GENERATION AND VALIDATION OF EMPIRICALLY-DERIVED

TCP APPLICATION WORKLOADS

Felix Hernandez-Campos

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A dissertation submitted to the fa ulty of the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill in
partial ful llment of the requirements for the degree of Do tor of Philosophy in the Department
of Computer S ien e.
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Chapel Hill
2006

Approved by:
Advisor: Kevin Je ay
Reader: F. Donelson Smith
Reader: Ketan Mayer-Patel
Reader: J. Steve Marron
Reader: Andrew Nobel
Reader: Jan Prins
 UMI Number: 3207338

Copyright 2006 by
Hernandez-Campos, Felix

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All rights reserved.

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UMI Microform 3207338

Copyright 2006 by ProQuest Information and Learning Company.
All rights reserved. This microform edition is protected against
unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code.

ProQuest Information and Learning Company

300 North Zeeb Road
P.O. Box 1346
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2006
Felix Hernandez-Campos
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED

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 ABSTRACT


FELIX 
HERNANDEZ-CAMPOS: Generation and Validation of
Empiri ally-Derived TCP Appli ation Workloads.
(Under the dire tion of Kevin Je ay)

This dissertation proposes and evaluates a new approa h for generating realisti traÆ
in networking experiments. The main problem solved by our approa h is generating losed-

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loop traÆ onsistent with the behavior of the entire set of appli ations in modern traÆ
mixes. Unlike earlier approa hes, whi h des ribed individual appli ations in terms of the spe i
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semanti s of ea h appli ation, we des ribe the sour e behavior driving ea h onne tion in a
generi manner using the a-b-t model. This model provides an intuitive but detailed way of
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des ribing sour e behavior in terms of onne tion ve tors that apture the sizes and ordering of
appli ation data units, the quiet times between them, and whether data ex hange is sequential
or on urrent. This is onsistent with the view of traÆ from TCP, whi h does not on ern
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itself with appli ation semanti s.

The a-b-t model also satis es a ru ial property: given a pa ket header tra e olle ted from
an arbitrary Internet link, we an algorithmi ally infer the sour e-level behavior driving ea h
onne tion, and ast it into the notation of the model. The result of pa ket header pro essing is
a olle tion of a-b-t onne tion ve tors, whi h an then be replayed in software simulators and
testbed experiments to drive network sta ks. Su h a replay generates syntheti traÆ that fully
preserves the feedba k loop between the TCP endpoints and the state of the network, whi h
is essential in experiments where network ongestion an o ur. By onstru tion, this type of
traÆ generation is fully reprodu ible, providing a solid foundation for omparative empiri al
studies.
Our experimental work demonstrates the high quality of the generated traÆ , by dire tly
omparing tra es from real Internet links and their sour e-level tra e replays for a ri h set of

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metri s. Su h omparison requires the areful measurement of network parameters for ea h
onne tion, and their reprodu tion together with the orresponding sour e behavior. Our nal
ontribution onsists of two resampling methods for introdu ing ontrolled variability in network
experiments and for generating losed-loop traÆ that a urately mat hes a target o ered load.

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 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
First of all, I must thank Kevin Je ay and Don Smith for their guidan e and en ouragement
throughout my do toral program. Their patien e and friendship have been invaluable all these
years. I also thank them, together with other fa ulty and student members of the Distributed
and Real-Time Systems group (DiRT), for building a phenomenal infrastru ture for Internet
measurement and experimental networking resear h. DiRT students have greatly ontributed
to my do toral experien e, most espe ially Jay Aikat and David Ott.

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My ommittee members and other ollaborators have ontributed tremendously to my ef-
forts. I am spe ially in debt with Steve Marron and Andrew Nobel, who have greatly enri hed
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the statisti al side of my work. In this regard, being part of SAMSI's \Network Modeling for
the Internet" program and of the inter-dis iplinary Internet study group at UNC gave me su-
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perb opportunities to widen my understanding of Internet resear h. I must also thank UNC's
Department of Computer S ien e as whole, in luding fa ulty, students and sta , for reating an
outstanding resear h and tea hing environment. Overall, my years at UNC were an in redible
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positive experien e.
I thank the National S ien e Foundation, IBM, Cis o, Intel, Sun Mi rosystems and others
for supporting this work. I am spe ially grateful to the Computer Measurement Group (CMG)
for their do toral fellowship.
Finally, I thank my family for their support. Their onstant example of hard-work, and
their respe t for intelle tual endeavors has motivated me during my entire life. My wife's help
with the editing of this manus ript was invaluable, as was her onstant en ouragement during
my graduate studies. More than anybody else, my parents gave me my passion for knowledge,
and it is to them that I dedi ate this do toral dissertation.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF TABLES x
LIST OF FIGURES xi
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS xxiii
1 Introdu tion 1

