LEARNING MODULE FOR 11

Disciplines and Ideas

of Social Sciences
SY 2021-2022
(3rd Batch April 18 – May 20, 2022)

___________________________
Student Name
___________________________
Section Name

NIJEL P. GALVE, LPT, CPE

Teacher
Contact #: 09565908300
Email: nijelgalve@aans.edu.ph
 My beloved students, before you begin, it is good for you to have a clear and deep foundation on this
subject matter from the Holy Scriptures as the Bible serves as our guide when we approach human sciences
that are, in most cases, humanistic and limited in scope of shedding light on the issues particularly ones dealing
the studies on human behaviors.
The Bible gives us a clear note on the matter of understanding things that are difficult to comprehend. It
says, “Now faith is the substance of things hoped for, the evidence of things not seen” (Hebrews 11:1).
Why faith? How is it related to social sciences? Is it relevant to engage the study social sciences to the
spiritual realm? I would say, YES, and here’s the reason.
Faith in Christ is not the work of nature, but the work of God on human minds, wrought in the very soul
by the Holy Spirit, who reveals Christ, as Christ revealed the Father. Faith is the substance of things hoped for,
the evidence of things not seen. With its justifying, sanctifying power, it is above what men call science. It is the
science of eternal realities. Human science is often deceptive and misleading, but this heavenly science never
misleads. It is so simple that a child can understand it, and yet the most learned men cannot explain it. It is
inexplainable and immeasurable, beyond all human expression. (Our High Calling, 117)
Great boasts are made about the powers of physical science. It is claimed that through science the very
elements can be captivated and made to obey and serve man. Men employ the powerful energies of nature
and attempt to do wondrous things. {19MR 251.2}
By those who make the Scriptures their constant study, true natural science is far better understood
than it is by many so-called learned men. Science, as revealed in Holy Writ, flashes light upon many hidden
things in God's Word. The science of the Bible is pure, undefiled religion; it is the science of true godliness. And
obedience to God, in all schemes of human benevolence--practical activity--is the science of salvation. The
gospel is "the power of God unto salvation to everyone that believeth." {19MR 251.3}
While it is important that we know what social sciences can give us in our understanding toward man’s
activity, it is far more important that we understand the science of salvation that God has given to man because
it is the one and only science that lasts for eternity.
Let’s pray: Loving God, that Your Name may be lifted above all worldly fames and honor that this
fleeting world may give, provide us eternal understanding to discover truths relevant to increase our faith, even
things that are difficult to understand and to reason. In Jesus” Name. Amen.

This module was designed and written with you in mind. It is here to help you master how social sciences
emerge and how does it link to the natural sciences. The scope of this module permits it to be used in many
different learning situations. The language used recognizes the diverse vocabulary level of students. The
lessons are arranged to follow the standard sequence of the course. But the order in which you read them can
be changed to correspond with the textbook you are now using.

This module contains the following lessons:

Lesson 1 – Defining Social Sciences as the Study of Society

2
After going through this module, you are expected to:
1. Define Social Sciences as the study of society.
2. Distinguish Social Sciences and Natural Sciences and Humanities.
3. Differentiate Social Sciences from Natural Sciences and Humanities.
4. Discuss the basic concepts and principles of the major social sciences theories.
5. Carefully distinguish importance of the basic concepts and principles of the following major
social sciences theories by sharing personal experiences.
6. Create a reflection paper about the major social sciences theories:

Activity 1: Testing Your Prior Knowledge About Social Sciences (1 Point each)

Direction: Choose the letter of the correct answer.

