Teacher Qualifications,

Professionalism, Competencies,
and Benchmarks
SERAN DOĞANÇAY-AKTUNA AND JOEL HARDMAN

­Framing the Issue

In order to become TESOL professionals in the 21st century, teachers need a spe-
cialized knowledge base obtained through both academic study and practice. In
other words, teachers need to have disciplinary content knowledge about the nature
of language, language learning, and language teaching, as well as pedagogical
content knowledge consisting of an extensive repertoire of practical teaching
skills/strategies that they can use to make their teaching contextually appropri-
ate and effective. In addition to gaining disciplinary and pedagogical knowl-
edge, teachers also need to engage in reflective activities and classroom-based
research, not only to be able to make a connection between these two bodies of
knowledge, but also to discover their beliefs about themselves as teachers and to
develop their professional identities while theorizing from their practice.
This network of qualifications is especially important for globalized teachers of
English. Globalized English teachers include NNESTs and anyone around
the world working in classrooms outside second-language (ESL) contexts. Such
teachers need to be aware of global trends in English education and the multilin-
gual character of language classrooms and learners. Because of the emergent char-
acter of this awareness, in widely variable contexts, the ability to integrate different
knowledge bases and relate those competences to one’s own identity as a teacher
of a global language is key.
A number of frameworks have been proposed to delineate the components of the
knowledge base that second language teachers need to develop. Day (1993), for
instance, lists the four domains of teacher knowledge as: (1) content knowledge,
referring to the subject matter, the English language, as represented by courses in
areas of linguistics, and literary and cultural aspects of English; (2) ­pedagogic
knowledge, defined as knowledge of generic teaching strategies, beliefs and

The TESOL Encyclopedia of English Language Teaching, First Edition.

Edited by John I. Liontas (Project Editor: Margo DelliCarpini).
© 2018 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Published 2018 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
DOI: 10.1002/9781118784235.eelt0034

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 2 Teacher Qualifications, Professionalism, Competencies, and Benchmarks

practices, including lesson design and class management; (3) pedagogic content
knowledge, referring to specialized knowledge on how to present the subject mat-
ter to learners, design, and evaluate lessons, and so forth; and (4) support knowl-
edge, referring to knowledge of other disciplines that inform TESOL, for example,
psycholinguistics, linguistics, second language acquisition, sociolinguistics, and
research methods.
Richards (1998) offers an extended yet overlapping framework to Day’s and
adds knowledge of the social context of teaching to teachers’ knowledge base.
Richards lists the areas of teacher knowledge as (1) theories of L2 teaching,
(2) teaching skills, (3) communication skills and language proficiency, (4) subject
matter knowledge, (5) pedagogical reasoning and decision making, and
(6) ­contextual knowledge.
In this chapter, the broad labels of disciplinary content knowledge and peda-
gogical content knowledge are used to refer to the above areas of teacher knowl-
edge. Disciplinary content knowledge refers to knowledge of the subject matter
that consists of knowledge about the nature of the English language, language
learning, and language teaching, as gained through the study of linguistics, lan-
guage acquisition, and language teaching methodology, respectively. Embedded
within subject matter knowledge is a high proficiency in English that enables
teachers to use English appropriately in speaking and writing across genres.
Pedagogical content knowledge refers to knowledge of and ability to use teaching
tools to make the subject matter accessible to and appropriate for particular learner
groups in particular contexts.

­Making the Case

All teachers need to integrate training (pedagogical skill development) with disci-
plinary knowledge and understanding, which will be different for every type of
teacher, as these qualities emerge from their particular contexts of teaching. Along
with these knowledge bases, there is need for an understanding of how identity
relates to the process of second language acquisition. Acquiring a second language
involves not just learning a new way to express one’s identity, but the actual addi-
tion of a new identity to one’s repertoire of identities. Teacher educators need to
help teachers develop an understanding about how identity shapes and is shaped
by language. Global English learners are faced with a complex and changing
world, and are negotiating through language what their place will be in new com-
munities of practice with English as an international language.
A critical understanding of pedagogy is also an important component of a
developing teacher’s knowledge base. Over the last couple of decades there has
been increasing agreement that good language teaching is not just context-­
dependent, with no absolute best practices, but even in particular contexts good
pedagogy is “situated,” meaning it is an emergent quality from the setting. This
situatedness is true even for the most widely praised language-teaching methods,
such as communicative language teaching, which has been seen as problematic