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1.1 Abstra t Sour e-Level Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2 Sour e-Level Tra e Replay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
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1.3 Tra e Resampling and Load S aling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.4 Thesis Statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
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1.5 Contributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.6 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

2 Related Work 22
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2.1 Pa ket-Level TraÆ Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

2.2 Sour e-Level TraÆ Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.2.1 Web TraÆ Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.2.2 Non-Web TraÆ Sour e-level Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.2.3 Beyond Single Appli ation Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
2.3 S aling O ered Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
2.4 Implementing TraÆ Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
2.5 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

3 Abstra t Sour e-level Modeling 45

3.1 The Sequential a-b-t Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

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 3.1.1 Client/Server Appli ations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
3.1.2 Beyond Client/Server Appli ations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
3.2 The Con urrent a-b-t Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
3.3 Abstra t Sour e-Level Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
3.3.1 From TCP Sequen e Numbers to Appli ation Data Units . . . . . . . . . 63
3.3.2 Logi al Order of Data Segments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
3.3.3 Data Analysis Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
3.4 Validation using Syntheti Appli ations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
3.5 Analysis Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
3.5.1 Variability A ross Sites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86

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3.5.2 Time-of-Day Variability and Workload Dire tionality . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
3.6 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99

4 Network-Level Parameters and Metri s

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4.1 Network-level Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
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4.1.1 Round-Trip Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
4.1.2 Re eiver Window Size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
4.1.3 Loss Rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
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4.2 Network-level Metri s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129

4.2.1 Aggregate Throughput Time Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
4.2.2 Throughput Marginals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
4.2.3 Throughput Self-Similarity and Long-Range Dependen e . . . . . . . . . 149
4.2.4 Time Series of A tive Conne tions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
4.3 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160

5 Generating TraÆ 165

5.1 Replaying Tra es at the Sour e-Level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
5.1.1 Tra e Partitioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
5.1.2 Condu ting Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
5.1.3 Data Colle tion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172

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 5.2 Validation of Sour e-level Tra e Replay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
5.2.1 Leipzig-II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
5.2.2 UNC 1 PM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
5.2.3 Abilene-I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
5.3 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192

6 Reprodu ing TraÆ 195

6.1 Beyond Comparing Conne tion Ve tors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
6.2 Sour e-level Replay of Leipzig-II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
6.2.1 Time Series of Byte Throughput . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
6.2.2 Time Series of Pa ket Throughput . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203

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6.2.3 Marginal Distributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
6.2.4 Long-Range Dependen e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
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6.2.5 Time Series of A tive Conne tions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
6.3 Sour e-level Replay of UNC 1 PM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
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6.3.1 Time Series of Byte Throughput . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
6.3.2 Time Series of Pa ket Throughput . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
6.3.3 Marginal Distributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
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6.3.4 Long-Range Dependen e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224

6.3.5 Time Series of A tive Conne tions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
6.4 Mid-Chapter Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
6.4.1 Observations on Byte Throughput . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
6.4.2 Observations on Pa ket Throughput . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
6.4.3 Observations on A tive Conne tions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
6.5 Sour e-level Replay of UNC 1 AM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
6.5.1 Time Series of Byte Throughput . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
6.5.2 Time Series of Pa ket Throughput . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
6.5.3 Marginal Distributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
6.5.4 Long-Range Dependen e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239

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 6.5.5 Time Series of A tive Conne tions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
6.6 Sour e-level Replay of UNC 7:30 PM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
6.6.1 Time Series of Byte Throughput . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
6.6.2 Time Series of Pa ket Throughput . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
6.6.3 Marginal Distributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
6.6.4 Long-Range Dependen e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
6.6.5 Time Series of A tive Conne tions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
6.7 Sour e-level Replay of Abilene-I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
6.7.1 Time Series of Byte Throughput . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
6.7.2 Time Series of Pa ket Throughput . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253

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6.7.3 Marginal Distributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
6.7.4 Long-Range Dependen e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
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6.7.5 Time Series of A tive Conne tions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
6.8 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
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7 Tra e Resampling and Load S aling 261
7.1 Poisson Resampling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
7.1.1 Basi Poisson Resampling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
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7.1.2 Byte-Driven Poisson Resampling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271

7.2 Blo k Resampling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
7.3 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287

8 Con lusions and Future Work 288

8.1 Empiri al Modeling of TraÆ Mixes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
8.2 Re ning and Extending our Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
8.3 Assessing Realism in Syntheti TraÆ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
8.4 In orporating Additional Network-Level Parameter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
8.5 Flexible TraÆ Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298

BIBLIOGRAPHY 300

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 LIST OF TABLES
3.1 Breakdown of the TCP onne tions found in ve tra es. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82

