ANNAI FATHIMA ARTS AND SCIENCE COLLEGE

Department of Forensic Science

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SUBJECT : NME1 (Non Major Elective): Introduction to Computers and Office

Automation
COURSE : BSc Forensic Science Crimology
YEAR : III YEAR
SEMESTER :V
NOTES : UNIT-I
ACADEMIC YEAR : 2023 - 2024
Prepared by S.R. Seenivasan, Asst. Prof., and Department of Forensic Science.

Topics to be covered
Introduction to Computer and Information Technology: History, Computer system concepts-Computer
system characteristics- Capabilities and limitations Types of computers- Generations. Computer
organization and working: Introduction-The Control Unit ALU- Memory-Read only memory (ROM).
**********
In today's world, we use computers for all our tasks. Our day-to-day activities: paying bills,
buying groceries, using social media, seeking entertainment, working from home, communicating with
a friend, etc., can all be done using a computer. So it is important not only to know how to use a computer,
but also to understand the components of a computer and what they do.
This topic explains all concepts related to computer in detail, from origin to end. The idea of computer
literacy is also discussed, which includes the definition and functions of a computer. You learn about
the components of a computer, the concept of hardware and software, representation of data/information,
the concept of data processing and applications of IECT.
What is a Computer?
A computer is an electronic device that accepts data from the user, processes it, produces results,
displays them to the users, and stores the results for future usage.
Data is a collection of unorganized facts & figures and does not provide any further information
regarding patterns, context, etc. Hence data means "unstructured facts and figures".
Information is a structured data i.e. organized meaningful and processed data. To process the data and
convert into information, a computer is used.
Functions of Computers
A computer performs the following functions −
Receiving Input
Data is fed into computer through various input devices like keyboard, mouse, digital pens, etc. Input
can also be fed through devices like CD-ROM, pen drive, scanner, etc.
Processing the information
Operations on the input data are carried out based on the instructions provided in the programs.
Storing the information
After processing, the information gets stored in the primary or secondary storage area.
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Producing output
The processed information and other details are communicated to the outside world through output
devices like monitor, printer, etc.

Sr. Computer Concepts & Description

No.

1 History of Computers
The history of the computer dates back to several years. There are five prominent generations
of computers. Each generation has witnessed several technological advances which change the
functionality of the computers.

2 Characteristics of Computer System

Characteristics of Computer System involve Speed, Accuracy, Diligence, Versatility,
Reliability, Automation, Memory.

3 Basic Applications of Computer

Computers play a role in every field of life. They are used in homes, business, educational
institutions, research organizations, medical field, government offices, entertainment, etc.

4 Components of Computer System

Computer systems consist of three components as shown in below image: Central Processing
Unit, Input devices and Output devices.

5 Input Devices – Keyboard and Mouse

Input devices help to get input or data from user.

6 Other Input Devices

There are few other input devices which help to feed data to the computer.

7 Output Devices
Output devices help to display output to user

8 Computer Memory
Computer memory refers to storage area where data is stored. It is of two types Primary
Memory & Secondary Memory.

9 Concept of Hardware and Software

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The term hardware refers to mechanical device that makes up computer.

Software can be categorized into two types - System software & Application software

10 Programming Languages
The languages that are used to write a program or set of instructions are called "Programming
languages". Programming languages are broadly categorized into three types - Machine level
language, Assembly level language, High-level language.

11 Representation of Data/Information
Computer does not understand human language. Any data, viz., letters, symbols, pictures, audio,
videos, etc., fed to computer should be converted to machine language first. Computers
represent that data into different forms.

12 Data Processing & Data Processing Stages

Data processing is a process of converting raw facts or data into a meaningful information.

13 Applications of IECT
IECT stands for Information Electronics and Communication Technology.

Summary
In this chapter, we discussed different components of a computer, and familiarized ourselves with
concept of hardware and software, representation of data/information, concept of data processing, and
applications of IECT.

