature distributions and heat transfer rates.
5. Introduce the concept of thermal resistance for heat flow in different
geometries.

Text Book
cropera, D. P. Dewitt, T. L. Bergman, A. S. Lavine. Fundamentals of
Heat and Mass Transfer, 6th Ed. Wiley, 2007.
References
• Cengel, A. Y. and Ghajar, J. A., Heat and Mass Transfer:
Fundamentals and Applications, 5th Ed. McGraw Hill 2015.
• Holman, J. P., Heat Transfer, 10th Ed., McGraw Hill, 2010.
• Incropera, F. P., Dewitt, D. P., Bergman, T. L., and Lavine, A. S.
Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer, 6th Edition. John Wiley
& Sons, 2007.
• Dutta, B. K. Heat Transfer, Principles and Applications, Prentice-
Hall, 2001.
• Ozisik, M. N., Heat Transfer: A Basic Approach, McGraw Hill, 2001

Introduction
What is chemical engineering?

Chemical Engineering is a group of industrial processes in
which row materials are changed or separated into useful
products
Chemistry: Chemical Engineering:

 create a new substance design the most optimal
technology for the production of
 study its properties
a specified substance from row
 investigate all possible pathways materials.
from one substance to another.
 develop and discover new
technological applications for
materials.

Introduction
Unit Operations
• Unit Operations is a method of analysis and design of

chemical engineering processes in terms of individual
tasks/operations
• It is a way of organizing chemical engineering

knowledge into groups of individual tasks/operations
• A unit operation: is a basic step in a chemical engineering

process

Introduction
• There is the basic difference between unit operations and

unit process.
• Unit Operations is a process in which there is only
physical change or there is a physical transform of a
materilas where as Unit Process is a process where
there is a chemical change or there is a transformation of
a chemical nature involved during the process.
 Unit operations can modify the momentum, energy, or

composition of the different phases of a system.

Example of unit operation
• In this simple sketch, several elemental units can be identified. They

are
1. The pumping of the fluid by means of pump B
2. The heat exchange in heat exchanger C
3. The phase separation in separator D
4. The condensation of vapor in condenser E
• Each of these units is a unit operation. Unit operations

basically classified into different categories as:
Introduction
Unit Operations: Classification
Separation Process
Fluid flow processes
(Mass transfer processes)
 fluid transport
 distillation
 solids fluidization
 absorption
 mixing
Liquid-liquid extraction
 solid-liquid
Thermodynamic processes extraction/leaching
 liquificaction adsorption
 refrigeration  drying
Evaporation
Mechanical processes Membrane separation,
 crushing etc.
 sieving Heat transfer processes
 solid transportation (Thermal Unit Operation)
etc  heating/cooling
 evaporation/condensation
Heat and mass transfer operations
• Unit operation involves heat transfer and mass transfer

operations.
Mass-transfer operations
distillation, Heat transfer operations
liquid-liquid extraction,  heat exchange,
adsorption,  evaporation
absorption,
 boiling
Solid-liquid separation
 condensation
(Leaching),
humidification,
membrane separation,
drying,
crystalization)

Mass transfer operations
Distillation
• A process whereby components of a liquid mixture separated by
boiling because of their deference in vapor pressure.
 It involves a volatile vapor phase and a liquid phase that
vaporizes.
Absorption
• A solute or solutes are absorbed from the gas phase into a liquid
phase in absorption, i.e., a component is removed from a gas
stream by treatment with a liquid.
 It involves molecular and turbulent diffusion or mass transfer of
solute A through a stagnant non-diffusing B by the liquid water C.
Liquid-liquid Extraction
• The process in which a solute in a liquid solution is removed by
contacting with another liquid solvent relatively immiscible with the
solution, i.e., when a solute or solutes are removed from a liquid
phase to another liquid phase.
Solid-liquid separation/Leaching
• A process that involves treating a finely divided solid with a liquid
that disolves out and remove a solute contained in the solid.
 Fluid is used to extract a solute from a solid.
Humidification
• Absorption that involves gas as pure air and liquid as pure water.
Dehumidification involves removal of water vapor from air.
Membrane separation
• It involves the separation of a solute from a fluid by diffusion of this
solute from a liquid or gas through a semipermeable barrier to
another fluid.
 Separation of molecules by the use of membranes that control
the rate of movement of molecules between two phases.