4.1 Estimated Hurst parameters and their on den e intervals for the pa ket through-
put time series of ve tra es. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
4.2 Estimated Hurst parameters and their on den e intervals for the byte through-
put time series of ve tra es. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156

6.1 Estimated Hurst parameters and their on den e intervals for the byte through-
put time series of Leipzig-II and its four types of sour e-level tra e replay. . . . . 212

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6.2 Estimated Hurst parameters and their on den e intervals for the pa ket through-
put time series of Leipzig-II and its four types of sour e-level tra e replay. . . . . 215
6.3 Estimated Hurst parameters and their on den e intervals for the byte through-
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put time series of UNC 1 PM and its four types of sour e-level tra e replay. . . . 225
6.4 Estimated Hurst parameters and their on den e intervals for the pa ket through-
put time series of UNC 1 PM and its four types of sour e-level tra e replay. . . . 228
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6.5 Estimated Hurst parameters and their on den e intervals for the byte through-
put time series of UNC 1 AM and its four types of sour e-level tra e replay. . . . 240
6.6 Estimated Hurst parameters and their on den e intervals for the pa ket through-
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put time series of UNC 1 AM and its four types of sour e-level tra e replay. . . . 241
6.7 Estimated Hurst parameters and their on den e intervals for the byte through-
put time series of UNC 7:30 PM and its four types of sour e-level tra e replay. . 248
6.8 Estimated Hurst parameters and their on den e intervals for the pa ket through-
put time series of UNC 7:30 PM and its four types of sour e-level tra e replay. . 250
6.9 Estimated Hurst parameters and their on den e intervals for the byte through-
put time series of Abilene-I and its four types of sour e-level tra e replay. . . . . 257
6.10 Estimated Hurst parameters and their on den e intervals for the pa ket through-
put time series of Abilene-I and its four types of sour e-level tra e replay. . . . . 258

7.1 Estimated Hurst parameters and their on den e intervals for the onne tion
arrival time series of UNC 1 PM and UNC 1 AM, and their Poisson arrival ts. . 275
7.2 Estimated Hurst parameters and their on den e intervals for ve subsamplings
obtained from the onne tion arrival time series of UNC 1 PM and UNC 1 AM . 284

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 LIST OF FIGURES
1.1 Network traÆ seen from di erent levels. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2 An a-b-t diagram illustrating a persistent HTTP onne tion. . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.3 A diagram illustrating the intera tion between two BitTorrent peers. . . . . . . . 10
1.4 Overview of Sour e-level Tra e Replay. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

3.1 An a-b-t diagram representing a typi al ADU ex hange in HTTP version 1.0. . . 48
3.2 An a-b-t diagram illustrating a persistent HTTP onne tion. . . . . . . . . . . . 49

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3.3 An a-b-t diagram illustrating an SMTP onne tion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
3.4 Three a-b-t diagrams representing three di erent types of NNTP intera tions. . . 54
3.5 An a-b-t diagram illustrating a server push from a web am using a persistent
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HTTP onne tion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
3.6 An a-b-t diagram illustrating I e ast audio streaming in a TCP onne tion. . . . 58
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3.7 Three a-b-t diagrams of onne tions taking part in the intera tion between an
FTP lient and an FTP server. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
3.8 An a-b-t diagram illustrating an NNTP onne tion in \stream-mode", whi h
exhibits data ex hange on urren y. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
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3.9 An a-b-t diagram illustrating the intera tion between two BitTorrent peers. . . . 60
3.10 A rst set of TCP segments for the onne tion ve tor in Figure 3.1: lossless
example. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
3.11 A se ond set of TCP segments for the onne tion ve tor in Figure 3.1: lossy
example. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
3.12 Distributions of ADU sizes for the testbed experiments with syntheti appli ations. 79
3.13 Distributions of quiet time durations for the testbed experiments with syntheti
appli ations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
3.14 Distributions of ADU sizes for the testbed experiments with syntheti appli ations. 81
3.15 Distributions of quiet time durations for the testbed experiments with syntheti
appli ations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
3.16 Bodies of the A and B distributions for Abilene-I, Leipzig-II and UNC 1 PM. . . 86

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3.17 Tails of the A and B distributions for Abilene-I, Leipzig-II and UNC 1 PM. . . . 86
3.18 Bodies of the A and B distributions with per-byte probabilities for Abilene-I,
Leipzig-II and UNC 1 PM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
3.19 Bodies of the E distributions for Abilene-I, Leipzig-II and UNC 1 PM. . . . . . . 88
3.20 Bodies of the E distributions with per-byte probabilities for Abilene-I, Leipzig-II
and UNC 1 PM. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
3.21 Tails of the E distributions for Abilene-I, Leipzig-II and UNC 1 PM. . . . . . . . 89
3.22 Average size of the epo hs in ea h onne tion ve tor as a fun tion of the number
of epo hs for Abilene-I, Leipzig-II and UNC 1 PM. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
3.23 Average of the median size of the ADUs in ea h onne tion ve tor as a fun tion
of the number of epo hs for Abilene-I, Leipzig-II and UNC 1 PM. . . . . . . . . . 90