Introduction to Information Technology

21st century has come to be known as the era of Information Technology; it is the key driver of economic
growth of not only a nation, but rather the whole world.
The growth and progress of every sector of the country today depends on the level of Information
Technology.

Furthermore, technology is not important only at the work place, but also in our everyday life; whether
it is working with the microwave oven which is a cooking appliance or a super computer, an appliance
is based on information technology, technology helps everywhere.
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From hi-tech industry to an education system, Information Technology footprints can be seen
everywhere.
Likewise, Information Technology is one of the essential features for the overall development of a
country.
Meaning of Information Technology
The technology, which is exclusively designed to store, process, and transmit information, is known as
Information Technology.
The following diagram illustrates the basic features and applications of Information Technology −

Though the diagram given above is not inclusive, as it does not include every aspect and application of
information technology, but it comprehensively covers the major aspects.
Important Features of Information Technology
Following are the major features as well as advantages of Information Technology −
• The development of Information Technology has made education system simpler, easier, and
widespread. Now, people of remote areas can also use technology for their children’s education
and also avail the benefits of adult education.
• Diffusion of e-governance on a large scale.
• Participation of public in governance and policy making.
• Fast economic development.
• Development of remote areas.
• Technology helps the police in nabbing the criminals.
• The judiciary and other administrative services can also take the help of technology to make work
easier and faster.
• Highly beneficial for the common people, as they can access their rights and can take legal action
against the person who violates his/her rights.
• It increases the happiness and prosperity of not only an individual, but rather the society as a
whole.
Besides, there are many other advantages too that can be availed in our everyday life only with the
further development of information technology.
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Demerits of Information Technology

Information Technology is like a boon on the society. However, it comes with its own disadvantages −
• As discussed above, with the help of technology, police can arrest criminals and criminal
activities; at the same time, technology has also opened the door for criminals as well to practice
smart criminal activity.
• There are chances that children can misuse technology and take a wrong path.
• Some distorted and perverted minds use technology to demean or defame someone unethically
and also illegally.
• These are basically not demerits but rather the misuse of technology.
Information Technology Act, 2000
By understanding the growing demand and applications of Information Technology, the Government of
India passed the bill of Information Technology in 2000, which came to be known as the Information
Technology Act, 2000.
The major features of the Act are −
• It facilitates e-governance and e-commerce by providing equal legal treatment to users.
• It made provision to accept electronic records and digital signature.
• It gave legal approval to electronic business transactions.
• The Act instructs banks to maintain electronic record and facilitate electronic fund transfer.
It also sets up a Cyber Law Appellate Tribunal.
History of Computers
When we study the many aspects of computing and computers, it is important to know about the history of
computers. Charles Babbage designed an Analytical Engine which was a general computer It helps us
understand the growth and progress of technology through the times. It is also an important topic for
competitive and banking exams.

What is a Computer?

A computer is an electronic machine that collects information, stores it, processes it according to user
instructions, and then returns the result.
A computer is a programmable electronic device that performs arithmetic and logical operations
automatically using a set of instructions provided by the user.

Early Computing Devices

People used sticks, stones, and bones as counting tools before computers were invented. More computing
devices were produced as technology advanced and the human intellect improved over time. Let us look at
a few of the early-age computing devices used by mankind.

1. Abacus
Abacus was invented by the Chinese around 4000 years ago. It’s a wooden rack with metal rods with beads
attached to them. The abacus operator moves the beads according to certain guidelines to complete
arithmetic computations.
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2. Napier’s Bone
John Napier devised Napier’s Bones, a manually operated calculating apparatus. For calculating, this
instrument used 9 separate ivory strips (bones) marked with numerals to multiply and divide. It was also
the first machine to calculate using the decimal point system.

3. Pascaline
Pascaline was invented in 1642 by Biaise Pascal, a French mathematician and philosopher. It is thought to
be the first mechanical and automated calculator. It was a wooden box with gears and wheels inside.