1. Its broadest sense is the study of society, and the way people behave and influence the world around us.
a. Anthropology b. Political Science
c. Social Sciences d. Sociology

2. Below are the branches of natural sciences EXCEPT ONE.

a. Biological Science b. Chemistry
c. Earth Science d. Political Science

3. Social sciences can be traced back to __________.

a. Greek Civilization b. Persian Civilization
c. Roman Civilization d. None of the above

4. The __________ which begun with Nicolaus Copernicus refers to the historical changes in thought and belief.
a. Industrial revolution b. Information revolution
c. Scientific revolution d. Technological revolution

5. It is the backbone of humanities.

a. History b. Language c. Numbers d. Poetry

6. The following are the definition of humanities EXCEPT ONE.

a. Humanities is the study of human culture with particular emphasis on the liberal arts.
b. Humanities is the study of human mind and its functions, especially those affecting behavior
in each context.
c. Humanities is the study of human culture with particular emphasis on individual philosophic
self - expressions.
d. Humanities is the study of human culture with particular emphasis on the cultural
implications of the natural sciences, social sciences, and professions.

7. Ledoux (2002) defines __________ as the discipline that deals only with natural events (i.e., independent, and
dependent variables in nature) using scientific methods.
a. Anthropology b. Biology
c. Natural Sciences d. Social Sciences

8. Which of the following is the aim of natural science?

a. To discover the laws that rules the world
b. To describe the physical reality of the world we live in
3
 c. To utilize the principles of science for the benefit of mankind
d. All of the above

9. The following is the reason why people need the field of social science.
a. Social sciences can help us make sense of our finances.
b. Social sciences can broaden your horizon.
c. Social scientist help imagine alternative figures.
d. All of the above

10. It is a social science that deals with the optimum allocation of scarce resources among its alternatives to
satisfy the unlimited human wants and needs of the people.
a. Economics b. Philosophy
c. Political Science d. Sociology

11.It is the science of language. It is the subject whose practitioners devote their energy to understand why
human language the way is.
a. Linguistics b. Phonetics
c. Pragmatics d. Semantics

12.This refers to the discipline in social science which focuses on the theory and practice of government and
politics at the local, state, national, and international levels.
a. Earth Science b. Economics
c. Natural Science d. Political Science

13.It is the science of mind, brain, and behavior.

a. Astronomy b. Biology
c. Physiology d. Psychology

14. It is the study of human populations in relation to the changes brought about by the interplay of births,
deaths, and migration.
a. Demography b. Psychology
c. Sociology d. Statistics

15. It is the oldest branch of sociolinguistics and the study of regional differences in language.
a. Dialectology b. Language planning
c. Ethnography of speaking d. Variationist sociolinguistics

Lesson 1: Defining Social Sciences – The scientific study of organized human groups is a relatively
recent development, but a vast amount of information has been accumulated concerning the social life of
human beings. This information has been used in building a system of knowledge called Social Sciences about
the nature, growth and functioning of human societies.

Activity 2. WORD HUNT. 3 Points for each word found. 5 Points for every description. Total of
24 Points.

Direction: In the word hunt below, encircle the three words then write it on the short line and make a
brief description of the word on the long line.

4
1. ____________________

__________________________________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________________________

2. ____________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

3. ____________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

Historical Background of Social Sciences Quexbook 2018

The history of the social sciences begun in the roots of ancient philosophy. In ancient history, there was
no difference between Mathematics and the study of history, poetry, or politics, only with the development of
mathematical proof did there gradually arise a perceived difference between “scientific” disciplines and others
such as the “humanities” or “liberal arts.”

The Age of Enlightenment saw a revolution within natural philosophy, changing the basic framework by
which individuals understood what was “scientific”. In some quarters, the accelerating trend of mathematical
5
studies presumed a reality independent of the observer and worked by its own rules. Social sciences came
forth from the moral philosophy of the time and were influenced by the Age of Revolution, such as the Industrial
Revolution and the French Revolution. The Social Sciences developed from the sciences (experimental and
applied), or the systematic knowledge - bases or prescriptive practices, relating to the social improvement of a
group of interacting entities.

According to Stearns et al. (2000) In the period of 1760

Some effort was spent on the study of man and society. Hobbes` Leviathan; Lock’s Two Treatises on
Government; Vico`s New Science; and Montesquieu Spirit of Laws were all published in this period.

The revival of interest in social science occurred in the middle of the 18 th century.

By the middle of 18th century, capitalism had begun to outgrow its early state and gradually it became the
dominant socio-economic system in western and northern Europe.

