ean ture, Numerical Problems on specific wr = - a = ; a = Ss Units CC Thermal (heat) ity ’ : 0 0 Mutual relations betwey n heat capacity : Sr and copper). Principle of method of : ‘Ne heat; consequences of high a : gain of heat involving change or aa soge of sabes | Chan heat: sp latent heat of fusion (S., unit), 2 volving latent heat of fusion (A) HEAT CAPACITY, SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY AND ITS MEASUREMENT tut CONCEPT OF HEAT Units of heat Fe tke ane is made up of Like other formate aan © heat is joule (symbol J) rs The other most commonly used unit of heat s calorie {symbol cal). It is defined as follows One calorie is the quantity of heat energy 10 raise the temperature of | g of water th In the above definition, it has been assumed that the heat energy required to raise the temperature of | ¢ of water through 1°C at each initial temperature is same. However, this is not true due to non- uniform thermal expansion of water. Hence the the cold body warms up. precise definition of calorie (which is also called a hot body is kept in . n. ie.. the internal 15°C -ealorie) is given as follows : Ma <<... re is a flow of e1 gy —— ak Sakitbadenal emp 1 of water from 14:5°C 10 to the cold body when they are rature of | g of water fro °C 10 : tact. |The_energywhichflows fromthe. The unit calorie is related to the SI. unit joule =) 10 the cold body is called the heat energy the heat) Thus, ‘energy which flows froma aL calorie (or 1 cal) = 4-186 Vor 4.2 J nearly (11.1) gold body when they are kept in.contact. : Like all other 7 Calorie is a smaller unit of heat, so at times "e2surable iasarate ity is joule per The S.1. unit of heat capacity 1s ule. D kelvin (or 1.K-). It is also written-as-joule-per degree C (or J °C-')®. T acity the other common units of heat ‘Since m piv (K),20 #8 wore bs Silvio of remperstre & bstein ee ‘appropiate Yo write the Sl. amt TK ! instead of 1 °C 203are cal °C-! (or cal K7!) and keal °C"! (or keal K- They are related as aad 1 kcal °C-! = 1000 cal °C-! L cal K-! = 4.2 JK?! and. Note : If the heat capacity of an object is 30 JK, it means that 30 J heat energy is required to raise the temperature of that object by 1 K (or 1°C). 11.6 SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY capacity of a body when expressed for the unit mass is called the specific heat capacity of ‘the substance of that body. It is denoted by the symbol c. The specific heat capacity (c) is the characteristic property of the substance and is different for different substance: Thus, specific heat capacity of a substance is defined as the heat capacity per unit mass of a body of that substance, i.e., (ii) The increase in the tey body, ne. Q= Ar (iii) The material or ‘substance of th Qec. ; Units of specific heat Capacity _The S.1. unit of specific heat capacy per kilogram per kelvin (or ¥} See ml per kilogram per degree celsius (or J fg-1 5% The other units of specific heat 7 cel a capacin cal g 1 °C and heal kg! °C"!, These uni related JL keal-kg=K-1 4:2 «10S kg"! KL Note : I specific heat capacity of copper 0-4 J g-' K-1, it means that the hea energy | Tequired to raise the temperature of 1 g of coppes| Lby 1K Gr 1°C)is.0-4.1. 1K (or 1°C) is ‘MPerature le Heat capacity of body C’ Specific heat capacity ¢ = oa pak = pent? 1x7). From eqn. (11.6), C’= & ©. Specific heat capacity ¢ = a S| 1.8) In other words, we can define specific heat capacity as follows : are Of t "through 1°C Relationship between the heat Capacity and specific heat capacity From eqn. (11.7). (ULL) The above eqn. (11.11) relates the heat capacity C’ of a body to the specific heat capacity c of its substance. 11.7 DISTINCTION BETWEEN THE HEAT “ied pa ral ae Oe reamsic HEAT CAPACITY OF SOME 11.9 18 SPEC SUBSTANCES A calorimeter pews oper. tis dif * alfferent by body when it iy pense gained (or lost) 9 aally a_good conductor of heat has Substance. Trig egret oer boy at capacity. while a bad conductor. ahi gheeg gents PE Udall is made-up cific heat capacity. For example, Sheet of copper because (i) eid isa Facer copper is 0-4 J gl K-1 200d Conductor of jas eat capacity of copper is Je'kK of heat, so the a es ee is 4.2 J ¢! K". Copper is a good a a ofite conten se ees ait cto of heat, but water is a bad (or poor) i Specific heat capacity so the amowat of beat contr of heat. If we heat equal mass of two Snerey taken by the calorimeter itself f conduct stances on the same burner so that the Omens fo acquire its temy rap a ae sien at supply is same, we notice that after The outer and inner surfaces of vessel ar ime interval, the rise in temperature for $0 8 to reduce the loss of heat due to radiation, i jo substances is different. This is because of For insulation, it is placed inside a wooden jacket. mi different specific heat capacities. The The space between the calorimeter and the jacket tunstance with ow specific heat capacity shows @ is filled with some poor conductor such as wool rapid and Tigh rise_it ure. Thus, it is @ cotton, ete. to avoid the heat loss by conduction, It Jeter conductor of heat.than the substance with is covered with a wooden lid to avoid the heat loss high specific heat_capacity.which_shows-a_slaw by convection. The lid has two holes, one for the ‘nd small rise in temperature. stirrer (used to mix its contents properly) and the Water has an unusually high specific heat other for the thermometer (to measure the acity (= 4200 J kg! K).* temperature of its contents). : The specific heat capacity of the p same substance is different in its different jases. The specific heat capacity of water is 4200 Tkg! K*, of ice is 2100 J kg! Ko of steam is 460 J kg"! K"!. The specific heat capacity is maximum, equal to 14630 J kg" K-! for hydrogen, rate 0 si the sameThis is called the principle of method of 4200 J ke! K-). It is mixtures (ot the principle of calorimetry). This high” TOF sand ‘principle is based on the law of conservation of. energy required for the same “energy. temperature by a certain mass or “Mathematical statement : Let a substance A is_nearly five times “more "thay: ‘of mass m,, specific heat capacity c, at a higher required by the same mass of sand, Simi temperature 1, be mixed with another substance B a certain mass of_water impar of mass m,, specific heat capacity c, at a lower five times more heat er temperature f, (i.e., f < f,). If the final temperature by the same of mixture after heat exchange becomes 1, then fall in temperature. moi “gets heated or cooled more rapidly von compared to water under similar condition veep il date (exposure to the sun). Thus, near the shore, thei el mc (y-1) @ temperature b Heat energy gained by B= m, x c, x rise in temperature - “ rey gi yy ty X Cp agg “surfaces due to which convection air cu m, ¢, (t= 15) (ii) oe aed " are set up. The Cold air blows from the land If no heat energy is lost to the surroundings, then SE UP. ian abom the t towards the by the principle of method of mixtures, breeze) and d old Heat energy lost by A_= Heat energy gained by B from t e sea towards the land (ie, ses vs (1113) re U ). The above expression (11.13) can be used to calculate the unknown quantity. Fall in temperature of the substance A Rise in temperature of substance B Heat energy lost by A @ Note : If calorimeter (or a vessel) is used for mixing the two substances A and B, we must also take into account the heat energy gained or absorbed by the calorimeter to attain the final temperature f. If mass of calorimeter is M and specific heat capacity of its substance is c, it wil gain heat energy = Mc (t ~ t,). Then eqn. (11.3) takes the form mye, — 1) = maColt = ty) + Me Lt — fa), (me + Mo) (t= 4) (114) -11 NATURAL _PHENOMENA._.AND. ‘CONSEQUENCES OF HIG CIFIC. HEAT CAPACITY OF WATER Some consequences of high specific capacity of water (= 4200 1) are g below. ae i ‘ Jag () The climate water is very hig- é (6) e even when there is considerable fall tte surrounding’s AL Sl their fields with water to em Trent’ frole: On a7CsTd ve night, when the atmospheric Se hls below O°C, Water in the fine xe aies oF plants freezes, so the veins burst es fo the increase in volume of water on a ving. As a result, plants die and the crop sais destroyed. In order {0 save crop on such sold nights, farmers fill their fields with water “pecause water has a high specific heat eapacity, 80 it does not allow the temperature in the surrounding area of plants to fall up_ 0 0C, = ‘Ail plants and animals have a high content of water in their bodies : All plants and animals have nearly 80 to 90% of water in their bodies. This water, because of its high specific heat capacity, helps to ‘maintain nearly the same temperature of their body in all seasons. 