4. Stepped Reckoner or Leibniz wheel

In 1673, a German mathematician-philosopher named Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz improved on Pascal’s
invention to create this apparatus. It was a digital mechanical calculator known as the stepped reckoner
because it used fluted drums instead of gears.

5. Difference Engine
In the early 1820s, Charles Babbage created the Difference Engine. It was a mechanical computer that could
do basic computations. It was a steam-powered calculating machine used to solve numerical tables such as
logarithmic tables.

6. Analytical Engine
Charles Babbage created another calculating machine, the Analytical Engine, in 1830. It was a mechanical
computer that took input from punch cards. It was capable of solving any mathematical problem and storing
data in an indefinite memory.

7. Tabulating machine
An American Statistician – Herman Hollerith invented this machine in the year 1890. Tabulating Machine
was a punch card-based mechanical tabulator. It could compute statistics and record or sort data or
information. Hollerith began manufacturing these machines in his company, which ultimately became
International Business Machines (IBM) in 1924.

8. Differential Analyzer
Vannevar Bush introduced the first electrical computer, the Differential Analyzer, in 1930. This machine is
made up of vacuum tubes that switch electrical impulses in order to do calculations. It was capable of
performing 25 calculations in a matter of minutes.

9. Mark I
Howard Aiken planned to build a machine in 1937 that could conduct massive calculations or calculations
using enormous numbers. The Mark I computer was constructed in 1944 as a collaboration between IBM
and Harvard.
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History of Computers Generation

The word ‘computer’ has a very interesting origin. It was first used in the 16th century for a person who
used to compute, i.e. do calculations. The word was used in the same sense as a noun until the 20th century.
Women were hired as human computers to carry out all forms of calculations and computations.

By the last part of the 19th century, the word was also used to describe machines that did calculations. The
modern-day use of the word is generally to describe programmable digital devices that run on electricity.

Early History of Computer

Since the evolution of humans, devices have been used for calculations for thousands of years. One of the
earliest and most well-known devices was an abacus. Then in 1822, the father of computers, Charles
Babbage began developing what would be the first mechanical computer. And then in 1833 he actually
designed an Analytical Engine which was a general-purpose computer. It contained an ALU, some basic
flow chart principles and the concept of integrated memory.

Then more than a century later in the history of computers, we got our first electronic computer for general
purpose. It was the ENIAC, which stands for Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer. The inventors
of this computer were John W. Mauchly and J.Presper Eckert.

And with times the technology developed and the computers got smaller and the processing got faster. We
got our first laptop in 1981 and it was introduced by Adam Osborne and EPSON.

The Computer System Concept.

A computer is more than a high-powered collection of electronic devices performing a variety of

information processing chores. A computer is a system, an interrelated combination of components that
performs the basic system functions of input, processing, output, storage, and control, thus providing
end users with a powerful information processing tool. Understanding the computer as a computer
system is vital to the effective use and management of computers.

A computer is system of hardware devices organized according to the following system functions.
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• Input. The input devices of a computer system include keyboards, touch screens, pens, electronic mice,
optical scanners, and so on.
• Processing. The central processing unit( CPU) is the main processing component of a computer system.
(In microcomputers, it is the main microprocessor.) In particular, the electronic circuits of the arithmetic-
logic unit one of the CPU’s major components, perform the arithmetic and logic functions required in
computer processing.
• Output. The output devices of a computer system include video display units, printers, audio response
units , and so on, They convert electronic information produced by the computer system into human
intelligible form for presentation to end users.
• Storage. The storage function of a computer system takes place in the storage circuits of the computer’s
primary storage unit, or memory, and in secondary storage devices such as magnetic disk and tape units.
These devices store data and program instructions needed for processing.
• Control. The control unit of the CPU is the control component of a computer system. Its circuits
interpret computer program instructions and transmit directions to the other components of the computer
system.

The Central Processing Unit.