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3.24 Average of the median size of the ADUs in ea h onne tion ve tor as a fun tion
of the number of epo hs, for Leipzig-II. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
3.25 Average of the median size of the ADUs in ea h onne tion ve tor as a fun tion
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of the number of epo hs for Abilene-I. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
3.26 Bodies of the TA and TB distributions for Abilene-I, Leipzig-II and UNC 1 PM. 92
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3.27 Tails of the TA and TB distributions for Abilene-I, Leipzig-II and UNC 1 PM. . 92
3.28 Distribution of the durations of the quiet times between the nal ADU and
onne tion termination. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
3.29 Bodies of the A and B distributions for the on urrent onne tions in Abilene-I,
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Leipzig-II and UNC 1 PM. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94

3.30 Tails of the A and B distributions for the on urrent onne tions in Abilene-I,
Leipzig-II and UNC 1 PM. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
3.31 Bodies of the TA and TB distributions for the on urrent onne tions in Abilene-
I, Leipzig-II and UNC 1 PM. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
3.32 Tails of the TA and TB distributions for the on urrent onne tions in Abilene-I,
Leipzig-II and UNC 1 PM. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
3.33 Bodies of the A distributions for UNC 1 AM, UNC 1 PM and UNC 7:30 PM. . . 96
3.34 Bodies of the B distributions for UNC 1 AM, UNC 1 PM and UNC 7:30 PM. . . 96
3.35 Bodies of the TB distributions for UNC 1 AM, UNC 1 PM and UNC 7:30 PM. . 97
3.36 Tails of the TB distributions for UNC 1 AM, UNC 1 PM and UNC 7:30 PM. . . 97
3.37 Bodies of the TA distributions for three UNC tra es. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98

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3.38 Tails of the TA distributions for three UNC tra es. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98

4.1 A set of TCP segments illustrating RTT estimation from onne tion establishment.109
4.2 Two sets of TCP segments illustrating RTT estimation ambiguities in the pres-
en e of loss and early retransmission in onne tion establishment. . . . . . . . . . 110
4.3 A set of TCP segments illustrating RTT estimation using the sum of two OSTTs.111
4.4 A set of TCP segments illustrating the impa t of delayed a knowledgments on
OSTTs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
4.5 Comparison of RTT estimators for a syntheti tra e: no loss and enabled delayed
a knowledgments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
4.6 Comparison of RTT estimators for a syntheti tra e: no loss and disabled delayed
a knowledgments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115

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4.7 Comparison of RTT estimators for a syntheti tra e: xed loss rate of 1% for all
onne tions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
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4.8 Comparison of RTT estimators for a syntheti tra e: loss rates uniformly dis-
tributed between 0% and 10%. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
4.9 A set of TCP segments illustrating an invalid OSTT sample due to the intera tion
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between loss and umulative a knowledgments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
4.10 Comparison of RTT estimators for a syntheti tra e: loss rates uniformly dis-
tributed between 0% and 10%. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
4.11 Comparison of RTT estimators for syntheti tra es: xed loss rate of 1%; real
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RTTs up to 4 se onds. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119

4.12 Bodies of the RTT distributions for the ve tra es. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
4.13 Bodies of the RTT distributions with per-byte probabilities for the ve tra es. . . 120
4.14 Comparison of the sum-of-minima and sum-of-medians RTT estimators for UNC
1 PM. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
4.15 Comparison of the sum-of-minima and sum-of-medians RTT estimators for Leipzig-
II. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
4.16 Bodies of the distributions of maximum re eiver window sizes for the ve tra es. 123
4.17 Bodies of the distributions of maximum re eiver window sizes with per-byte
probabilities for the ve tra es. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
4.18 Measured loss rates from experiments with 1% loss rates applied only on one
dire tion or on both dire tions of the TCP onne tions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
4.19 Bodies of the distributions of loss rates for the ve tra es. . . . . . . . . . . . . 129

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4.20 Bodies of the distributions of loss rates with per-byte probabilities for the ve
tra es. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
4.21 Breakdown of the byte throughput time series for Leipzig-II inbound. . . . . . . 131
4.22 Breakdown of the pa ket throughput time series for Leipzig-II inbound. . . . . . 131
4.23 Breakdown of the byte throughput time series for Leipzig-II outbound. . . . . . 133
4.24 Breakdown of the pa ket throughput time series for Leipzig-II outbound. . . . . 133
4.25 Breakdown of the byte throughput time series for Leipzig-II outbound. . . . . . 134
4.26 Breakdown of the pa ket throughput time series for Leipzig-II outbound. . . . . 134
4.27 Breakdown of the byte throughput time series for Abilene-I Ipls/Clev. . . . . . . 135
4.28 Breakdown of the pa ket throughput time series for Abilene-I Ipls/Clev. . . . . 135