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 Teacher Qualifications, Professionalism, Competencies, and Benchmarks 3

in some contexts. The core of a critical understanding of pedagogy is the respon-

sibility of the teacher to be an agent of change, to take a critical stance that can
distance one from the “givens” of a teaching setting and see the possibilities that
can result from disruptive interrogations of one’s pedagogy. Taking a critical
stance is particularly important for NNESTs and NESTs teaching English as an
international language outside ESL contexts, when they are faced with teaching
approaches and materials emerging from ESL contexts and when they could be
in a position to choose between a monolithic and a plurilithic approach to the
English language. The expropriation/appropriation of teaching approaches
across global contexts requires careful examination of the underlying cultural
assumptions and sociopolitical ideologies of those methodologies, materials,
and language varieties.
As mentioned above, a crucial part of teachers’ disciplinary content knowledge
is the teachers’ own level of awareness of the internal structure of the English
language (i.e., knowing about the language) and their ability to use English to
communicate effectively across domains, especially non-native-English-speaking
teachers. English language teachers need to achieve the ability to use English
effectively for different purposes, as well as possessing a meta-knowledge of
English—knowledge about English—that would give them the skills to analyze
and explain the language. Teachers’ English language proficiency needs to be
contextually appropriate in terms of reflecting local needs and constraints as well
as responding to the role of English as a lingua franca around the world.
Traditional views of English language proficiency meant developing a high
level of proficiency in using Standard English as used by its native speakers,
together with knowledge about its phonology, syntax, lexicon, and discourse
styles, as well as its literary and cultural aspects. This view of English language
proficiency has been evolving in the era of global Englishes to include awareness
of the newer and emergent varieties of English and its global sociocultural func-
tions. As Mahboob and Dutcher (2014) argue, traditional views of English lan-
guage proficiency are no longer applicable when English has spread beyond the
native and institutionalized/nativized varieties to new contexts where new norms
are emerging and when strategies of negotiation, rather than the mastery of a par-
ticular variety, are needed for successful interactions. Teachers need to develop the
pragmatic skills they can use to act as a bridge across different varieties and users
of English. Such pragmatic awareness needs to become an integral component of
their English language proficiency. The current sociolinguistic reality of English as
a global language, with multiple varieties used by different speech communities,
necessitates that the construct of proficiency needs to be redefined as involving
intercultural communication.
This new reality of English necessitates a move away from the tendency to
measure language proficiency against British and American standards toward a
dynamic approach. English language proficiency in the 21st century can thus be
defined as consisting of the ability to use English appropriately in speaking and
writing across genres, awareness of global Englishes, and pragmatic skills to nego-
tiate across varieties of English and multiple contexts of use. It must be mentioned,

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 4 Teacher Qualifications, Professionalism, Competencies, and Benchmarks

however, that achieving appropriate language proficiency to navigate global

Englishes is only one component of achieving professionalism in English language
teaching for both NESTs and NNESTs.

­Pedagogical Implications

There have been attempts to establish standards to delineate the knowledge base
of teacher education programs and to establish benchmarks for professional com-
petence. Well-known standards informing language teaching in North America
have been the ACTFL and NCATE. (As of July 1, 2013, the NCATE [National
Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education] and the TEAC [Teacher Education
Accreditation Council] have been consolidated into CAEP [Council for the
Accreditation of Educator Preparation] as the new accrediting body for educator
preparation.) Both sets of standards outline the knowledge base, skills, and profes-
sional dispositions required for effective language teaching and professionaliza-
tion. TESOL uses the NCATE standards in formulating standards for K-12 ESL
teacher education, for teachers of adult ESL/EFL learners, and for EFL teacher
education.
Important questions to ask regarding standards are whether it is feasible, or
appropriate, to have a single set of standards developed in a particular context for
all English language teaching professionals, regardless of their contexts of teach-
ing, and whether the effectiveness of these guidelines/standards has been estab-
lished by research. The transferability of standards across NES to NNES contexts
and their value in continued professional development of teachers need to be
scrutinized carefully, especially given the situated and constantly changing nature
of English language teaching (see discussion of pedagogy).
What the language teaching profession would benefit more from are measures
that will help teachers continue their professional development in the long term
by engaging in self-evaluation (see below for suggestions for such professional
development). Standards can both provide a rigorous framework for teacher
preparation and evaluation, but can also limit possibility and ignore the variation
found in NNES contexts. Locally determined and hence more context-appropriate
standards and benchmarks would be more meaningful and fairer to use in
particular contexts of teaching. Such standards need to emerge from a profes-
sional community’s shared identification of expertise and must provide teacher
education programs with a clear framework for developing and assessing that
expertise.
Language teacher education programs should include the study of content
areas that constitute the knowledge base of language teacher education and a
practicum experience grounded in reflective teaching and training in classroom-
based research. Becoming a reflective teacher who is also skilled in investigating
the outcomes of his/her pedagogical decisions and actions is essential for the
professional development of language teachers, both in the short and the long
term. By examining the nature of teaching and learning in their classrooms,