The central processing unit is the most important hardware component of a computer system. It is also
known as the CPU, the central processor or instruction processor, and the main microprocessor in a
microcomputer. Conceptually, the circuitry of a CPU can be subdivided into two major subunits the
arithmetic-logic unit and the control unit. The CPU also includes circuitry for devices such as registers
and cache memory for high —speed, temporary storage of instruction operations, input/output, and
telecommunications support.

The control unit obtains instructions from software segments stored in the primary storage unit and
interprets them. Then it transmits electronic signals to the other components of the computer system to
perform required operations. The arithmetic-logic unit performs required arithmetic and comparison
operations .A computer can make logical changes from one set of program instructions to another (e.g,
overtime pay versus regular pay calculations) based on the results of comparisons made in the ALU
during processing.

Main Memory and Primary Storage Unit.

A computer’s primary storage unit is commonly called main memory, and holds data and program
instructions between processing steps and supplies them to the control unit and arithmetic-logic unit
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during processing. Most of a computer’s memory consists of microelectronic semiconductor memory

chips known as RAM (random access memory ). The contents of these memory chips can be instantly
changed to store new data. Other, more permanent memory chips called ROM (read only memory) may
also be used.

Secondary storage devices like magnetic disks and optical disks are used to store data and programs
and thus greatly enlarge the storage capacities of computer system. Also, since memory circuits typically
lose their contents when electric power is turned off, most secondary storage media provide a more
permanent type of storage. However the contents of hard disk drives floppy disks, CD-ROM disks, and
other secondary storage media cannot be processed without first being brought into memory. Thus
secondary storage devices play a supporting role to the primary storage of a computer system.

Multiple Processors.

Many current computers, from microcomputers to large mainframes, use multiple processors for their
processing functions. Instead of having one CPU with a single control unit and arithmetic-logic unit, the
CPUs of these computers contain several type of processing units. Let’s briefly look at the major types
of such multiprocessor designs.

A support processor design relies on specialized microprocessors to help the main CPU perform a
variety of functions. These microprocessors may used for input/output, memory management, arithmetic
computations, multimedia processing, and telecommunications, thus freeing the main processor to do
the primary job of executing program instructions For example, many microcomputers rely on support
microprocessors such as arithmetic co-processing load on their main microprocessors. A large computer
may use support microprocessors called channels to control the movement of data between the CPU and
input/output devices. Advanced microprocessor designs integrate the functions of several support
processors on a single main microprocessor.

A coupled processor design uses multiple CPUs or main microprocessors to do multiprocessing, that
is, executing more than one instruction at the same time. Some configurations provide a fault-tolerant
capability in which multiple CPUs provide a built-in backup to each other should one of them fail.

A parallel processor design uses a group of instruction processors to execute several program
instructions at the same time. Some times, hundreds or thousands of processors are organized in clusters
or networks in massively parallel processing (MPP) computers. Other parallel processor designs are
based on simple models of the human brain called neural networks. All of these systems can execute
many instructions at a time in parallel. This is a major departure from the traditional design of current
computers, called the Von Neuman design, which executes instructions serially (one at a time). Though
difficult to program, many experts consider parallel processor systems the key to providing advanced
capabilities to future generations of computers.

RISC Processors. Many advanced technical workstations and other computers rely on a processor
design called RISC (reduced instruction set computer). This contrasts with most current computers that
use CISC (complex instruction set computer) processors. RISC processor designs optimize a CPU’s
processing speed by using a smaller instruction set. That is, they use a smaller number of the basic
machine instruction that a processor is capable of executing. By keeping the instruction set simpler than
CISC processors and using more complex software, a RISC processor can reduce the time needed to
execute program instructions.
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Computer Processing Speeds.