11.12 SOME Exa a @) LOW HEAT omens OF HIGH AND The base of a cooking made thick . Pan is : 'y making the base of the cooking pan thick, its heat capacity becomes large duc te which it gets heated slowly and impart sufficien heat energy at a slow Tate to the food foci Proper cooking. After cooking, it aleo keeps the food warm for a longer period, : The base of an electric press is made thick and heavy By doing so, the hea capacity of base of the electric press becomes large and it remains hot for a long duration even after the current is switched off. The vessel used for measurement of heat ( calorimeter) is made of a thin Sheet of copper : The reason is that the specific heat capacity of copper is low and by making the vessel thin, its mass and hence its heat capacity becomes low so that it takes a negligible amount of heat from the contents to attain its temperature. Heat energy required Q =m c Ar = 2 x 4200 x 40 = 336000 J |. A metal piece of mass 50 g at 27°C requires 2400 J of heat energy in order to raise its temperature to 327°C, Caleulate the specific heat capacity of the metal, Given : m = SO g = 0-05 kg, heat energy required @ = 2400 J, rise in temperature Ar = (327 ~ 27)°C 300°C = 300 K Specific heat capacity heat energy © = mass mx risein temperature At Se a eee = O.05kgx300K ‘Some heat energy is given to 120 g of water and(i) Heat energy given to water heat energy lost by hot water = mass of water x specific heat capacity of water a heat energy gaineg sleet ficiattaal 12% ¢x 80-1) = Bex Ga 95)” Mag, at 2 “1 Kl 10 K = 5040 J os 2(80 ~ a ae “S = GE kg x 4200 1 kg! KI x 10K = or 160 - 2r = Br 209 (ii) Heat energy given to oil = 5040 J Given), 101 = 360 Let ¢ J kg"! K°! be the specific heat capacity of oil, then nount of heat energy given to oil mass of oil rise in temperature = 2100 J kg! Kt Let heat capacity of vessel be C’ J K-! Heat energy given by hot water = mass of hot water x specific x fall in temperature = 40 x 4-2 x (60 — 30) = 50401 a) Heat energy taken by cold water mass of cold water x specific heat capaci X rise in temperature = 50 x 4-2 x (30 — 20) = 21005 i) Heat energy taken by vessel = heat capacity of vessel x rise in temperature = C’xG0-20)= 10's i) If there is no loss of heat energy, Heat energy given by hot water, = Heat energy taken by cold water + Heat energy taken by vessel ee eo 5040 = 2100 + 10.” = est capacity (C)ez6¢ 10h KAA Ie coe Besa0: - On ne = 4x10 Je ky eee A bucket contains 8 kg of water ; 5. An electric heater of power 1000 W raises the temperature of 5 kg of a liquid from 25°C to 31°C in 2 minutes. Calculate : (i) the heat capacity, and (ii) the specific heat capacity of es Time ¢ = 2 minutes = 2 x 60s = 120s Rise in temperature AT = (31 — 25)°C = 6°C = 6 K Mass of liquid m = 5 kg heat capaiy Energy supplied by the heater = power x time Q = 1000 W x 120s = 1-2 x 1053 energy supplied sein temperature AT sisal a 6K (ii) Specific heat capacity of liquid (i) Heat capacity C’ = or> water eoosey waren by n 50 x 4-2 x (22 - 20) J = 4205 energy taken by calorimeter and water czouat heat ON "42. J +420 J = 4623 ii) ig no loss of heat energy. jven by metal = total heat energy Heat ® eat eneey taken by calorimeter and water 462 o 462. — i Kt 15 O3Je'K a ball of mass 0-2 Wwe of water at 10°C. The resulting ‘E js 30°C. Calculate the temperature i. Specific heat capacity of iron K_! and specific heat capacity of 42 x 10° Ske? Kt hot ball be # °C (= 30)°C 30 - 10°C Heat energy given by ball = 02 x 336 x (f= 30) J oi) Heat energy taken by water = 05 x (4:2 x 103) x 30-10) J.» ‘Assuming that there is no loss of heat energy, heat energy given by ball = heat energy taken by water 02 x 336 x (1 - 30)= 05 x 42 x 103 x 20 or 67-2 t= 2016 = 42000 or 67-2 = 42000 + 2016 = 44016 44016 _ ¢s5 5) coe ‘of hot ball was 655 °C. ‘mass of a liquid A of specific heat capacity Tg Kat a temperature 40°C must be with 100 g of a liquid B of specific heat 2-1 J gq! K+ at 20°C, so that the final ‘of mixture becomes 32°C ? r= & Define the term heat capacity and 9. Define the term specific heat capacity and state i iM. hea apt nce wen eft eA Let m g of liquid A be required. Fall in temperature of liquid A = (40 ~ 32) °C Rise in temperature of liquid B = (32 - 20) °C Heat energy given by m g of liquid A =mx 084 x = ee a = 100x 21x 2-20)3 i) Assuming that there is no heat loss, heat energy given by A = heat energy taken by B or = mx 084 x8 = 100x 21x 12 10032:112 m= 0848 =35e . Water initially at 20°C at a height of 1-68 km above the ground, falls down on ground. Taking the specific heat capacity of water to be 4200 J kg K-', find the final temperature of water on reaching the ground, Take g = 10 ms. Given, initial temperature = 20°C, g = 10. ms, h = 1-68 km= 1-68 x 10° mand ¢=4200J kg"! K. Initially, water at a height h has the potential energy gh stored in it which changes into the kinetic energy during the fall. On reaching the ground, water has the kinetic energy equal to the initi potential energy (equal to mgh) which on stril the ground changes into the heat energy met, if is the rise in temperature of water. Assuming whole of the kinetic energy of water changes i the heat energy and there is no loss of energy, mgh = mcAt or rise in temperature Ar= 2 é = 10x(1-68x10") = 4200 “oe Hence final temperature of water on reaching the ground = initial temperature + rise in temperature = 20°C + 4°C = 24°C. * state its S.J. unit. S.1. unit. 10. vow is heat capacity of a body related ‘0 specie, heat capacity of its substance ? ‘specific heat capacity.Name a liquid which has the highest specific heat | 25. Water is used in hot capacity. Ans, Water Give a reason, 13, Write the approximate value of specific heat capacity What property of of water in S.1. unit Ans. 4200) kg" K"' | 99, Give one exampia What do you mean by the following statements heat capacity of (i) the heat capacity of a body is 50 JK"? (ii) as heat reservoir, (ii) the specific heat capacity of copper is | 28, A liquid X has. Ostet K'? liquid Y. Which s. fs 1K radiators, and (ii) h 5, Specific heat capacity of a substance A is 38 J g! K 1 and of the substance B is 0-4 J g' K ') Which without freezing ? substance is a good conductor of heat ? How did you (a) What is weal arrive at your conclusion ? (b) Name thei B. for the same heat energy and same mass, two rascal the rise in temperature of B will be more (©) Out of tha hence, B is a good conductor of heat Name nwo factors on which the heat energy librated by a body on cooling depends Name three factors on which the heat energy absorbed by a body depends and state how does it depend on them Write the expression for the heat energy Q received by m kg of a substance of specific heat capacity J kg! K-! when it is heated through Ar °C. ns. Q= mcdt J Same amount of heat is supplied to two liquids A and B. The liquid A shows a greater rise in temperature. What can you say about the heat capacity of A as compared to that of B ? heat capacity of A is less than that of B | Two blocks P and Q of different metals having their | mass in the ratio 2: 1 are given same amount of | heat. Their temperature rises by same amount. ‘Compare their specific heat capacities. Ans, 1 : 2 21. What is the principle of method of mixture ? What other name is given to it ? Name the law on which this principle is based. 22. A mass m, of a substance of specific heat capacity c, at temperature f, is mixed with a ‘m, of other substance of specific heat a lower temperature f. Deduce the ¢ the temperature 1 of the mi)a of mass 2-0 kg has aheat capacity | 9. Ai mass of S0\g offal certain! metal at 150°C fe . Find : (i) heat energy needed to immersed in 100 g of water at 11°C, The final CC, and (ii) its specific heat capacity temperature is 20°C. Calculate the specific heat * capacity of in SOM Ae Gi) 14490 J, Gil) 483 J kg! KI ceed of aad aa eae jate the amount of heat energy required 10 raise Ans. 0-582 J go"! Kt 4 calcol perature of 200 g of copper from | 10. 45 g of water at 50°C in a beaker is cooled when 3 OC. Specific heat capacity of copper 50 g of copper at 18°C is added to it. The contents are stirred till a final constant temperature is reached. Ans. 3900 J Calculate the final temperature. The specific heat supa i capacity of copper is 0:39 J g-! K+! and that of water {heat energy is supplied to raise the er : 1300 a iré5 kg of lead.-from 20°C to 40°C, is 4-2 J g! K~, State the assumption used. ; tempi the specific heat capacity of lead. ‘Ans. 47°C ci Ans. 38-4 J kg"! K-1 Assumption : There is no loss of heat. by a 500 W he he | 2+ 200 g of hot water at 80°C is added to 400 g of cold (6. Find the time ae nae Seen water at 10°C. Neglecting the heat taken by the teal Se ASCs aKa container, calculate the final temperatinenai tins cp 2 i: é fic heat ty of wat qu all the heat energy supplied by heater is given oe to the material. ‘Ans. 32 min. Same 12. The temperature of 600 g of cold water rises by 7, An electric heater of power 600 W raises the 15°C ovitn Gi seok baen re eee Caan Ge RCRA RS dig | it: What was the initial temperature of the cals cs water ? ‘Ans. i id the s ‘ific heat of liquid. vs camer ad a eal euaiel i sida 13. 