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4.29 Breakdown of the byte throughput time series for Abilene-I Clev/Ipls. . . . . . . 137
4.30 Breakdown of the pa ket throughput time series for Abilene-I Clev/Ipls. . . . . 137
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4.31 Breakdown of the byte throughput time series for UNC 1 PM inbound. . . . . . 138
4.32 Breakdown of the pa ket throughput time series for UNC 1 PM inbound. . . . . 138
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4.33 Breakdown of the byte throughput time series for UNC 1 PM outbound. . . . . 138
4.34 Breakdown of the pa ket throughput time series for UNC 1 PM outbound. . . . 138
4.35 Breakdown of the byte throughput time series for the three UNC tra es. . . . . 140
PR

4.36 Breakdown of the pa ket throughput time series for the three UNC tra es. . . . 140
4.37 Byte throughput marginals of Leipzig-II inbound, its normal distribution t, the
marginal distribution of its Poisson arrival t, and the normal distribution t of
this Poisson arrival t. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
4.38 Pa ket throughput marginals of Leipzig-II inbound, its normal distribution t,
the marginal distribution of its Poisson arrival t, and the normal distribution
t of this Poisson arrival t. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
4.39 Byte throughput marginals of UNC 1 PM outbound, its normal distribution t,
the marginal distribution of its Poisson arrival t, and the normal distribution
t of this Poisson arrival t. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
4.40 Pa ket throughput marginals of UNC 1 PM outbound, its normal distribution t,
the marginal distribution of its Poisson arrival t, and the normal distribution
t of this Poisson arrival t. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144

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4.41 Quantile-quantile plots with simulation envelops for the marginal distribution of
Leipzig-II inbound. The top four plots show byte throughput, while the four
bottom plots show pa ket throughput. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
4.42 Quantile-quantile plots with simulation envelops for the marginal distribution of
UNC 1 PM outbound. The top four plots show byte throughput, while the four
bottom plots show pa ket throughput. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
4.43 Wavelet spe tra of the pa ket throughput time series for Leipzig-II inbound and
its Poisson arrival t. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
4.44 Wavelet spe tra of the byte throughput time series for Leipzig-II inbound and
its Poisson arrival t. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
4.45 Wavelet spe tra of the pa ket throughput time series for Abilene-I. . . . . . . . 154
4.46 Wavelet spe tra of the byte throughput time series for Abilene-I. . . . . . . . . . 154

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4.47 Wavelet spe tra of the pa ket throughput time series for UNC 1 PM. . . . . . . 155
4.48 Wavelet spe tra of the byte throughput time series for UNC 1 PM. . . . . . . . 155
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4.49 Breakdown of the a tive onne tions time series for Leipzig-II. . . . . . . . . . . 157
4.50 Impa t of the de nition of a tive onne tion on Leipzig-II. . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
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4.51 Breakdown of the a tive onne tions time series for Abilene-I. . . . . . . . . . . 158
4.52 Impa t of the de nition of a tive onne tion on Abilene-I. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
4.53 Breakdown of a tive onne tions time series for UNC 1 PM using both de nitions
of a tive onne tion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
PR

4.54 Impa t of the time-of-day on the a tive onne tions time series for the three UNC
tra es. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159

5.1 Overview of Sour e-level Tra e Replay. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166

5.2 Diagram of the network testbed where the experiments of this dissertation were
ondu ted. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
5.3 End-host ar hite ture of the traÆ generation system. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
5.4 Bodies and tails of the A distributions for Leipzig-II and its sour e-level tra e
replays. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
5.5 Bodies and tails of the B distributions for Leipzig-II and its sour e-level tra e
replays. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
5.6 Bodies and tails of the E distributions for Leipzig-II and its sour e-level tra e
replays. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177

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5.7 Bodies and tails of the TA distributions for Leipzig-II and its sour e-level tra e
replays. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
5.8 Bodies and tails of the TB distributions for Leipzig-II and its sour e-level tra e
replays. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
5.9 Bodies of the round-trip time and re eiver window size distributions for Leipzig-II
and its sour e-level tra e replays. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
5.10 Bodies the loss rate distributions for Leipzig-II and its sour e-level tra e replays,
with probabilities omputed per onne tion (left) and per byte (right). . . . . . . 181
5.11 Bodies and tails of the A distributions for UNC 1 PM and its sour e-level tra e
replays. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
5.12 Bodies and tails of the B distributions for UNC 1 PM and its sour e-level tra e
replays. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184