Computer operating speeds that were formerly measured in milliseconds (thousands of a second)
and microseconds (millionths of a second) are now in the nanosecond (billionth of a second) range,
with picosecond (trillionth of a second) speed being attained by some computers. Such speeds seem
almost incomprehensible. For example, an average person taking one step each nanosecond would circle
the earth above 20 times in one second. Many microcomputers and midrange computers, and most
mainframe computers, operate in the nanosecond range, and can thus process program instructions at
million instructions per second (MIPS) speeds. Another measure of processing speed is megahertz
(MHs), or millions of cycles per second. It is commonly called the clock speed of a microprocessor, sine
it is used to rate microprocessors by the speed of their timing circuits or internal clock.

However, megahertz, ratings can be misleading indicators of the effective processing speed of
microprocessors as measured in MIPS and other measures. That’s because processing speed depends on
a variety of factors besides a microprocessor’s clock speed. Important examples include the size of
circuitry paths, or busses, that interconnect microprocessor components, the capacity of instruction
processing registers, the use of high-speed memory caches, and the use of specialized microprocessors
such as a math co-processor to do arithmetic calculations faster. For example, Intel’s Pentium
microprocessor runs at 66 to 200 MHz and is rated at over 100 MIPS, which the Pentium Pro
microprocessor has a top processing rating of over 200 MIPS at similar megahertz speeds.

Characteristics of Computer System

The characteristics of the computer system are as follows –

Speed
A computer works with much higher speed and accuracy compared to humans while performing
mathematical calculations. Computers can process millions (1,000,000) of instructions per second. The
time taken by computers for their operations is microseconds and nanoseconds.
Accuracy
Computers perform calculations with 100% accuracy. Errors may occur due to data inconsistency or
inaccuracy.
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Diligence
A computer can perform millions of tasks or calculations with the same consistency and accuracy. It
doesn’t feel any fatigue or lack of concentration. Its memory also makes it superior to that of human
beings.
Versatility
Versatility refers to the capability of a computer to perform different kinds of works with same accuracy
and efficiency.
Reliability
A computer is reliable as it gives consistent result for similar set of data i.e., if we give same set of input
any number of times, we will get the same result.
Automation
Computer performs all the tasks automatically i.e. it performs tasks without manual intervention.
Memory
A computer has built-in memory called primary memory where it stores data. Secondary storage are
removable devices such as CDs, pen drives, etc., which are also used to store data.
Capabilities of Computer System

Capabilities of a computer system are the qualities of the computer that put it in a positive light and make
the user experience more efficient.

Speed
Speed means the duration computer system requires in fulfilling a task or completing an activity. It is well-
known that computers need very little time than humans in completing a task. Generally, humans take into
account a second or minute as a unit of time.

Nevertheless, computer systems have such fast operation capacity that the unit of time is in fractions of a
second. Today, computers are capable of doing 100 million calculations per second and that is why the
industry has developed Million Instructions per Second (MIPS) as the criterion to classify different
computers according to speed.

Accuracy
Accuracy means the level of precision with which calculations are made and tasks are performed. One may
invest years of his life in detecting errors in computer calculations or updating a wrong record. A large part
of mistakes in Computer Based Information System (CBIS) occurs due to bad programming, erroneous
data, and deviation from rules. Humans cause these mistakes.

Errors attributable to hardware are generally distinguished and corrected by the computer system itself. The
computers rarely commit errors and do all types of tasks precisely.
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Reliability
Reliability is the quality due to which the user can stay dependable on the computer. Computers systems
are well-adjusted to do repetitive tasks. They never get tired, bored or fatigued. Hence, they are a lot reliable
than humans. Still, there can be failures of a computer system due to internal and external reasons.

Any failure of the computer in a highly automated industry is disastrous. Hence, the industry in such
situations has a backup facility to take over tasks without losing much of the time.

Adaptability
Adaptability of computer system means the quality of it to complete a different type of tasks: simple as well
as complex. Computers are normally versatile unless designed for a specific operation. Overall, a daily
purpose computer is used in any area of application: business, industry, scientific, statistical, technological
and so on

A general purpose computer, when introduced in a company, can replace the jobs of multiple specialists
due to its flexibility. A computer system can replace the functions of all these specialists because of being
very versatile.