1-0 kg of water is contained in a 1-25 kW kettle. SEE ee = Calculate the time taken for the temperature of water 8 0-5 kg of lemon squash at 30°C is placed in a to rise from 25°C to its boiling, point 100. Specific refrigerator which can remove heat at an average heat capacity of water = 4-2 J g"! K" rate of 30 J s“!. How long will it take to cool the * ‘Ans. 4 min 12 s lemon squash to 5°C ? Specific heat capacity of f “ squash = 4200 J kg! K-!, ‘Ans. 29 min 10s z 2 (6) CHANGE OF PHASE (STATE) ‘13 CHANGE OF PHASE (STATE) ‘ There are three states (or phases) of matter al solid, liquid and gas. A substance can confit, all the three phases under different eo, tions of temperature and pressure. For ‘ a ice (solid) at 0°C when heated becomes s areata liqui . change 8D) at °C, whiafter every half minute till the y formed after melting of ice, increases ag ie The direct change from solid to vapour is tion and the reverse change from_ Vapour to solid is called solidification. Plot a graph for temperature oe ee taking temperature on Y-axis ang tne 11.14 MELTING AND FREEZING X-axis. The graph SO obtained iy 5 me The change from solid to liquid. phase Fig. 11.3. It is called the heating rin fn aA ‘| “absorpii ion of heat at a constant temperature iS ry J called melting. gw The constant temperature at which a st ca “Changes to liquid is called the melting point of g ‘4 the solid § ‘The reverse change from liquid to solid Fo % 0% im ote x phase \ With the liberation of heat at a constant b > ‘Temperature is called freezing and the temperature Fig, 11.3 Heating curve for ice initially a 91¢ at which a liquid freezes to solid is called its From the graph, it is clear that yy freezing point. temperature of ice remains constant equal oor Thus, heat energy is absorbed during melting in the part AB till the whole ice melts. Th, and it is rejected during freezing at a constant constant temperature at which the ice melts (i Wnptrakire 0°C) is the melting point of ice. The heat supe ees during this time is being used in meting the ix C Melting ‘After this, the temperature of water formed by tie ‘Absorption of heat melted ice begins to rise from 0°C in the part BC. 0°C ice > 0°C water : "i “Liberation of heat t Freezing ‘Note : (1) For a pure substance, melting point and freezing point are identical. me 1-161 ns at eg comes 1 g molten wax of volute41.18 EFFECT OF IMPURITIES ON THE MELTING POINT The melting point of a substance decreases by tne presence of impurities in it, The melting point SPice decreases from 0°C to ~ 22°C on mixing jt in it in proper proportion. This fact is utilised a making the freezing mixture by adding salt to ice. The freezing mixture is used in preparing “hulfis. 41.19 VAPORISATION OR BOILING ym liquid to. ‘ion of heat at called vaporisation, The particu _temperature. yaporisation occurs is called the bot of liquid. Similarly, the change from vapour to_liquid. phase on liberation of heat at_a constant temperature is called condensati liquefaction) and_the particular temperature at which the condensation occurs is called the_ condensation point of vapow e : For a pure substance, the boiling and condensation point are identi Heat energy is absorbed at a constant temperature during vaporisation, while the same amount of heat energy is liberated during condensation at that temperature for the same mass of substance. burner and note its temperature after every half minute till the water starts boiling and the flask contains vapours. At this stage, bubbles are formed through out the water. This indicates that boiling occurs through out the volume of water. Plot a graph for temperature against time, by taking the temperature on Y-axis and time on X-axis, The graph is shown in Fig. 11.4, It is called the heating curve for water. x (© 90 60 90 120 150480 210 240 270300 330360300420, TIME(s) —> Fig 114 Heating curve for water — From the graph, it is observed at A, water is at 20°C (room te then with the absorption of temperature of water rises part AB where it is in the the boiling starts and the rise further in part BC,In a pressure cooker, steam is not allowed to escape out, The vapour pressure on water inside the pressure cooker becomes nearly 1-75 times the atmospheric pressure. This increases the boiling point of water so water boils in a cooker at about 120°C to 125°C due to increase in pressure. Thus, “cooking of vegetables, pulses, etc. becomes much faster in it since they get sufficient heat energy before the water boils and is now at a higher temperature. Further the cooked material inside it being at a higher temperature, remains warm over a long period. At high altitudes, such as hills and mountains, the atmospheric pressure is low (less than one atmospheric pressure), therefore at these places, water boils at a temperature lower than 100°C and so it does not provide the required heat energy to its contents for cooking before it starts boiling. Thus, cooking at high altitudes, if done in the open, becomes difficult and takes a much longer time. 11.23 EFFECT OF IMPURITIES ON THE BOILING POINT The boiling point of a liquid increases by addition of impurities to it. If common salt is added to water, it boils at a temperature higher than 100°C. Hence we add salt in the water while cooking pulses, vegetables, etc., so that the water condensation, without showing q temperature. Since the heat energy a in change of phase is not exte by any rise or fall in tempera latent heat. Latent heat, when mass of substance, is called heat, It is a characterstic (depending on its composton ad area different substances. Specific latent heat is deno L. Thus, specific latent heat heat absorbed (or liberated)! If amount of heat liberated) by the mass its change of phase at then specific latent heat wus, specific I quantity of hea provides sufficient heat energy to its contents _ before boiling starts and now the cooking is at a higher temperature and thus becomes easier and faster. 11.24 LATENT HEAT LATENT HEAT We have read that during the change of phase AND SPECIFIC of a substance which takes place at a constant temperature, a considerable amount of heat ry is absorbed or liberated. Heat ene bsanks by a solid during melting and iberatedNore + (1) For a pure substance, the | in volume is negligible, so heat energy used in «pecific latent heat of freezing is same as the volume expansion is ignored. Thus, the heat o .c latent heat of fusion. energy supplied during melting is utilised only in increasing the potential energy of the molecules and is called the latent heat of melting. specifi (2) For ice, the specific latent heat of fusion | is 336000 J kg = 80 cal g-), It means that kg of ice at 0°C absorbs 336000 J of heat Note : When 1 g of ice at 0°C changes ergy t0 convert into water at O°C (or | g ice | | to water at 0°C, nearly 336 J energy is used (°C absorbs 80 cal of heat energy to convert in increasing the potential energy due to increase in intermolecular separation, so latent heat of ice is 336 J g. | into water at 0°C). | tn other words, 1 kg of water at 0°C will | liberate 336000 J of heat energy to convert into y (ATURAL CONSEQUENCES OF ice at 0°C (or 1 g of water will liberate 80 cal HIGH SPECIFIC-LATENT HEAT OF of heat energy to convert into ice at 0°C). ‘FUSION OF ICE (3) 1g of water at 0°C has 336 (or 80.cal).| (1) Snow ‘on mountains does not_melt all at heat energy more than 1 g of ice at 0°C. “once: The reason is that ice has a —— 7 high specific latent heat_of fusion (equal to Specific latent heat of fusion of 336000 J kg”). It is due to this fact that it SS CORE OR “Changes into water slowly as it gets energy from the sun. If latent heat of ice had dike! “peen low, all the snow would have melted in a short time on getting heat from the sun and. “there would have been flood in.the rivers and. Substance Mercury Sulphur Silver Paraffin wax Copper ce 11.26 EXPLANATION OF LATENT HEAT OF MELTING ON THE BASIS OF KINETIC MODEL According to the kinetic model, the molecules in a solid vibrate about their mean positions. The total energy of a molecule is the sum of its Kinetic energy due to its motion (which depends on the temperature) and its potential energy (which depends on the force of attraction between the molecules and the separation between them). When solid changes into a liquid, without any change in temperature, the average Kinetic of the molecules does not change, Separation between the 1 j increases. So e(4) When ice in a frozen lake starts melting, (5) ‘is surrounding becomes_yery cold ‘The_ ‘Feason is that quite a large amount of heat “energy is required for melting the frozen lake which is absorbed from the surrounding “atmosphere. As a result, the temperature of “the surrounding falls and it becomes very cold. ~ surroundings more cold. 1b of ice at O°C is constantly heated ti the steam is formed at 100°C, Draw a graph showing the change in temperature with time. Label the various parts of the graph properly. The graph showing the change of temperature with time is given in Fig. 11.5 t © 10 2 30 40 50 6 70 80 G 100 110 120 TIME (s) Fig, ILS 2. A piece of ice is heated at a constant rate. The variation in temperature with time of heating is |. shown in the graph in Fig. 11.6. (i) What is represented by the part AB ? (ii) What does the part CD represent ? (iif) What conclusion do you draw) In the graph, part BC represents the change of state of the substance from solid to liquid at 40°C on absorbing the heat Q = 1600 J - 800 J = 800 J. If L J kg”! is the latent heat of fusion of the substance in the liquid state, then orbed Q= mass x latent heat of fusion (i Heat abso of 800 = 002 x L 8003 L= oo2kg = “000 Given, m= 5 kg = 5000 g, L= 3363 g"! Heat energy required = mL = 5000 g x 3363 ¢! 