Crystallization
• Solute components soluble in a solution is removed from the
solution by adjusting the conditions (e.g. temp., conc.). When the
solubility of one or more solute components is exceeded, they
crystallize out as a solid phase.
Adsorption
• One or more liquid or gas stream are adsorbed on the surface or in
the pores of a solid adsorbent. Desorption occurs when the liquid
or gas particles (adsorbate) escape from the adsorbent.

Heat transfer operations
Heat exchanger: Heat exchangers are devices that

facilitate the exchange of heat between two fluids that are
at different temperatures while keeping them from mixing
with each other.
Evaporator: is a device in which fluid is concentrated from
liquid.
Condenser: is devices used to liquefy vapors by removing
their latent heats.

Thermal Unit Operation
Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer

Class Activity
1. Write down the meaning of :
• Heat
• Thermodynamics
• Heat transfer
2. Share and discuss with your neighbour
3. Rewrite together with your neighbour if needed.
4. Share with your class.

Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer

 Heat: The form of energy that can be transferred from
one system to another as a result of temperature
difference.
 Thermodynamics is concerned with the amount of heat

transfer as a system undergoes a process from one
equilibrium state to another.
 Heat transfer deals with the determination of the rates of

such energy transfers as well as variation of
temperature.
 The science of thermodynamics deals with the amount

of heat transfer as a system undergoes a process from
one equilibrium state to another, and makes no
reference to how long the process will take.
 Where as in engineering, we are often interested in the

rate of heat transfer.
 However, the law of thermodynamics lay the framework

for the science of heat transfer.

• The transfer of energy as heat is always from the higher-

temperature medium to the lower-temperature one
(temperature difference).
• Heat transfer stops when the two mediums reach the
same temperature.
• The larger the temperature gradient/difference, the
higher the rate of heat transfer.
• Heat can be transferred in three different modes:
i. conduction,
ii. convection, and
iii. radiation

• The first law of thermodynamics states that the rate of

energy transfer into a system is equal to the rate of
increase of the energy of that system (also known as the
conservation of energy principle: energy can neither be
created nor destroyed; it can only change forms).
• The net change (increase or decrease) in the total energy

of the system during a process is equal to the difference
between the total energy entering and the total energy
leaving the system during that process.

• The first law of thermodynamics states that the rate of
energy transfer into a system is equal to the rate of increase
of the energy of that system (also known as the conservation
of energy principle: energy can neither be created nor
destroyed; it can only change forms).
• The net change (increase or decrease) in the total energy of

the system during a process is equal to the difference
between the total energy entering and the total energy leaving
the system during that process.

Energy Transfer
 Energy can be transferred to or from a given mass by
two mechanisms:
heat transfer and work.
Heat transfer rate: The amount of heat transferred per

unit time.
Heat flux: The rate of heat transfer per unit area normal
to the direction of heat transfer.
when is constant
Power: The work done per unit time (W or J/s). 20

 A large number of engineering devices such as water heaters
and car radiators involve mass flow in and out of a system,
and are modeled as control volumes.
 Most control volumes are analyzed under steady operating

conditions  no change with time at a specified location.
 Mass flow rate: The amount of mass flowing through a cross

section of a flow device per unit time.
ρ = density, V = velocity,
Ac = cross-sectional area
 Volume flow rate: The volume of a fluid flowing through a pipe
or duct per unit time.

The energy balance

in steady-flow
system is:
4/11/2023 Dr.Sintayehu Mekuria Hailegiorgis and Mr. Ibsa Neme

22
Basics of Heat Transfer
• The rate of energy transfer into a system is equal to the rate
of increase of the energy of that system (First law).
• The heat is transferred in the direction of decreasing

temperature.
• We are normally interested in how long it takes for the hot

coffee in a cup to cool to a certain temperature, which cannot
be determined from a thermodynamic analysis alone.
Heat Transfer Mechanism
 When two objects at different temperatures are
brought into contact, heat flows from the object at
the higher temperature to that at the lower
temperature.
 Heat is thermal energy in transit due to a spatial

temperature difference, flowing from high
temperature to low temperature.
 The mechanisms (modes) by which the heat may

flow are three: Conduction, Convection, and
Radiation.

Conduction
• Conduction is the transfer

of energy from the more
energetic particles of a
substance to the adjacent
less energetic ones as a
result of interactions
between the particles.
• Conduction can take

place in solids, liquids, or
gases.