Storage
Storage is the ability of the computer to store data in itself for accessing it again in future. Nowadays, apart
from having instantaneous access to data, computers have a huge ability to store data in a little physical
space.

A general computer system has a capacity of storing and providing online millions of characters and
thousands of pictures. It is obvious from the above discussion that computer capabilities outperform the
human capabilities. Therefore, a computer, when used rightfully, will tenfold the effectiveness of an
organization.

Limitations of Computer Systems

Limitations are the drawbacks of the computer system in which humans outperform them.

Lack of common-sense
This is one of the major limitations of computer systems. No matter how efficient, fast and reliable computer
systems might be but yet do not have any common sense because no full-proof algorithm has been designed
to programme logic into them. As computers function based on the stored programme(s), they simply lack
common sense.

Zero IQ
Another of the limitations of computer systems is that they have zero Intelligence Quotient (IQ). They are
unable to see and think the actions to perform in a particular situation unless that situation is already
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programmed into them. Computers are programmable to complete each and every task, however small it
may be.

Lack of Decision-making
Decision-making is a complicated process involving information, knowledge, intelligence, wisdom, and
ability to judge. The computer system does not have the ability to make decisions on their own because they
do not possess all the essentials of decision-making.

They can be programmed to take such decisions, which are purely procedure-oriented. If a computer has
not been programmed for a particular decision situation, it will not take a decision due to lack of wisdom
and evaluation faculties. Human beings, on the other hand, possess this great power of decision-making.

Types of Computer
There are two bases on which we can define the types of computers. We will discuss the type of
computers on the basis of size and data handling capabilities. We will discuss each type of computer
in detail. Let’s see first what are the types of computers.
• Super Computer
• Mainframe computer
• Mini Computer
• Workstation Computer
• Personal Computer (PC)
• Server Computer
• Analog Computer
• Digital Computer
• Hybrid Computer
• Tablets and Smartphone
Now, we are going to discuss each of them in detail.
Supercomputer
When we talk about speed, then the first name that comes to mind when thinking of computers is
supercomputers. They are the biggest and fastest computers (in terms of speed of processing data).
Supercomputers are designed such that they can process a huge amount of data, like processing
trillions of instructions or data just in a second. This is because of the thousands of interconnected
processors in supercomputers. It is basically used in scientific and engineering applications such as
weather forecasting, scientific simulations, and nuclear energy research. It was first developed by
Roger Cray in 1976.
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Super Computers

Characteristics of Supercomputers
• Supercomputers are the computers that are the fastest and they are also very expensive.
• It can calculate up to ten trillion individual calculations per second, this is also the reason which
makes it even faster.
• It is used in the stock market or big organizations for managing the online currency world such as
Bitcoin etc.
• It is used in scientific research areas for analyzing data obtained from exploring the solar system,
satellites, etc.

Mainframe computer
Mainframe computers are designed in such a way that they can support hundreds or thousands of users
at the same time. It also supports multiple programs simultaneously. So, they can execute different
processes simultaneously. All these features make the mainframe computer ideal for big organizations
like banking, telecom sectors, etc., which process a high volume of data in general.

Characteristics of Mainframe Computers

• It is also an expensive or costly computer.
• It has high storage capacity and great performance.
• It can process a huge amount of data (like data involved in the banking sector) very quickly.
• It runs smoothly for a long time and has a long life.

Minicomputer
Minicomputer is a medium size multiprocessing computer. In this type of computer, there are two or
more processors, and it supports 4 to 200 users at one time. Minicomputer is similar to Microcontroller.
Minicomputers are used in places like institutes or departments for different work like billing,
accounting, inventory management, etc. It is smaller than a mainframe computer but larger in
comparison to the microcomputer.