1680000 J = 1-68 x 10° J rature of 300 g of water at 40°C is 00°C. by adding ice to it ty of water is d if specific heat ca 1 and specific latent Given : mass of water m = 300 g, initial temperature 40°C, final temperature = 0°C Fall in temperature Ar Heat lost by water = mc At = 300 x 4:2 x 40 = 5.04 x 1045 Ai) If m’g ice is added. heat gained by it 10 melt 0 0°C mL rm’ x 3363 By the principle of method of mixture heat lost by water = heat i 5.04 x 104 = m’ x 336 2 10* or ee aii) = (40 — 0) = 40°C = 40 K | or mass of boiling water x specific heat capacty of water * fall in temperature j = mass off ice x specific lateat beat of ace or mx 42 x (100-0) = 2000 x 336 W003 ao, or m= ¢0°C in Sn « much time be required to raise the temperature of water from 6°C to 100°C ? pecific Specific latent heat of ice = 336 J heat capacity of water =42J ¢* Kt. Heat energy required to melt 400 g of ice at °C = mL = 400 x 336 = 134.4003 Heat energy required to raise the water from 0°C to 100 °C = mx c x rise in temp9. One kilogram of ice at -10°C is heated at a constant rate until the whole of it vaporises. How much heat is required ? Specific latent heat of fusion of ice = 336 x 10° J kg-l, specific latent heat of steam = 2268 x 10° J kg7!, specific heat capacity of ice = 2-1 x 103 J kg! K~!, specific heat capacity of water = 42 x 10° J kg! K". Given, m = 1 kg, initial temperature = -10°C In this case, heat energy is required in the following four steps : (i) Heat energy required to raise the temperature of ice from -10°C to 0°C 2, X Cige X rise in temperature 1x QI x 108) x [0— 10)] = 21 x 103 (Gi) Heat energy required to melt the ice at 0°C into water at 0°C, Qy = Mbigg = 1x (336 x 103) = 336 x 10) (ii) Heat energy required to increase the temperature of melted ice-water from 0°C to 100°C Q. = MX Cyayer X Fise in temperature 1 x (4:2 x 10) x (100 - 0) = 420 x 1085 (iv) Heat energy required for vaporisation of water at 100°C into steam at 100°C Oy = ML gear = 1X (2268 x 103) 2268 x 10° J Total heat energy required = Q, + Q) + 0; + Q, = (21 + 336 + 420 + 2268) x 103 = 3045 x 103 J = 3045 ky Note : In this case, on the temperature-time graph, the time in four steps will be proportional to the amount of heat energy taken in these steps ie., it will be in the ratio 21 : 336 : 420 : 2268 or 1 : 16: 20: 108 as heat is bein supplied at a constant rate. oa Q, = mass x specific heat in temperature PMO i = 30 gxlealgtocly, 2 : = 30 cal fa / Total heat energy taken by ice = Q, eo” = (2400+ 30) cal Heat energy given by water in fall ofits emo from 30 °C t0 1°C “a = mass x specifi in npg 200 gx 1 cal UG Gea = 200 (30-1)cal, IF there is no heat loss, heat energy given by water = ‘total heat energy taken by ig 200 (30-1) = 2400-4300 or 6000 ~ 200.1 24004302 or 2301 = oweor Q, + Q, = Q,+ D4 je, 1000 + 15750 = 336 m +21 m o 357 m= 16750 eS tas0 nana or Pe 46-92 ‘Thus, 4692 g of ice is used. ible heat capacity contains 5.0 kg of water at 50°C. If 5-0 kg of ice at 0°C is added to it, find : (i) heat energy imparted by water in fall of its temperature from 50°C to 0°C, (ii) mass of ice melted, (iii) final temperature of mixture, and (iv) mass of water at 0°C in mixture. Given : specific heat capacity of K~1, specific latent heat of 12. A vessel of neg Heat energy imparted by water in fall of its temperature from 50°C to 0°C ass x specific heat capacity x fall in temperature 5.0 x 4200 x (50 — 0) J = 1050000 J If m kg of ice melts at 0°C, heat energy used in melting = m L = m x (336 x 105) J If there is no loss of energy, heat energy imparted = heat energy used in melting or 1050000 J = m x (336 x 10°) J 1050000 on 20a Remaining ice = 5-0 — 3-125 = 1-875 kg. Thus 1-875 kg ice remains unmelted at 0°C. (iii) Final temperature of mixture will be 0°C [since the mixture will contain 5-0 kg of water at 0°C + 3-125 kg ice-melted water at 0°C + 1875 kg unmelted ice at 0°C]. (iv) Mass of water at 0°C in mixture = 5:0 + 3-125 8125 hg. (i) Heat energy required to melt 500 g ice at 0°C Q, = 500 x 340 = 170000 J Since Q, > Qy, therefore all ice will not melt, Let m g of ice melts, then im x 340 = 84000 84000, ee ‘Thus only 247 g ice will melt and the temperature will remain 0°C. 14. An electric heater of power 150 W is immersed in 0-75 kg of ice at 0°C in a lagged container of heat capacity. The temperature remains constant for 27-5 minutes and then rises to 40-0°C in a further 14 minutes. Explain why does the temperature remain constant. Calculate = (a) the specific latent heat of ice, and (b) the specific heat capacity of water. Heat energy supplied by heater is used for melting. the ice in the first 27-5 minutes and therefore the temperature remains constant during this time. Given : power of heater = 150 W = 15051. ie., heater supplies energy 150 joule Heat energy supplied by the heater in (or 27-5 x 60 s) = power x time = 150 x (27-5 x 60) J Let LJ kg”! be the specific es Heat energy used in melting the ice =? =.0:75/E5 ili (a)Ani (a) What do you understand by the change of phase of a substance ? (b) Is there any change in temperature during the change of phase ? (c) Does the substance absorb or liberate any heat energy during the change of phase ? (4) What is the name given to the energy absorbed during a phase change ? ‘A substance changes from its solid state to the liquid state when heat is supplied to it. (a) Name the process. (b) What name is given to heat absorbed by the substance. (©) How does the average kinetic energy of molecules of the substnace change ? A substance on heating, undergoes (i) a rise in its temperature, (ii) a change in its phase without change in its temperature. In each case, state the change in energy of molecules of the substance. (i) averge kinetic energy of molecules increases, (ii) average potential energy of molecules increases How does the (a) average kinetic energy (b) average potential energy of molecules of a substance change during its change in phase at a constant temperature, on heating ? Ans. (a) it does not change, (b) it increases State the effect of presence of impurity on the melting point of ice. Give one use of it. State the effect of increase of pressure on the melting point of ice. ‘The diagram in Fig. 11.8 below shows the change of phases of a substance on a temperature-time graph on heating the substances at a constant rate, temperature 1,°C, CD part of liquid from 1,°C to 14°C, temperature 1,°C (b) f) The melting point of napth room temperature is 25° napthalene at 90° is cool temperature. Draw a tempe represent this cooling. On the which corresponds to the fre 1 kg of ice at 0°C is h temperature is recorded formed at 100°C. Draw represent the change 0 Explain the terms boipefine the term specific latent heat of fusion of ice. 18 sate ies SE unit itv appranioaia valcton ose scales Ci Ans. 336 kJ kg"! che. specific latent heat of fusion off iceis SIRS gr Explain the meaning of this statement. ice at 0°C melts to form 1 g water at 0°C. ac cnether the latent heat is absorbed or given n. 1 Seat t by ice. gba ‘Ans. latent heat is absorbed by ice. which has more heat 1g of iee at O°C or 1 g of water at 0°C ? Give reason ‘Ans, I g of water at 0°C Reason : 1 g of water at O°C liberates 80 cal heat to form 1 g of ice at 0°C. 2 34, (@) Which requires more heat : 1 g ice at 0°C or 1 g water at 0°C to raise its temperature to 10°C ? (b) Explain your answer in part (a). ‘Ans. (a) I g ice at 0°C (b) 1g ice at 0°C first absorbs: 336 J heat to convert into 1 g water at 0°C. 24. Ice cream appears colder to the mouth than water at 0°C. Give reason. 2S. The soft drink bottles are cooled by (i) ice cubes at °C, and (ii) iced-water at 0°C. Which will cool the drink quickly ? Give reason. 