In the second half of the 18th century, urbanization and population growth became accelerated, and during
this period slums, alcoholism, brutality of manners etc. developed which were to become the targets of social
reforms.

In the other half of the 18th century, in response to the above there is a multiplication of works with a
scientific character.

Auguste comte (1798-1853) invented the term sociology. He was the first to systematize and give a complete
analysis of the principles of the positive character of the Social Sciences.

Montesquieu and Voltaire broke a new path for politics and history. According to Stearns et al. (2000) 19th
Century Development

At the beginning of the 19th century, social science had attained in all the leading European countries a firm
and respectable position.

In the 20th century we can also observe recurrent occasions when proposals for a generalized social science
were made.

The contribution of Auguste Comte was accepted immediately; Emile Durkheim and the sociologists of the
late century and early century were influenced by him.

Karl Marx gave the first general theory of social science.

According to Stearns et al. (2000) 20th Century Development

If we examine the course of development of the various social science disciplines, we find that they follow on
the whole, a pattern through which the older natural sciences also passed.

At this stage the social science has become institutionalized to a high degree. It has now become a subject of
research.

Lawrence A. Kempton in his article “Social Sciences Today” states that social science as science is very
young and there is confusion with regards to its limits and boundaries.

6
 History moves into the humanities, economics becomes Mathematics, anthropology and psychology ally
themselves with biology and the geography is at home with physical science.

While in its initial period, it may have been the pre-occupation of a group of semi-amateurs, philosopher,
practical men in business and government, or gentleman of leisure; it now has become a subject of research
on the part of academic specialists.

In the third and the most mature stage of discipline the battles over method have subsided, the theoretical
rivalries tend to be submerged in the efforts to elaborate propositions bridging the differences and contributing
towards the further progress of the discipline.

Definitions of Social Sciences, Natural Sciences, and Humanities Social Sciences

Denhardt et al. (2009)
Social Sciences
A branch of science devoted to the study of societies and the relationships among individuals within
those societies. “Social sciences as those mental or cultural sciences which deal with the activities of the
individual as member of the group. The term social sciences thus embrace all those subjects which deal with
the relationship of man to the society.

Natural Sciences
A major branch of science that deals with the description, prediction and understanding of natural
phenomena, basically based on observational and empirical evidence.

7
Humanities
- refers to the study of the ways in which the human experience is processed and documented.
- encompasses the field of philosophy, literature, religion, art, music, history and language.

Social Sciences and Natural Sciences

Things in Common
- both sciences employ the scientific model in order to gain information.
- both sciences use empirical and measured data evidence that can be seen and discerned by the senses.
- both sciences’ theories can be tested to yield theoretical statements and general positions.

Social Science and Humanities

Things in Common

Both the humanities and social science are concerned with human aspects like, law, politics, linguistics,
economics, and psychology.

8
 ACTIVITY 3. PERSONAL ASSESSMENT TO LESSON 1.
Modified True or False. Write TRUE if the statement is correct and if otherwise, underline the
word(s) that make(s) it wrong and correct it. Bonus points are provided in the first two items serving as
examples. 2 Points each. Total Score of 20 Points.

ACTIVITY 4. PERFORM THE WORD WHEEL.

Directions: Using only the letters in the word wheel, reveal the magic word. Relate this word to
your personal life as a teenager through a short essay. Magic Word is 5 Points. Essay is 10 Points (2 Points- No
clear idea and no explanation), 5 Points (With idea but no clear explanation), 7 Points (With clear explanation),
10 Points (With good explanation and example).

9
 ACTIVITY 5. TEST YOURSELF. 20 Points.
Direction: Fill in the blanks with the correct words to complete the following sentences. Choose
your answer from the words listed in the box.

10
 ACTIVITY 6. INTERPRETING SITUATIONS. 5 Points each, total score of 10 Points.

Directions: Interpret the cartoon illustrations on the next page showing the typical happenings in the
life of our frontliners while battling COVID-19. Write your interpretations and thoughts on the lines provided
how these cartoons are related to social sciences.

__________________________________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________________________

11
__________________________________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________________________

What Have I learned?