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5.13 Bodies and tails of the E distributions for UNC 1 PM and its sour e-level tra e
replays. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
5.14 Bodies and tails of the TA distributions for UNC 1 PM and its sour e-level tra e
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replays. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
5.15 Bodies and tails of the TB distributions for UNC 1 PM and its sour e-level tra e
replays. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
EV

5.16 Bodies of the round-trip time and re eiver window size distributions for UNC 1
PM and its sour e-level tra e replays. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
5.17 Bodies of the loss rate distributions for UNC 1 PM and its sour e-level tra e
PR

replays, with probabilities omputed per onne tion (left) and per byte (right). . 187
5.18 Bodies and tails of the A distributions for Abilene-I and its sour e-level tra e
replays. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
5.19 Bodies and tails of the B distributions for Abilene-I and its sour e-level tra e
replays. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
5.20 Bodies and tails of the E distributions for Abilene-I and its sour e-level tra e
replays. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
5.21 Bodies and tails of the TA distributions for Abilene-I and its sour e-level tra e
replays. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
5.22 Bodies and tails of the TB distributions for Abilene-I and its sour e-level tra e
replays. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
5.23 Bodies of the round-trip time and re eiver window size distributions for Abilene-I
and its sour e-level tra e replays. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191

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5.24 Bodies of the loss rate distributions for Abilene-I and its sour e-level tra e re-
plays, with probabilities omputed per onne tion (left) and per byte (right). . . 191

6.1 Byte throughput time series for Leipzig-II inbound and its four types of sour e-
level tra e replay. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
6.2 Byte throughput time series for Leipzig-II outbound and its four types of sour e-
level tra e replay. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
6.3 Pa ket throughput time series for Leipzig-II inbound and its four types of sour e-
level tra e replay. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
6.4 Pa ket throughput time series for Leipzig-II outbound and its four types of
sour e-level tra e replay. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
6.5 Byte throughput marginals for Leipzig-II inbound and its four types of sour e-
level tra e replay. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206

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6.6 Byte throughput marginals for Leipzig-II outbound and its four types of sour e-
level tra e replay. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
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6.7 Pa ket throughput marginals for Leipzig-II inbound and its four types of sour e-
level tra e replay. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
6.8 Pa ket throughput marginals for Leipzig-II outbound and its four types of sour e-
EV
level tra e replay. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
6.9 Wavelet spe tra of the byte throughput time series for Leipzig-II inbound and
its four types of sour e-level tra e replay. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
6.10 Wavelet spe tra of the byte throughput time series for Leipzig-II outbound and
PR

its four types of sour e-level tra e replay. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212

6.11 Wavelet spe tra of the pa ket throughput time series for Leipzig-II inbound and
its four types of sour e-level tra e replay. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
6.12 Wavelet spe tra of the pa ket throughput time series for Leipzig-II outbound
and its four types of sour e-level tra e replay. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
6.13 A tive onne tion time series for Leipzig-II and its four types of sour e-level tra e
replay. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
6.14 Byte throughput time series for UNC 1 PM inbound and its four types of sour e-
level tra e replay. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
6.15 Byte throughput time series for UNC 1 PM outbound and its four types of
sour e-level tra e replay. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
6.16 Pa ket throughput time series for UNC 1 PM inbound and its four types of
sour e-level tra e replay. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220

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6.17 Pa ket throughput time series for UNC 1 PM outbound and its four types of
sour e-level tra e replay. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
6.18 Byte throughput marginals for UNC 1 PM inbound and its four types of sour e-
level tra e replay. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
6.19 Byte throughput marginals for UNC 1 PM outbound and its four types of sour e-
level tra e replay. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
6.20 Pa ket throughput marginals for UNC 1 PM inbound and its four types of sour e-
level tra e replay. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
6.21 Pa ket throughput marginals for UNC 1 PM outbound and its four types of
sour e-level tra e replay. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
6.22 Wavelet spe tra of the byte throughput time series for UNC 1 PM inbound and
its four types of sour e-level tra e replay. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225

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6.23 Wavelet spe tra of the byte throughput time series for UNC 1 PM outbound and
its four types of sour e-level tra e replay. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
6.24 Wavelet spe tra of the pa ket throughput time series for UNC 1 PM inbound
IE
and its four types of sour e-level tra e replay. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
6.25 Wavelet spe tra of the pa ket throughput time series for UNC 1 PM outbound
and its four types of sour e-level tra e replay. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
EV