26. It is generally cold after a hail-storm than during and before the hail-storm. Give reason. 27. The temperature of the surrounding starts falling when ice in a frozen lake starts melting. Give reason, Water in lakes and ponds do not freeze at once in cold countries. Give reason. /. Explain the following : (@) The surrounding become pleasantly warm when water in a lake starts freezing in cold countries, 2. The specific latent heat of fusion of water is : (a) 80 cal g! (b) 22603 g! (© 805g" (d) 3365 kg ‘Ans. (a) 80 cal g! NUMERICALS 20 g of ice at 0°C absorbs 10,920 J of heat energy to melt and change to water at 50°C. Calculate the specific latent heat of fusion of ice. Specific heat capacity of water is 4200 J kg"! K” Ans. 336 J gt 2. How much heat energy is released when 5-0 g of water at 20°C changes into ice at 0°C 2 Ti specific heat capacity of water = 42 3 g 1 Kol, specific latent heat of fusion of ice = 336 J g! Ans. 2,100 5. 3, A molten metal of mass 150 g is kept at its melting. point 800°C, When it is allowed to same temperature, it gives out 75,000 J energy. (a) What is the specific latent heat (b) If the specific heat capaci 200 J kg"! K-!, how much energy will the metal give o1 = 50°C? ‘Ans. (a) 4. A solid metal of mass 150 point of 800°C by provid 100 W. The time taken for it to the same temperature is 4 min.it. Find the mass of ice added. Given : Specific heat capacity of water = 4200 J kg-! °C-! and specific latent heat of ice 36000 J kg! (2018) Ans. 90 g . Find the result of mixing 10 g of ice at -10°C with 10 g of water at 10°C. Specific heat capacity of ice = 2-1 J g-! K-', specific latent heat of 336 J g"! and specific heat capacity of water =420 1K Ans. 0-625 g ice will melt and temperature will remain 0°C A piece of ice of mass 40 g is added to 200 g of water at 50°C. Calculate the final temperature of water when all the ice has melted. Specific heat capacity of water = 4200 J kg“! K+ and specific latent heat of fusion of ice = 336 x 10° J kg". Ans, 28-33°C . Calculate the mass of ice needed to cool 150 g of water contained in a calorimeter of mass 50 g at 32°C such that the final temperature is 5°C. Specific heat capacity of calorimeter = 0-4 J ¢-! °C, specific heat capacity of water = 4-2 J g-! °C, latent heat | capacity of ice = 330 J g-! vessel of mass 50 g. Calculate the mass of ie Tequired to bring down the temperature of the vesCirea Wy) Radioactivity odern Physics and changes in the nucleus; background radi oactivity (i) Radioactivi - of syllabus : Brief introduction (qu eoP nber (A), Fadioactivity as spontaneous disint ain the nucleus. One example each of oF and B decay with equations showing changes in Z and A, Uses of Wioactivity - radio isotopes. Harmful effects, Safety precautions. Background radiation regaion : X-ray. radioactive fall out from nuclear plants and other sources | nuclear enerey Working on safe disposal of waste. Safety measures to be strictly reinforced. | «iy Nuclear fission and fusion; basic introduction and equations. itative only) of the nucleus, nuclear structure, atomic number (Z), ration. 0, Bb andy - their nature and properties; changes ation and safety precautions. a STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM AND NUCLEUS The discovery _of electrons by [Sir J.J) Thomsonland the scattering experiments of alpha articles_by Rutherford! and others towards the end of the nineteenth century, led to the following structure of an atom and its nucleus. 124 Structure of an atom : An atom consists of main particles namely electrons, protons and neutrons. The protons and neutrons reside inside the nucleus of the atom which is at its centre, while the electrons revolve around the nucleus in some specific orbits. While moving in these bits, electrons do not radiate out energy and therefore these orbits are called stationary orbits of stationary shells). In each stationary shell, the clectron has a definite energy. The number of shells in an atom depends on the total number of slecons in it. As each shell has a limit to the el electrons ‘it can accommodate, the an shall is different in atoms of different Ushell cae he maximum, n_number_of electrons that ne sn sccommodate _is_given by 2n’ ae of that shell, The various shells are ane ttle on uaa ed as K, L,. Mya Quubaae \ ae (A) ATOMIC STRUCTURE AND RADIOACTIVITY respectively and these shells can accommodate at the most 2, 8, 18, 32, 50, 72, 98, ... electrons respectively, The electrons in different shells have different energy which increases with the increase in the number n of that shell The size of an atom is determined by the radius of the shell of its outermost electron and it is of the order of 10! m. The electron has a negative charge equal to — 1-6 x 10! C (or = e) and its mass (m,) is nearly 9-1 x 107! kg which is approximately 1/1840 times the mass of a proton. Structure of nucleus : The nucleus is at the centre of atom and its size is of the order of 10-5 m to 10" m (ie., 10% to 10> times the size of the atom). It consists of protons and neutrons. ‘The proton has a positive charge equal to + 1-6 x 10-!° C (or + e) and its mass (m,) is nearly 1.67 x 107 kg. The total number of protons in the nucleus determines _the__place of __the atom in the-periodic_table_and_is_called the. atomic num ‘The atomic number of an clement is denoted by the symbol Z. The newiron is an electrically neutral particle (ie., charge = 0) and its mass (m,) is also nearly 1-67 x 1027 kg which is equal to that of a i, 2 LL TS TTproton. The protons and_neutrons_which- are—the. main constituents of the nucleus, are called the nucleons, The total number of nucleons in the nucleus is called the mass_number of the element ‘and it is denoted bythe symbol A. The nucleus is thus positively charged and its total charge is + Ze. The mass of nucleus is approximately the mass of a proton or a neutron multiplied by A (mass number). ‘Note : The mass of an electron is negligible as compared to that of a proton (or a neutron). Hence total mass of an atom can be considered to be same as the mass of its nucleus. Thus we can define the atomic number and mass number as follows. Atomic number (Z) : The atomic number of atom is equal to the number of protons in ‘nucleus (which is as the number of electrons “ina neutral atom), ce. Z = number of protons in the nucleus of an atom. Mass number (A) : The mass number of an atom is equal to the total number of nucleons (ie... the_| sum of the number of protons and the number of rons) in its nucleus. ie. A = number of protons + number of neutrons i the nucleus of an atom, 3 Symbol, charge and mass of electron, proton and neutron An atom is electrically neutral, number of protons in the nucleus equal to the number of el the nucleus of the The atom is specified by the symboy , where X is the chemical symbol for the gj, 2 The actual size of an atom is very , (nearly 10°! m) and it is invisible*, at understand the distribution of its consitys” we can draw the model of an atom (not iy 4! scale). Examples : (1) The lightest atom is hydrogen whose mass number A is 1 and atomic number Z is also 1. It is represented as ;H and it has one proton in the nucleus and one electron in the K shell as shown in Fig. 12.1. Fig. 12. 1 Mode hydrogen aon (2) The helium atom has the mass number A = 4 and the atomic number Z = 2. It is represented as }He. It has 2 protons as Z = 2 inside the nucleus and 2 electrons ed outside in the K shell. The con Fig. 12.2 Model of ‘helium atomp rote : If an atom undergoes ‘urring ata I 7 change 0° A ‘nucleus of the atom. uclear change requires much higher f few MeV, which is times as compared to the energy 4 for m. Seer of few eV only. —@) In a nuclear reaction, the atomic umber (or number of protons) and the mass fumber (or total number of protons and neutrons) remain conserved. In other words, the total sum of atomic numbers of the reactants is equal to the sum of atomic fumbers of the products, Similarly, the total {um of mass numbers of the reactants is equal to the sum of mass numbers of the products. 