Conduction
 Fourier’s law of heat conduction: Heat
flux is proportional to the temperature
gradient.
Eq (1.1)
. T 1T2 dT
Q cond  kA  kA
x dx
 k is the thermal conductivity of the
material, which measure of the ability
of a material to conduct heat.
In heat conduction analysis, A
represents the area normal to the
direction of heat transfer.
4/11/2023 Dr.Sintayehu Mekuria Hailegiorgis & Mr.Ibsa Neme 26

Conduction
Heat conduction
through a large plane The rate of heat conduction
wall of thickness x through a solid is directly
and area A. proportional to its thermal
conductivity.
Thermal Conductivity
The rate of heat

transfer through a
unit thickness of the
material per unit
area per unit
temperature
difference
[W/m.OC).

The range of thermal conductivity of various materials at room temperature

29
The variation of the thermal conductivity of various solids, liquids, and

gases with temperature. 30
General Heat Conduction Equation
• One-Dimensional Heat Conduction Equation

 Heat Conduction Equation in a Large Plane Wall: - An energy
balance on this thin element during small time interval Δt can be
expressed as:

Heat Conduction Equation in a Large Plane Wall
Variable conductivity:
Constant conductivity:
where the property k/C is the thermal diffusivity of the

material and represents how fast heat propagates through a
material
Steady-state:
Transient, no heat generation:
Steady-state, no heat generation:

Heat Conduction Equation in a Long Cylinder
 An energy balance on this thin cylindrical shell element during

small time interval Δt can be expressed as:

Heat Conduction Equation in a Long Cylinder
Steady-state:

Heat Conduction Equation in a Sphere
One-dimensional heat conduction through a volume

element in a sphere

Heat Conduction Equation in a Sphere
Steady-state:

Combined One-Dimensional Heat Conduction
Equation
An examination of the one-dimensional transient heat

conduction equations for the plane wall, cylinder, and
sphere reveals that all three equations can be expressed
in a compact form as
n = 0 for a plane wall

n = 1 for a cylinder
n = 2 for a sphere
In the case of a plane wall, it is customary to replace the variable r
by x.
This equation can be simplified for steady-state or no heat
generation cases as described before.
General Heat Conduction Equation
(Multidimensional)
Rectangular Coordinates

 An energy balance on this thin rectangular element during

small time interval Δt can be expressed as:
Eq. 2-36

Variable thermal conductivity:
Constant thermal conductivity :

Fourier-Biot equation
again  = k/C is the thermal diffusivity

Steady-state:
Poisson equation
Diffusion equation
Steady-state, no
Laplace equation
heat generation:
Cylindrical Coordinates
Relations between the coordinates of a point in

rectangular and cylindrical coordinate systems:
A differential volume
element in cylindrical
coordinates

Spherical Coordinates
Relations between the coordinates of a point in rectangular

and spherical coordinate systems:
A differential volume element in

spherical coordinates

Convection
• Convection refers to the flow
of heat associated with the
movement of a fluid.
• Examples: hot air from a

furnace enters a room,
transfer of heat from a hot
surface to a flowing fluid.
• The faster the fluid motion,

the greater the convection
heat transfer.
Convection
 The convective flux is proportional to the difference between the
surface temperature and the fluid temperature, referred as
Newton’s law of cooling.
.
Q conv  hAs (Ts  T )  hAs dT (W) Eq (1.24)
 Where Q = heat flow rate, As = surface area of heat transfer,
h = heat transfer coefficient (W/m2∙K), Ts = surface temperature,
T∞ = temperature of the fluid
Heat transfer
from a hot
surface to air by
convection.
44
Convection
Typical values of convection heat transfer coefficient 45

Natural and Forced Convection
• Forced convection: If the fluid is forced to flow over

the surface by external means such as a fan, pump,
or the wind.
• Natural (or free) convection: If the fluid motion is

caused by buoyancy forces that are induced by
density differences due to the variation of temperature
in the fluid.

Natural and Forced Convection
The cooling of a boiled egg by forced

and natural convection.
47
Radiation
• Radiation is the energy emitted
by matter in the form of
electromagnetic waves (or
photons) as a result of the
changes in the electronic
configurations of the atoms or
molecules.
• Does not require the presence
of an intervening medium.
• Example: energy of the sun
reaches the earth.