6.26 A tive onne tion time series for UNC 1 PM and its four types of sour e-level
tra e replay. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
6.27 Byte throughput time series for UNC 1 AM inbound and its four types of sour e-
PR

level tra e replay. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234

6.28 Byte throughput time series for UNC 1 AM outbound and its four types of
sour e-level tra e replay. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
6.29 Pa ket throughput time series for UNC 1 AM inbound and its four types of
sour e-level tra e replay. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
6.30 Pa ket throughput time series for UNC 1 AM outbound and its four types of
sour e-level tra e replay. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
6.31 Byte throughput marginals for UNC 1 AM inbound and its four types of sour e-
level tra e replay. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
6.32 Byte throughput marginals for UNC 1 AM outbound and its four types of sour e-
level tra e replay. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
6.33 Pa ket throughput marginals for UNC 1 AM inbound and its four types of sour e-
level tra e replay. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238

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6.34 Pa ket throughput marginals for UNC 1 AM outbound and its four types of
sour e-level tra e replay. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
6.35 Wavelet spe tra of the byte throughput time series for UNC 1 AM inbound and
its four types of sour e-level tra e replay. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
6.36 Wavelet spe tra of the byte throughput time series for UNC 1 AM outbound and
its four types of sour e-level tra e replay. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
6.37 Wavelet spe tra of the pa ket throughput time series for UNC 1 AM inbound
and its four types of sour e-level tra e replay. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
6.38 Wavelet spe tra of the pa ket throughput time series for UNC 1 AM outbound
and its four types of sour e-level tra e replay. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
6.39 A tive onne tion time series for UNC 1 AM and its four types of sour e-level
tra e replay. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242

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6.40 Byte throughput time series for UNC 7:30 PM inbound and its four types of
sour e-level tra e replay. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
6.41 Byte throughput time series for UNC 7:30 PM outbound and its four types of
IE
sour e-level tra e replay. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
6.42 Pa ket throughput time series for UNC 7:30 PM inbound and its four types of
sour e-level tra e replay. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
EV

6.43 Pa ket throughput time series for UNC 7:30 PM outbound and its four types of
sour e-level tra e replay. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
6.44 Byte throughput marginals for UNC 7:30 PM inbound and its four types of
PR

sour e-level tra e replay. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245

6.45 Byte throughput marginals for UNC 7:30 PM outbound and its four types of
sour e-level tra e replay. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
6.46 Pa ket throughput marginals for UNC 7:30 PM inbound and its four types of
sour e-level tra e replay. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
6.47 Pa ket throughput marginals for UNC 7:30 PM outbound and its four types of
sour e-level tra e replay. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
6.48 Wavelet spe tra of the byte throughput time series for UNC 7:30 PM inbound
and its four types of sour e-level tra e replay. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
6.49 Wavelet spe tra of the byte throughput time series for UNC 7:30 PM outbound
and its four types of sour e-level tra e replay. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
6.50 Wavelet spe tra of the pa ket throughput time series for UNC 7:30 PM inbound
and its four types of sour e-level tra e replay. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250

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6.51 Wavelet spe tra of the pa ket throughput time series for UNC 7:30 PM outbound
and its four types of sour e-level tra e replay. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
6.52 A tive onne tion time series for UNC 7:30 PM and its four types of sour e-level
tra e replay. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
6.53 Byte throughput time series for Abilene-I Clev/Ipls and its four types of sour e-
level tra e replay. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
6.54 Byte throughput time series for Abilene-I Ipls/Clev and its four types of sour e-
level tra e replay. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
6.55 Pa ket throughput time series for Abilene-I Clev/Ipls and its four types of sour e-
level tra e replay. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
6.56 Pa ket throughput time series for Abilene-I Ipls/Clev and its four types of sour e-
level tra e replay. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254

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6.57 Byte throughput marginals for Abilene-I Clev/Ipls and its four types of sour e-
level tra e replay. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
6.58 Byte throughput marginals for Abilene-I Ipls/Clev and its four types of sour e-
IE
level tra e replay. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
6.59 Pa ket throughput marginals for Abilene-I Clev/Ipls and its four types of sour e-
level tra e replay. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
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6.60 Pa ket throughput marginals for Abilene-I Ipls/Clev and its four types of sour e-
level tra e replay. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
6.61 Wavelet spe tra of the byte throughput time series for Abilene-I Clev/Ipls and
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its four types of sour e-level tra e replay. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257

6.62 Wavelet spe tra of the byte throughput time series for Abilene-I Ipls/Clev and
its four types of sour e-level tra e replay. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
6.63 Wavelet spe tra of the pa ket throughput time series for Abilene-I Clev/Ipls and
its four types of sour e-level tra e replay. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
6.64 Wavelet spe tra of the pa ket throughput time series for Abilene-I Ipls/Clev and
its four types of sour e-level tra e replay. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
6.65 A tive onne tion time series for Abilene-I and its four types of sour e-level tra e
replay. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259

7.1 Bodies of the distributions of onne tion inter-arrivals for UNC 1 PM and 1 AM,
and their exponential ts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
7.2 Tails of the distributions of onne tion inter-arrivals for UNC 1 PM and 1 AM,
and their exponential ts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266