12.3 ISOTOPES ‘All the atoms of an element do not have the same mass. There can be atoms with different masses in their nuclei, Obviously, the isotopes have the same place in the periodic table as it depends on the atomic number Z. The atoms of isotopes have the same number Xf protons (Z), but different number of neutrons ‘\~Z) in their nucleus. Since they have the same timber of electrons outside the nucleus, so their a Properties are also same. nature, different isotopes “cur in different pro 7 the relative &S compar common Most 17 proton: a _is_most_abundent), deuterium jH (or heavy hydrogen) and tittum }H. Each isotope in its nucleus ~ has one proton (Z = 1), but protium ({H) has no neutron, deuterium (7H) has one neutron and tritium (; H) has two neutrons. There is one electron outside the nucleus in the atom of each isotope. ‘The table below gives the number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of isotopes of hydrogen. (2) Carbon has three isotopes BC_te Cand “6, out of which 12C is most abundant. isotope in its nucleus has 6 protons (Z = 6). The isotope !2C has 6 neutrons, the isotope" C has 7 neutrons and the isotope {#C has 8 neutrons inside the nucleus. The number of electrons outside the nucleus in the atom of each isotope is 6. ) Chlorine has nwo isotopes {$C and {76h Their relative abundance in i ‘the ratio 3: 1. Each isotope in The isotope }Cl has while CI has 20 neutrons inside the 1 The number of electrons outsideof protons, so_both are the radio isotopes. ly_¥C is a radio isotope out of the three i: es 2C 3 g 4 f ca ree isotopes '2C, Cand '4C of carbon. 12.4 ISOBARS The atoms of different elements which have the Same mass number A, but differentatomic | number Z, are called isobars. The atoms of isobars have the same number of nucleons (A) in their nucleus, but different number of protons (Z) and different number of neutrons (A - Z). The number of electrons outside the nucleus is always equal to the number of protons, so isobars have different number of electrons. Examples : (1) {}Na and ?}Mg are isobars. i, Na contains 11 protons and 12 neutrons inside its nucleus, and 11 electrons outside the nucleus, while ?}Mg contains 12 protons and 11 neutrons inside its nucleus and 12 electrons outside the nucleus. The total number of protons and neutrons is 23 in each. (2) Similarly "$C and '$N are isobars. '$C has 6 protons and 8 neutrons inside its nucleus and 6 electrons outside the nucleus, while '4N has 7 protons and 7 neutrons inside the nucleus and 7 electrons outside the nucleus. Note : If the number of protons and neutrons get interchange’ nucleus, ‘they are_called mirror isobars e.g. 3}Na and 23 Mg are the mirror isobars. 12.5 ISOTONES The table given below summarizes ‘ Parameter Isotope Z. (No. of protons) ‘A (No. of nucleons) . (No. of neutrons) different different left a uranium salt wrapped in a photographic plate. After some oe surprised to find that the photographic pig V® been affected. Later on, the same hag made with the other salts of uranium, f, these observations, he concluded that uranium : i Be be ang its salts by themselves emit some king of radiations which can pass through the cove, (i.e., black paper, glass or wood, etc.) Of the photographic plate and affect it. These radiations were called the Becquerel rays. On further investigation, these radiations were found jp be of three types : (1) positively charged, (2) negatively charged, and (3) uncharged which were then named as a (alpha), B (beta) andnon of radioactivity cannot be due to the ppenome”"crons which could easily be affected by opbital © as, The radioactivity should therefore sh ae sty of the nucleus. Thus, be the lear phenomenon, It is the activity is a.nucl Bee of spomtaned of oor B and Pr ations from the nucleus of atoms during lin Se Fir decay es From a radioactive substance containing a very large number of atoms, there is no way to Jhow (or predict) when or which nucleus of the atom is going to decay at any moment, hence the Mjoactive decay is a random phenomenon ie, there is no law by which the disintegration of an | individual nucleus can be known (or predicted). 127 RADIOACTIVITY AS EMISSION OF ALPHA (a), BETA (8) AND GAMMA (y) RADIATIONS In 1903, Rutherford experimentally studied the ature of radiations emitted by the radioactive substances. He found that on subjecting the radiations given out by a radioactive substance to a magnetic field in a direction perpendicular to their path, they separate out into three distinct constituents as shown in Fig. 12.4. Here the magnetic field is shown normal to the plane of Paper inwards. Those which turn tothe left must. be positively charged _and_are called the alpha ‘Symbol a) particles, Those which. turn.to.the right. ‘must be negatively charged and are.called_the beta. “ymbol B) particles, The B particles are deviated. ‘More than the o particles. Those which pass undeviated, must be the uncharged (or neutral) and ate called the gamma (symbol 7) radiations. Gamma radiations are the electromagnetic waves similar to light waves.and are therefore not affected by the magnetic field, Similarly, if the radiations given out by a radioactive substance are subjected to an electric field in a direction perpendicular to their path, they again separate out into the three constituents as shown in Fig. 12.5. Those which turn towards the the negatively ch 1_pass. undeviated,. gamma (¥) radiations, The beta particles are deviated more than the alpha particles. <* «ELECTRIC FIELD a@ neutral helium atom and the helium (8) nucleus (or the alpha particle). If an alpha particle (He*) gains one electron, (9) it changes to a singly ionised_helium atom, Alpha particles have large kine and momentum with them, 7 (He*) and if it gains two electrons, it changes to bombard the nucleus “of an to the helium atom (He). element to convert it into another en hGey u SI (2) The mass of _an alpha particle is roughly Ceara four times the mass of a proton (= 4m,) (10) Alpha particles destroy the livin i.e. 6-68 x 107 kg and its charge -also cause biological damagel is _nwice the charge of a proton i.e... (Il) O-particles get scattered w ehi3 25 107!9. C.(or + 2e). Thus its speci through the thin mica (or charge value) is 4.79 x 107C kg, 12.9 PROPERTIES OF BETA Some properties of beta p below : _ @) The speed of o-particles is of the order of 107 ms". It is different for G-particles emitted from the different (1) B-particles are the fast radioactive substances. Further, all the emitted from the nucleus* 0 G-particles emitted from the nucleus of the represented as 4 Sor 2 same radioactive substance do not have the same energy (or speed), but they have energy (2) The rest mass oft distributed in a small range. (= m,) and it: (4) An alpha particle strongly ionises* the gas (or 2). Tai ugh which it passes. The ionising power of B-particlgg of o-particles is roughly 100 times that of (3) Although B-particles and roughly (10,000) times that of y-radiations. (5) An atparticle rapidly dissipates its energy as it moves through a medium and therefore its penetrating power is quite small. It penetrate only through 3 to 8 cm in air, Itc: easily be stopped by a thin card sheet or a’ thick paper. Its penetrating power is roughly (1/100) times that of a B-parti (1/10,000) times that of y Alpha particles are positi are deflected by the electri fields. The deflection of compared to that G-particle is of more thi a-particles affecty qhe penetrating power mn B-particles is more than that of o-particles but less than 1 of radiations. They can travel through m in air and pass through thin card .d even through thin aluminium foil, aluminium sheet can stop (6) thal nearly 5 sheet, an 7 a 5mm thick but the B-particles. peta particles are negatively charged, so they get deflected by the electric and magnetic fields. The deflection of a ‘ticle is in a direction opposite to that of an a-particle since the charge on B.particle is negative, while the charge on a-particle is positive. The deflection of B-particle is more than that of the o-particle since a B-particle is much lighter than an o-particle. Beta particles affect a photographic plate. a (8) (9) Beta particles cause fluorescence on striking a fluorescent material. Beta particles produce X-rays when they are stopped by the metals (such as tungsten) of high atomic number and high melting point. Beta particles cause more biological damage than the a-particles as they can easily pass through the skin of our body. 12.10 PROPERTIES OF GAMMA RADIATIONS Some properties of gamma radiations are given below : 0 (ly (10) (a Gamma radiations are the electro waves like X-rays and light, but from X-rays and light in w wavelength of g a the order of (3) The ionising power of y-radiations is very fow. It is (1/10,000) times that of a-particles: and (1/100) times that of B-particles. (4) The penetrating power of y-radiations is high. It is about (10,000) times that of a-particles and (100) times that of B-particles. They can travel through 500 m in air and pass through 30 cm thick sheet of iron. A. thick sheet of lead is required to stop them. (5) Like X-rays and light, gamma radiations are also not deflected by the electric and magnetic fields since they are not the charged particles. (6) Gamma radiations affect a photo; plate. (1) Gamma radiations cause fluoresce (8) crystals like X-rays. (9) Although X-rays and ga different. X-rays are emitted transition of electrons in the an atom, whereas gamm given out from the mu (10) Gamma radiatio12.11 DISTINCTION BETWEEN THE PROPER Property a-particle vi 1, Nature Steam of positively charged particles ice, helium nucleus. | Nearly 107 ms? ass of proton Fou ise, 6:68 x 102” kg 4. Charge Positive charge («wo tim 13:2. 