Radiation
Basic mechanism of radiation heat transfer
The basic mechanism of radiant heat transfer involves three
steps:
1) Thermal energy of hot source is converted into energy in
the form of electromagnetic waves
2) These waves travel through intervening space in straight
lines and strike a cold object
3) The electromagnetic wave that strikes the body are
absorbed by the body and converted back to thermal
energy or heat
 If matter appears in its path, the radiation will be
transmitted, reflected, or absorbed
 It is only the absorbed energy that appears as heat
Radiation
The maximum radiation flux emitted by a body at temperature
T is given by Stefan-Boltzmann law
.
Q emit,max  AsTs
4 Eq (1.25)
(W)
where Ts is absolute temperature in kelvins, As is the surface
area σ is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant [σ = 5.67 x
10-8 W/(m2 . K4)].
The idealized surface that emits radiation at this maximum rate

is called blackbody.
50
Radiation
• The radiation emitted by all real
surfaces is less than the radiation
emitted by a blackbody at the
same temperature and is
expressed as:
.
Q emit  AsTs
4
(W)
Eq (1.26)
• where ε, emissivity lies between 0

and 1
51
Radiation
When a surface of emissivity ε and surface area As at a

temperature Ts is completely enclosed by a much larger
surface at temperature Tsurr, the net rate of radiation heat
transfer between these two surfaces is:
.
Q rad  As (Ts - T
4 4
surr ) (W) Eq (1.28)
52
Simultaneous Heat Transfer Mechanism
• Heat transfer is only by conduction in opaque (dense)

solids, but by conduction and radiation in semitransparent
solids  a solid may involve conduction and radiation but
not convection.
• A solid may involve heat transfer by convection and/or

radiation on its surfaces exposed to fluid or other surfaces.
• For examples: the outer surface of a cold piece of rock will

warm up in a warmer environment as a result of
i) heat gain by convection (from the air)
ii) radiation (from the sun or the warmer surrounding
surface)
But the inner part of the rock will warm up as this heat
transferred to the inner region of the rock by conduction.

Simultaneous Heat Transfer Mechanism
 Heat transfer is by conduction and

possibly by radiation in a still fluid
(no bulk fluid motion) and by
convection and radiation in a
flowing fluid.
 When deal with the heat transfer

through a fluid, we have either
conduction or convection, but not
both.
 Heat transfer through a vacuum is

by radiation only since conduction
or convection requires the Although there are three mechanisms
presence of material medium. of heat transfer, a medium may involve
only two of them simultaneously.

Thermal Resistant Concept
 The thermal resistance against heat conduction or conduction
resistance of the wall:
Where
 Convective heat transfer (Newton’s law):
Rearranged: The thermal resistant of the surface against heat convection

or convection resistance:
Where
 Do the same for radiation heat transfer?

Thermal Resistance Network
 The thermal resistance network for heat transfer through a plane
wall subjected to convection on both sides and the electrical
analogy are as follows:

Thermal Resistance in Cylinders and Spheres
The Fourier’s law of heat conduction for heat transfer through the
cylindrical layer: . dT
Qcond,cyl  kA (W)
dr
• A=2πrL, is the heat transfer area at location r. By
integration from r=r1, where T(r1)=T1, to r=r2,
where T(r2)=T2, gives:
T1  T2 ln( r2 / r1 )
(W) Where Rcyl 
.

Q cond,cyl
Rcyl 2Lk
 Repeat the analysis for a spherical layer by taking A=4 πr2,

the result can be expressed as:
. T1  T2
Q cond,sph  (W) Where thermal resistance r2  r1
Rsph for the spherical layer Rsph 
4r1r2 k

Thermal resistance network through a cylindrical or
spherical layer
• The rate of heat transfer under
steady state conditions can be
expressed as: . T1  T 2
Q  (W)
Rtotal
 where
Rtotal  R conv,1  Rcyl  Rconv,2

1 ln( r2 / r1 ) 1
  
(2r1 L)h1 2Lk (2r2 L)h2 For a spherical layer
 and
Rtotal  R conv,1  Rsph  Rconv,2
For a spherical layer
1 r2  r1 1
  
(4r1 )h1 4r1r2 k (4r2 )h2
2 2

Applications of Heat Transfer
 Heat transfer is commonly encountered in engineering
systems and other aspects of life.
 The human body is constantly rejecting heat to its

surroundings.
 The heating and air-conditioning system, refrigerator or

freezer, water heater, iron and even the computer, TV.
 Heat transfer plays a major role in the design of many

devices ie., car radiators, solar collectors, various
components of chemical plants.
 Exchange of heat between two fluids is a widely used unit

operation in chemical process industries.