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 Teacher Qualifications, Professionalism, Competencies, and Benchmarks 5

teachers can develop a deeper awareness of themselves as professionals and of

the processes of language learning. It is through such practices that teachers move
beyond the theory-practice or knowledge-skills dichotomies to understand how
they actually teach, the decisions they make, and how their conceptions of lan-
guage, language learning and their previous experiences as well as conceptions of
themselves as teachers influence their instructional decisions and actions.
An effective teacher education program should also offer teachers assistance to
work on their areas of perceived and real weaknesses in a situated fashion, such as
offering both NNESTs and NESTs contextually appropriate opportunities for
working on their linguistic, metalinguistic, and cross-cultural awareness, while
helping them become engaged in their professional discourse communities
through publications and professional meetings. Teacher educators should also be
concerned with teachers’ self-perceptions because these influence how teachers
position themselves in the classroom, contribute (positively or negatively) to
instructional practices, and ultimately affect students’ motivation and learning
(Kamhi-Stein, 2014). Because teachers’ perception of their own proficiency is an
important component of their professional identity that can influence their self-
esteem and subsequent employability, more emphasis needs to be given in teacher
education programs to developing their ability to use and teach English effectively
across skill areas. Among the strengths of NNESTs is their ability to explain and
teach English grammar using their lived experiences as English language learners
or the training they have received. Despite their generally greater metalinguistic
awareness, however, NNESTs may lack confidence in their fluency/spontaneity in
English and their knowledge of/ability to explain the sociocultural norms of
English as used in the inner circles. Many TESOL preparation programs in inner-
circle contexts lack the necessary training components that can help NNESTs with
the above.
Some recommendations for preparing TESOL professionals in the 21st century
are the following:

●● Reinforce the need for professional preparation for all teachers, NESTs and
NNESTs.
●● Avoid equating professionalism with native-speaker status in English (see
Kamhi-Stein, 2014).
●● Help teachers contextualize their learning through well-designed practicum
experiences that allow them to observe and collaborate with other teachers,
including mentor teachers, and engage in classroom investigations to practice
what they are learning.
●● Equip teachers with the necessary knowledge and skills to become teacher
researchers who can investigate their own practices and evaluate new research
in the field. Resources such as Murphy (2014) on practices of reflective teaching,
and McKay (2006) and Richards and Farrell (2005) on approaches to classroom-
based investigations such as team teaching, peer observation, and coaching,
critical incident analysis, and action research, among other approaches, are
excellent references to use in a practicum course.

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 6 Teacher Qualifications, Professionalism, Competencies, and Benchmarks

●● Raise teachers’ awareness of the situatedness of English language teaching and

of the variation in the forms and functions of global Englishes as well as criti-
cally oriented scholarship (ELF, EIL, and WE perspectives). This means equip-
ping them with: (1) critical perspectives to guide their evaluation of approaches
and materials emerging from teaching contexts other than their own, (2) peda-
gogical skills to design courses appropriate to their contexts of teaching, (3)
instructional practices to use while raising their students’ awareness of global
Englishes, and (4) intercultural communication tools to navigate across these
varieties.
●● Initiate teachers into their professional communities by engaging them in pro-
fessional presentations and publications. To this end, introduce them to free
online resources, such as open-access journals, digests from professional organ-
izations, corpora on uses of English as an international language, and online
discussion forums they can participate in to sustain their long-term profes-
sional development.
●● Develop locally appropriate standards to guide and evaluate professional
development.

SEE ALSO: Center and Periphery; Globalization, English Language Teaching,

and Teachers; In-Service Training in Preparing NESTs and NNESTs; Knowledge
Base for Second Language Teaching; Language Proficiency and NNESTs; NNESTs;
Preparing Teacher Educators to Work With NESTs and NNESTs; Teacher Education
Programs in Preparing NESTs and NNESTs; Teaching Practicum in Preparing
NESTs and NNESTs; World Englishes and NNESTs

References

Day, R. (1993). Models and the knowledge base of second language teacher education.
University of Hawai’i Working Papers in ESL, 11(2), 1–13.
Kamhi-Stein, L. (2014). Non-native English-speaking teachers in the profession. In M. Celce-
Murcia, D. M. Brinton, & M. A. Snow (Eds.), Teaching English as a second or foreign language
(4th ed., pp. 586–600). Boston, MA: Heinle Cengage Learning.
Mahboob, A., & Dutcher, L. (2014). Towards a dynamic approach to language proficiency: A
model. In A. Mahboob & L. Barratt (Eds.), Englishes in multilingual context: Language
variation and education (pp. 117–36). Dordrecht, Netherlands: Springer.
McKay, S. L. (2006). Researching second language classrooms. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Murphy, J. (2014). Reflective teaching: Principles and practices. In M. Celce-Murcia, D. M.
Brinton, & M. A. Snow (Eds.), Teaching English as a second or foreign language (4th ed.,
pp. 613–29). Boston, MA: Heinle Cengage Learning.
Richards, J. (1998). The scope of second language teacher education. In J. Richards, Beyond
training (pp. 1–30). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
Richards, J., & Farrell, S. C. (2005). Professional development for language teachers: Strategies for
teacher learning. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.

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Suggested Readings

Dogancay-Aktuna, S., & Hardman, J. (2012). Teacher education for EIL: Working toward a
situated meta-praxis. In A. Matsuda (Ed.), Principles and strategies of teaching English as an
international language (pp. 103–20). Buffalo, NY: Multilingual Matters.
Kamhi-Stein, L. (2004). Learning and teaching from experience: Perspectives on nonnative English-
speaking professionals. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
Mahboob, A. (Ed.). (2010). The NNEST lens: Non-native English speakers in TESOL. Newcastle
upon Tyne, England: Cambridge Scholars Publishers.

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