10" 5. Specific 479 107 C kg! charge (g/m) ss deflected but opposite to that of beta particle, Wavelen; Effect of Maximum (10,000 times of 7) that of a pron) | Negative charge AND y RADIATIONS TIES OF a, | B-particl | sueam of negatively charged | particles, i, energetic | electrons. ‘About 90% of the speed | Highly energetic radiations, of light or 27 x 108m sot Equal to the mass of electron jie 91x 10 KS lal = 16 x10" C(or-e) | 1-76 x 10" C kg"! | opposite te those of a-particles 1 alpha particle (100 times of 7) 9. Penetrating power Large range in air __| 3 to Semin air ___| ep to a few metres in air 10. Stopping ‘Thin paper, human skin About 1mm thick lead or substance about $ mm thick aluminium 11, Biological damage | Less damage 12.12 CHANGES WITHIN THE NUCLEUS IN ALPHA, BETA AND GAMMA EMISSION We have read that the radioactive substances are not stable. Their nucleus undergoes spontaneous decay by the self emission of either alpha (a), beta (B), or gamma (7) radiation to form a more stable nucleus. The emission of ct (alpha), B (beta) and y (gamma) radiation is a nuclear change. In the emission of alpha and beta radiation, there is a change in the number ¢ protons itl prot known If the nucl mass number. a-particle, tH element is forn to (A=4) a Thus, due number dssysthorium 3p° Th is formed and the change is “a and atomic number Z + 1, th we eit » the change can be fegresented 25 FOHOWS : represented as follows : au By os Uae. % 2 (90 protons and ¢ ei at ee Daughter nucleus (Beta pi (2) Beta emission : When an unstable nucleus Example = & radioactive carbon nucleus "gC conains neutrons more than the protons, a baving 14 nucleons (6 protons and 8 neutrons) emits ‘eutron may change into a proton by emitting an nig and changes to a new nucleus nitrogen Metron (for charge conservation). The electron '{N having 14 nucleons (7 protons and 7 neutrons), given out from the nucleus at a high speed is The change is represented as follows : eed a beta particle. 14 crete 7 ‘The change can be represented by the c i. Ne (3) Gamma emission : In many cases an alpha or beta emission is found to be followed by the ; 1 spoitagn a 1 ee S Sanaa a remission. It occurs when the daughter or the (ocaon) (proton) (Boericie) parent nucleus is in a state of excitation (e., it has ‘eta of Poortio.aea eect an excess of energy). This extra energy is released in the form of electromagnetic radiation known as Note : Since the nuclear reaction has to | 7-radiation (or y-ray photon). The y-ray takes no follow certain conservation laws, another | mass and no electric charge from the nucl particle called anti-neutrino (0), was also | no neutrons or protons are lost, hence the assumed to be emitted along with the B-particle. | does not decay into a different nucleus, i-e., This particle is uncharged and its rest mass is | is no change in the mass number A and almost zero. Thus, the complete transformation | number Z of the nucleus in gamma emi equation becomes The gamma emission is rep Thus in emitting a B-particle, the number of ucleons in the nucleus (i.e., sum of protons and neutrons) remains the same, but the number of Neutrons is decreased by one and the number of Protons is increased by one. In other words, by. ‘'e emission of a Beparticle, the mass number A Piss nol change, but the atomic number Zis i, eased by one. It changes into a new nucleus of element with i i Shae aa clement one pl Sr OS Late he| (3) The daughter product formed after the | emission of either c-particle or B-particle. may | again be radioactive and it may further decay by | emitting either the o-particle or the B-particle. Th | process continues till a stable nucleus is formed. aaweksn ee The table below shows the effect on atomic number Z and mass number A due to emission of a, B and ¥ radiations. sss number (A) Effect on to a, B and y emision — oe = Quantity | aemision | emission | yemision | (Z| decreases by 2 | increases by 1] no change |G) A | decreases by 4 | no change | no change 12.13 USES OF DIOACTIVITY - RADIO ISOTOPES The isotopes of some elements with atomic number Z < 82 are also found to be radioactive. They are called the radio isotopes. The nucleus of an atom becomes radioactive when number of neutrons in the nucleus exceeds the number of protons inside it. It is the situation with isotopes of many stable elements. For example, cobalt Co (Z = 27, A = 60), carbon "$C (Z = 6, A = 14), potassium “9K (Z = 19, A = 40), phosphorus ine (Z = 15, A = 32), ete. are the radio isotopes. The radio isotopes are also prepared artificially by the nuclear transmutation as they find their vital use in (1) medical, (2) scientific, and (3) industrial fields. (1) Medical use : (i) Many diseases such as leukemia, cancer, etc. are cured by radio therapy. Gamma radiations from cobalt~60 (%Co) are used to treat cancer by killing the cells in the malignant tumour of the patient. For radio-t p radiations must be able © penetrate the (ii) The salts of weak radioactive as radio-sodium chloride, iy are used for diagnosis. The tracers are also used” process in the human body. sodium chloride is injected chloride in the human body of the blood at different part to study the blood circulatio radio cardiology. (iii) rays emitted by used to sterilize bandages, other equipments to make th method is quicker, more the process of sterilization b (2) Scientific use : (i) from the radio isotopes nuclear reactions. The from the nucleus h of the nucleus and nuclear forces. ~ (ii) The agriculture by using a p know how to which) (iii) cngouRCcES OF HARMFUL RADIATIONS «main sources of harmful radiations are : viioactive fall out from the nuclear power (1) Rav) Nuclear waste, and (3) other sources pe Cosmic radiation and X-rays, 24 1) Radioactive fall out from the nuclear ( plants : The nuclear power plants are now ork source of electricity in the world. If a ae ww, there is an accident in the reactor of a vm plant, @ large amount of radioactive oe and radiations will escape out into the mitaphere This will affect not only the tee around the plant, but also life at far ue s where the radioactive radiations might reach due 10 ait currents, Three such accidents have already occurred — (i) in U.S.A. on 93 March, 1979, (ii) in Ukraine on 26 April, 1986, and (iii) in Japan on 11 March, 2011. These accidents caused damage to the reactor buildings and injuries to the persons working in the plants as well as to the persons in their vicinity. (2) Nuclear waste : The fuel rods used in the nuclear power reactors are rejected when their activity decreases below a certain level. They then become a nuclear waste. These rods are still quite radioactive and are the source of harmful radiations therefore they should not be dumped in. open garbage. They can contaminate water and soil and affect the human and living organisms. (3) Other sources such as cosmic radiation and X-ray : The cosmic radiations enter the art's atmosphere from the sun and from the outer space. They contain a large number of high ‘nergy particles, out of which most of the charged Patticles are deviated by the earth’s magnetic ‘id, but still a substantial amount of uncharged ‘wations such as rays and X-rays ete. reach the Sth’ atmosphere, Some of these radiations ‘Me harmful for human. beings. nee from this, the high ‘ X,.Tators also ays, ee a a2.: 2.415 HARMFUL EFFECTS OF RADIATION The radiations neutrons, gamma rays and X-1 sea with the living tissues within biological damage, The harmful biological effects of nuclear radiations are of three types : (1) short term recoverable effects, like diarrhea, sore throat, loss of hair, nausea, etc. (2) long term irrecoverable effects like leukemia and cancer, and (3) genetic effects. The first and second types of effects are limited to the individuals who are actually exposed to the radiations, while the third type of effects appear in the later generations of the Person exposed to the radiation. The genes in the living cell get modified (or mutated). The exposure to radiations can be acute if there is an accidental burst of radiations from an unshielded source. Similarly, it is chronic in case of persons working in atomic energy establishments when they get exposed to such radiations. The exposure of pregnant woman to X-rays for a long time may affect the child in the womb. It increses the risk of cancer by 40%, of tumor and nervous system by 50% and of lukemia by 70%. The exposure of upper part of the body to X-rays may damage the thyroid glands and can cause cancer. The exposure to y-rays destroys the cells of the body and affects the blood cells, gestro intestinal