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7.3 Bodies of the distributions of onne tion inter-arrivals for Abilene-I and Leipzig-
II, and their exponential ts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
7.4 Tails of the distributions of onne tion inter-arrivals for Abilene-I and Leipzig-II,
and their exponential ts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
7.5 Average o ered load vs. number of onne tions for 1,000 Poisson resamplings of
UNC 1 PM. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
7.6 Histogram of the average o ered loads in 1,000 Poisson resamplings of UNC 1 PM.268
7.7 Tails of the distributions of onne tion sizes for UNC 1 PM. . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
7.8 Analysis of the a ura y of onne tion-driven Poisson Resampling from 6,000
resamplings of UNC 1 PM (1,000 for ea h target o ered load). . . . . . . . . . . 270
7.9 Comparison of average o ered load vs. number of onne tions for 1,000 onne tion-
driven Poisson resamplings and 1,000 byte-driven Poisson resamplings of UNC 1

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PM. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
7.10 Histogram of the average o ered loads in 1,000 byte-driven Poisson resamplings
of UNC 1 PM. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
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7.11 Analysis of the a ura y of byte-driven Poisson Resampling from 4,000 resam-
plings of UNC 1 PM (1,000 for ea h target o ered load). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
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7.12 Analysis of the a ura y of byte-driven Poisson Resampling using sour e-level
tra es replay: replays of three separate resamplings of UNC 1 PM for ea h target
o ered load, illustrating the s aling down of load from the original 177.36 Mbps. 274
7.13 Analysis of the a ura y of byte-driven Poisson Resampling using testbed ex-
PR

periments: replay of one resampling of UNC 1 AM for ea h target o ered load,

illustrating the s aling up of load from the original 91.65 Mbps. . . . . . . . . . . 274
7.14 Conne tion arrival time series for UNC 1 PM (dashed line) and a Poisson arrival
pro ess with the same mean (solid line). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
7.15 Conne tion arrival time series for UNC 1 AM and a Poisson arrivals pro ess with
the same mean. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
7.16 Wavelet spe tra of the onne tion arrival time series for UNC 1 PM and a Poisson
arrival pro ess with the same mean. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
7.17 Wavelet spe tra of the onne tion arrival time series for UNC 1 AM and a Poisson
arrival pro ess with the same mean. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
7.18 Blo k resamplings of UNC 1 PM: impa t of di erent blo k lengths on the wavelet
spe trum of the onne tion arrival time series. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
7.19 Blo k resamplings of UNC 1 AM: impa t of di erent blo k lengths on the wavelet
spe trum of the onne tion arrival time series. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280

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7.20 Blo k resamplings of UNC 1 PM: average o ered load vs. number of onne tion
ve tors (left) and orresponding histograms of average o ered loads (right) in
3,000 resamplings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
7.21 Wavelet spe tra of several random subsamplings of the onne tion ve tors in
UNC 1 PM (left) and 1 AM (right) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
7.22 Analysis of the a ura y of byte-driven Blo k Resampling using sour e-level tra e
replay: replays of two separate resamplings of UNC 1 PM for ea h target o ered
load, illustrating the s aling down of load from the original 177.36 Mbps. . . . . 285
7.23 Analysis of the a ura y of byte-driven Blo k Resampling using sour e-level tra e
replay: replay of one resampling of UNC 1 AM for ea h target o ered load,
illustrating the s aling up of load from the original 91.65 Mbps. . . . . . . . . . . 285
7.24 Wavelet spe tra of the pa ket arrival time series for UNC 1 PM and the sour e-
level tra e replays of two blo k resamplings of this tra e. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286

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7.25 Wavelet spe tra of the pa ket arrival time series for UNC 1 PM and the sour e-
level tra e replays of three Poisson resamplings of this tra e. . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
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 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

ACK Positive a knowledgment TCP segment

ADU Appli ation Data Unit
API Appli ation Programming Interfa e
AQM A tive Queue Management
BGP Border Gateway Proto ol
BPF Berkeley Pa ket Filter
C.I. Con den e Interval
CCDF

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Complementary Cumulative Distribution Fun tion
CDF Cumulative Distribution Fun tion
DAG
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Data A quisition and Generation
FIFO First-In First-Out
FIN TCP ontrol ag indi ating \no more data from sender".
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FTP File Transfer Proto ol

GB Gigabyte
GPS Global Positioning System
PR

HTML HyperText Markup Language

HTTP HyperText Transfer Proto ol
I/O Input/Output
ICMP Internet Control Message Proto ol
IP Internet Proto ol
IRC Internet Relay Chat
ISP Internet Servi e Provider
K-S Kolmogorov-Smirnov test
KB Kilobyte
Kpps Kilo pa ket per se ond
LRD Long-Range Dependen e

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