Characteristics of Minicomputer
• Its weight is low.
• Because of its low weight, it is easy to carry anywhere.
• less expensive than a mainframe computer.
• It is fast.
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Workstation Computer
A workstation computer is designed for technical or scientific applications. It consists of a fast
microprocessor, with a large amount of RAM and a high-speed graphic adapter. It is a single-user
computer. It is generally used to perform a specific task with great accuracy.
Characteristics of Workstation Computer
• It is expensive or high in cost.
• They are exclusively made for complex work purposes.
• It provides large storage capacity, better graphics, and a more powerful CPU when compared to a
PC.
• It is also used to handle animation, data analysis, CAD, audio and video creation, and editing.

Personal Computer (PC)

Personal Computers is also known as a microcomputer. It is basically a general-purpose computer
designed for individual use. It consists of a microprocessor as a central processing unit(CPU), memory,
input unit, and output unit. This kind of computer is suitable for personal work such as making an
assignment, watching a movie, or at the office for office work, etc. For example, Laptops and desktop
computers.

Personal Computer

Characteristics of Personal Computer (PC)

• In this limited number of software can be used.
• It is the smallest in size.
• It is designed for personal use.
• It is easy to use.

Server Computer
Server Computers are computers that are combined data and programs. Electronic data and
applications are stored and shared in the server computer. The working of a server computer is that it
does not solve a bigger problem like a supercomputer but it solves many smaller similar ones.
Examples of server computer are like Wikipedia, as when users put a request for any page, it finds
what the user is looking for and sends it to the user.

Analog Computer
Analog Computers are particularly designed to process analog data. Continuous data that changes
continuously and cannot have discrete values are called analog data. So, an analog computer is used
where we don’t need exact values or need approximate values such as speed, temperature, pressure,
etc. It can directly accept the data from the measuring device without first converting it into numbers
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and codes. It measures the continuous changes in physical quantity. It gives output as a reading on a
dial or scale. For example speedometer, mercury thermometer, etc.
Digital Computer
Digital computers are designed in such a way that they can easily perform calculations and logical
operations at high speed. It takes raw data as input and processes it with programs stored in its memory
to produce the final output. It only understands the binary input 0 and 1, so the raw input data is
converted to 0 and 1 by the computer and then it is processed by the computer to produce the result or
final output. All modern computers, like laptops, desktops including smartphones are digital
computers.

Hybrid Computer
As the name suggests hybrid, which means made by combining two different things. Similarly, the
hybrid computer is a combination of both analog and digital computers. Hybrid computers are fast like
analog computers and have memory and accuracy like digital computers. So, it has the ability to
process both continuous and discrete data. For working when it accepts analog signals as input then it
converts them into digital form before processing the input data. So, it is widely used in specialized
applications where both analog and digital data are required to be processed. A processor which is
used in petrol pumps that converts the measurements of fuel flow into quantity and price is an example
of a hybrid computer.
Tablet and Smartphones
Tablets and Smartphones are the types of computers that are pocket friendly and easy to carry is these
are handy. This is one of the best use of modern technology. These devices have better hardware
capabilities, extensive operating systems, and better multimedia functionality. Smart phones and
tablets contain a number of sensors and are also able to provide wireless communication protocols.

Tablet and Smartphones

We generally classify computers on the basis of size, functionality, and data handling capabilities.

Generations of Computers – Computer Fundamentals

The modern computer took its shape with the arrival of your time. It had been around the 16th century
when the evolution of the computer started. The initial computer faced many changes, obviously for
the betterment. It continuously improved itself in terms of speed, accuracy, size, and price to urge the
form of the fashionable day computer.
Basic Terms Related to Computers
The basic terms related to generations of computers are listed below.
1. Vacuum Tube: Vacuum tubes have the functionality of controlling the flow of electronics in a
vacuum. Generally, it is used in switches, amplifiers, radios, televisions, etc.
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2. Transistor: A transistor helps in controlling the flow of electricity in devices, it works as an