track, reproductive and hair cells. It can harm the DNA and RNA of the living cells also. cause biological 10-45 and causethe controlled chain fission reaction is carried out. In this process, the following aspects require special care : (1) establishment of nuclear power plants, (2) handling of radioactive materials, and (3) safe disposal of nuclear waste. (1) Safety measures while establishing a nuclear power plant : While establishing a nuclear power plant to generate electricity following Precautions must be taken. (i) Ensure that the people working in it are not exposed to nuclear radiations and in case of any accident there is a minimum spread of radiations. (ii) The nuclear reactor of the power plant must be shielded with lead and steel walls so as to stop radiations from escaping out to the environment during its normal operation. The nuclear reactor must be housed in an airtight building of strong concrete structure which can withstand the earthquakes, fires and explosions. There must be a back-up of cooling system for the reactor core, so that in case of failure of one system, the other cooling system could take its place and the core is saved from over heating and melting. at (2) Safety measures while active materials : People workin radioactive materials are required to follo the safety measures given below : (iii) (iv) (iv) The radioactive substance must bey, thick lead container with a yery ie apening. The walls of the containey 2?" the radiations which strike on them fo inside and thus radiations only coq through the marrow opening. Alpha pan can easily be stopped by a thin meu) sn but for B-parcles we need « thick met sheet, whereas for gamma radiations we nay very thick lead sheets. (3) Safety measures in safe disposai < nuclear waste : The radioactive material ajier its use is known as nuclear waste. The nuclear yaoe obtained from laboratories, hospitals, scientific establishments or power plants must be first kept in thick casks and then they must be buried in the specially constructed deep underground stores, These stores must be made quite far from the populated areas. The casks can also be buried in useless mines and these mines must be sealed afier storing the casks. 12.17 BACKGROUND RADIATIONS _ The background radiations are the radioactive radiations (such as a, B and y) to which we all p even in the absence of a visible _ Sources | There are two ypes of sources of background radiations : (1) the internal source ~ Substances such as potassium 14), and radium present insidegifferences between a chemi Jear change. chy siote 1° range and a ae chemical change is due to change in orbital i) A eltons, while a nuclear change is due to see cons inside the nucleus, change in nue yolear change requires much higher energy (i) Pe vs while a chemical change requires a a Cae tow is the radioactivity of an element affected yen it undergoes a chemical change to form a ‘yemical compound ? Give reason for your answer ‘The radioactivity of the element remains unaffected. Reason : Radioactivity is a nuclear phenomenon. Compare the ionising power of a, B and radiations. ceparticles have the maximum ionising power, it is about 100 times that of B-particles and 100,00 times that of y-radiation. State the penetrating range in air for the o, B and radiations. ‘The penetrating range of a-particles is 3 cm to 8 om of air, of B-particles is about 5 m of air and of yradiations is about 500 m of air. Thus the Penetrating range of o-particles is the least and of ‘Hadiations is the most. State the nature of infrared and y-rays. How do they differ in their (i) wavelength, and (li) penetrating power ? Both infrared and y-rays are the electromagnetic radiations, Differences : ‘trays have much shorter wavelengt (=10-8 m) as compared to | Whose wavelengt ; Sa Dissimilarities ; ay ‘re wavelength of 7-rays is shorter than that of whi tinofXeyeiet Aor ta (2) ‘rays are more penetrating than X-rays, Which of the radiations @, Bandy. is similar to B-radiation is similar to a beam of electrons. (a) State three Properties common both the beta rays = me ’ 2 (b) How do beta rays differ from cathode rays 2 (a) Common properties : (1) Both are negatively charged with charge and mass equal to that of an electron, (2) Both are deflected by the electric and magnetic fields. bar i (3) Both cause fluorescence on striking a fluorescent material. (b) Difference : Beta rays differ from cathode rays in their origin. Beta rays are given out of the atom, while cathode rays are given out from the orbital electrons,10. ‘The nucleus of 3° U contains 92 protons and 143 neutrons, (iii) No. Isotopes of an clement have same atomic number, but different mass number, so they have the same number of protons, but different number of neutrons. (iv) In 38U, number of protons = Z = 92 and number of neutrons = A ~ Z = 238 - 92 = 146. A certain nucleus P has a mass number 15 and atomic number 7. (a) Find the number of neutrons, (b) Write the symbol for the nucleus P. (©) The nucleus P loses (i) one proton, (ii) one B-particle, (iii) one a-particle, Write the symbol of the new nucleus in each case and express each change by a reaction. =15,.Z=7 Given : For the nucleus P, (@) Mass number A = number of protons + number of neutrons and atomic number Z = number of protons. Number of neutrons = mass number A ~ atomic number Z =15-7=8 (b) The nucleus P can be written as '$P, (c) @_ After the loss of 1 proton, the mass number and atomic number of the nucleus '$P will decrease by 1, The new nucleus will be '{Q (say). The change can be written as: 1s nag, tienes Sel i) number will remain the same, but the atomic number will increase by nucleus '$P changes to ny ‘After the loss of one B-particle, the mass When 33° U decays to 3 Pb, the mass decreases from 238 10 206 ie it decreases oe Since the emission of beta particle docs not ¢2 22 the mass number and with the emission of on 28 particle, mass number decreases by 4 unis, yf number of alpha particles emitted will be 22 — oa + In the decay of 55° U to 2 Pb, the atomic has decreased by 10, But due to emission of § 4, particles, the atomic number would have deere.” by 2 x 8 = 16. Thus there is am increase in sons, number by 16 ~ 10 = 6, hence 6 beta particles yi be emitted (because in emission of one beta parc, atomic number increases by I unit). Thus 23°U decays to 226Pb with the emission of 8 crpartices and 6 B-partcles, 12. Complete the " changes, gx By xy athe ty 8 % =, x, tok ale bin Due to emission of a—— y lete nuclear change is : mpl qs the 00" “ Me GX, OTP BG ve sample is kept at the centre of an a spherical vessel. ae of the cB amd Y radiations, name the (2) Ovations which are () safe and (i) unsafe, two ways for more safety. ion of vessel help in safety ? fp or radiations have a Tess penetrating power (@) © Oyerefore they are stopped by the walls of i ‘Thus the vessel is safe for the veetiations. (i) The B and ¥ radiations are not Sropped by the walls of vessel, so the vessel is nsafe for the B and ¥ radiations. (b) Suggestions ¢ (1) The sphere must have lead walls, 2) The sphere must be of large radius. 16. {) No. The vessel should not be evacuated, The air in it will help in absorbing the radiations. (a) A mass of lead is embedded in a block of wood. Radiations from a radioactive source incident on the side of block produce a 1B. |. Name the three constituents of an atom and state mass and charge of each. How are they distributed inan atom ? 2. Define the following terms : (@) atomic number, and (b) mass number. 3. What is nucleus of an atom ? Compare its size with that of the atom, Name its constitutents. How is the number of these constituents determined by the atomic number and mass number of the atom ? State the atomic number and mass number of 7}Na and draw its atomic model. a are isotopes ? Give one example. — hat are isobars ? Give one example. 10. shadow on a fluorescent screen placed beyond the block. The shadow of wood is faint, but the shadow of lead is dark. Give reason for the difference. (b) If the block of wood is replaced by a block of aluminium, will there be any change in the shadow? (a) Reason : The shadow of wood is faint because only the o& radiations are stopped by the wood (since @ radiations are least penetrating). The shadow of lead is dark because 6 and 7 radiations are also stopped by lead. (b) If wood is replaced by aluminium (or any other ight metal), the shadow of aluminium block will remain faint because aluminium will not stop the ‘y radiations. State one use and one harmful effect of the radioactivity. Use : The radiations given out in the decay process are used to cure certain diseases, like cancer. Harmful effect : The radiations can damage the living tissues. A radioactive substance is oxi would you expect to take: radioactivity ? Explain