Applications of Heat Transfer

Summary
• What is chemical enhineeering?  Thermodynamics and Heat
Transfer
• The relation between Chemical
 The First Law of
Engineering and Chemistry. Thermodynamics
• Unit operation and Unit process  Energy balance for steady flow
system and Energy transfer
• Classfication of unit operation
 Heat Transfer Mechanisms
• Mass Transfer operation
 Conduction: Fourier’s law of heat
distillation, liquid-liquid extraction, conduction
adsorption, absorption, Solid-liquid  Convection: Newton’s law of
cooling
separation (Leaching), humidification,
membrane separation, drying,  Radiation: Stefan–Boltzmann law
crystalization)  Simultaneous Heat Transfer
Mechanisms
• Heat Transfer Unit opertion
 General Heat Transfer Equations
 heat exchange,
 evaporation  Thermal resistance concepts in
heat Transfer
 boiling
 condensation  Application areas of heat transfe

End of Chapter
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THERMAL UNIT OPERATION T

Dr. Sintayehu Mekuria Hialegiorgis

Department of Chemical Engineering

4/11/2023 Dr.Sintayehu Mekuria Hailegiorgis and Mr. Ibsa Neme 0

Note: Active learning Techniques used

4/11/2023 Dr.Sintayehu Mekuria Hailegiorgis and Mr. Ibsa Neme 2

4/11/2023 Dr.Sintayehu Mekuria Hailegiorgis and Mr. Ibsa Neme 3

What is chemical engineering?

Chemistry: Chemical Engineering:

4/11/2023 Dr.Sintayehu Mekuria Hailegiorgis and Mr. Ibsa Neme 4

• Unit Operations is a method of analysis and design of

• It is a way of organizing chemical engineering

• A unit operation: is a basic step in a chemical engineering

4/11/2023 Dr.Sintayehu Mekuria Hailegiorgis and Mr. Ibsa Neme 5

• There is the basic difference between unit operations and

 Unit operations can modify the momentum, energy, or

4/11/2023 Dr.Sintayehu Mekuria Hailegiorgis and Mr. Ibsa Neme 6

• In this simple sketch, several elemental units can be identified. They

• Each of these units is a unit operation. Unit operations

• Unit operation involves heat transfer and mass transfer

4/11/2023 Dr.Sintayehu Mekuria Hailegiorgis and Mr. Ibsa Neme 9

4/11/2023 Dr.Sintayehu Mekuria Hailegiorgis and Mr. Ibsa Neme 11

4/11/2023 Dr.Sintayehu Mekuria Hailegiorgis and Mr. Ibsa Neme 12

Heat exchanger: Heat exchangers are devices that

4/11/2023 Dr.Sintayehu Mekuria Hailegiorgis and Mr. Ibsa Neme 13

Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer

4/11/2023 Dr.Sintayehu Mekuria Hailegiorgis and Mr. Ibsa Neme 14

Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer

 Thermodynamics is concerned with the amount of heat

 Heat transfer deals with the determination of the rates of

 The science of thermodynamics deals with the amount

 Where as in engineering, we are often interested in the

 However, the law of thermodynamics lay the framework

4/11/2023 Dr.Sintayehu Mekuria Hailegiorgis and Mr. Ibsa Neme 16

• The transfer of energy as heat is always from the higher-

4/11/2023 Dr.Sintayehu Mekuria Hailegiorgis and Mr. Ibsa Neme 17

• The first law of thermodynamics states that the rate of

• The net change (increase or decrease) in the total energy

4/11/2023 Dr.Sintayehu Mekuria Hailegiorgis and Mr. Ibsa Neme 18

• The net change (increase or decrease) in the total energy of

4/11/2023 Dr.Sintayehu Mekuria Hailegiorgis and Mr. Ibsa Neme 19

Heat transfer rate: The amount of heat transferred per

Power: The work done per unit time (W or J/s). 20

 Most control volumes are analyzed under steady operating

 Mass flow rate: The amount of mass flowing through a cross

4/11/2023 Dr.Sintayehu Mekuria Hailegiorgis and Mr. Ibsa Neme 21

The energy balance

4/11/2023 Dr.Sintayehu Mekuria Hailegiorgis and Mr. Ibsa Neme

• The heat is transferred in the direction of decreasing

• We are normally interested in how long it takes for the hot

 Heat is thermal energy in transit due to a spatial

 The mechanisms (modes) by which the heat may

4/11/2023 Dr.Sintayehu Mekuria Hailegiorgis and Mr. Ibsa Neme 24

• Conduction is the transfer

• Conduction can take

4/11/2023 Dr.Sintayehu Mekuria Hailegiorgis and Mr. Ibsa Neme 25

4/11/2023 Dr.Sintayehu Mekuria Hailegiorgis & Mr.Ibsa Neme 26

The rate of heat