amplifier or a switch.
3. Integrated Circuit (IC): Integrated circuits are silicon chips that contain their circuit elements
like transistors, resistors, etc.
4. Microprocessors: Microprocessors are the components that contain the CPU and its circuits and
are present in the Integrated Circuit.
5. Central Processing Unit (CPU): The CPU is called the brain of the computer. CPU performs
processing and operations work.
6. Magnetic Drum: Magnetic Drum is like a cylinder that stores data and cylinder.
7. Magnetic Core: Magnetic cores are used to store information. These are arrays of small rings.
8. Machine Language: Machine Language is the language that a computer accepts (in the form of
binary digits). It is also called low-level programming language.
9. Memory: Memory is used to store data, information, and program in a computer.
10. Artificial Intelligence: Artificial Intelligence deals with creating intelligent machines and
behaviors.

Phases of Computer Generations

This long period is often conveniently divided into the subsequent phases called computer generations.

Generations of Computer Time-Period Evolving Hardware

First Generation 1940s – 1950s Vacuum Tube Based

Second Generation 1950s – 1960s Transistor Based

Third Generation 1960s – 1970s Integrated Circuit Based

Fourth Generation 1970s – Present Microprocessor Based

Fifth Generation Present – Future Artificial Intelligence Based

Before the generation of computers, we used calculators, spreadsheets, and computer algebra systems,
mathematicians and inventors searched for solutions to ease the burden of calculation.
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Department of Forensic Science
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Computer System Organisation

The computer system is a combination of many parts such as peripheral devices, secondary memory,
CPU etc. This can be explained more clearly using a diagram.

The salient points about the above figure displaying Computer System Organisation is −

• The I/O devices and the CPU both execute concurrently. Some of the processes are scheduled
for the CPU and at the same time, some are undergoing input/output operations.
• There are multiple device controllers, each in charge of a particular device such as keyboard,
mouse, printer etc.
• There is buffer available for each of the devices. The input and output data can be stored in
these buffers.
• The data is moved from memory to the respective device buffers by the CPU for I/O
operations and then this data is moved back from the buffers to memory.
• The device controllers use an interrupt to inform the CPU that I/O operation is completed.

A computer system is basically a machine that simplifies complicated tasks. It should maximize
performance and reduce costs as well as power consumption. The different components in the Computer
System Architecture are Input Unit, Output Unit, Storage Unit, Arithmetic Logic Unit, Control Unit etc.
A diagram that shows the flow of data between these units is as follows −

The input data travels from input unit to ALU. Similarly, the computed data travels from ALU to output
unit. The data constantly moves from storage unit to ALU and back again. This is because stored data
is computed on before being stored again. The control unit controls all the other units as well as their
data.
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Details about all the computer units are −

• Input Unit
The input unit provides data to the computer system from the outside. So, basically it links the
external environment with the computer. It takes data from the input devices, converts it into
machine language and then loads it into the computer system. Keyboard, mouse etc. are the most
commonly used input devices.
• Output Unit
The output unit provides the results of computer process to the users i.e it links the computer with
the external environment. Most of the output data is the form of audio or video. The different
output devices are monitors, printers, speakers, headphones etc.
• Storage Unit
Storage unit contains many computer components that are used to store data. It is traditionally
divided into primary storage and secondary storage. Primary storage is also known as the main
memory and is the memory directly accessible by the CPU. Secondary or external storage is not
directly accessible by the CPU. The data from secondary storage needs to be brought into the
primary storage before the CPU can use it. Secondary storage contains a large amount of data
permanently.
• Arithmetic Logic Unit
All the calculations related to the computer system are performed by the arithmetic logic unit. It
can perform operations like addition, subtraction, multiplication, division etc. The control unit
transfers data from storage unit to arithmetic logic unit when calculations need to be performed.
The arithmetic logic unit and the control unit together form the central processing unit.
• Control Unit
This unit controls all the other units of the computer system and so is known as its central nervous
system. It transfers data throughout the computer as required including from storage unit to
central processing unit and vice versa. The control unit also dictates how the memory, input
output devices, arithmetic logic unit etc. should behave.

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