1. The history of the social sciences begins in the roots of ancient philosophy.
2. Social sciences came forth from the moral philosophy of the time and were influenced by the
Age of Revolution, such as the Industrial Revolution and the French Revolution.
3. In the period of 1760, some effort was exerted on the study of man and society. Hobbes` Leviathan;
Lock’s Two Treatises on Government; Vico`s New Science; and Montesquieu Spirit of Laws were all
published in this period.
4. By the middle of 18th century, capitalism had begun to outgrow its early state and gradually it became
the dominant socio-economic system in western and northern Europe.
5. Auguste Comte (1798-1853) invented the term sociology. He was the first to systematize and give a
complete analysis of the principles of the positive character of social sciences.
6. Montesquieu and Voltaire broke a new path for politics and history.
7. At the beginning of the 19th century, social science had attained in all the leading European countries a
firm and respectable position.
8. 20th Century Development. At this stage the social science has become institutionalized to a high
degree. It has now become a subject of research.
9. Social Sciences as those mental or cultural sciences which deal with the activities of the individual as
member of the group.
10. Natural Sciences is a major branch of science that deals with the description, prediction and
understanding of natural phenomena, basically based on observational and empirical evidence.
11. Humanities refer to the study of the ways in which the human experience is processed and
documented.
12. The two main branches of Natural Science are life sciences/biological sciences and physical sciences.

12
Activity 7. APPLYING THE CONCEPTS OF SOCIAL SCIENCES I HAVE LEARNED.
2 Points each, a total score of 20.

13
MIDTERM EXAM
Directions: Answer every question carefully and honestly. God sees you whether you are honest and truthful
or cheating by copying others’ work. You decide. You are making your own destiny.
2 Points each, perfect score of 30.

14
Summary of Points Earned:
Lesson Activity Perfect Score Your Score
1st Activity No Points
2nd Activity 24
3rd Activity 20
4th Activity 15
5th Activity 20
6th Activity 10
7th Activity 20
Midterm Exam 30
TOTAL 139
15
Lesson 2 – The Basic Concepts and Principles of the Major Social Science Theories
(Study these 7 Social Science Disciplines for your comprehensive Final Exam on May 17. Exam will be
through Google Forms. You will receive the link on the same day and will expire by the end of the day. God
bless you.)

Competency: Analyze the basic concepts and principles of the major social sciences theories.

Objectives:
a) Discuss the basic concepts and principles of the major social sciences theories.
b) Carefully distinguish importance of the basic concepts and principles of the following major social
sciences theories by sharing personal experiences.

STRUCTURAL FUNCTIONALISM

Structural Functionalism is a framework for building theory

that sees society as a complex system whose parts work
together to promote solidarity and stability. Economy,
religion, politics, education, and family are to be
considered groups as a major institution. Individual and
group behavior, often, serves a FUNCTION for the larger
society.

According to functionalism, society is a system of

interconnected parts that work together in harmony to
maintain a state of balance and social equilibrium for the
whole. Functionalists’ perspectives emphasize the
interconnectedness of society by focusing on how each
part influences and is influenced by other parts.
Functionalists use the terms functional and dysfunctional
to describe the effects of social elements on society. It is
functional if they contribute to social stability and
dysfunctional if they disrupt social stability. Some aspects
of society can be both functional and dysfunctional. For
example, crime is dysfunctional because it is associated
with physical violence, loss of property, and fear.

Robert Merton identified two types of functions, the manifest function, and latent function.
Manifest functions are consequences that are intended and commonly recognized. In
contrast, latent functions are consequences that are unintended and often hidden. For
example, the manifest function of education is to transmit knowledge and skills to
society’s youth. But public elementary schools also serve as babysitters for employed
parents, and colleges offer a place for young adults to meet potential mates. The
babysitting and mate-selection functions are not the intended or commonly recognized
functions of education; hence they are latent functions. According to him, 5 situations are
facing an actor. Conformity occurs when an individual has the means and desire to
achieve the cultural goals socialized into them. Innovation occurs when an individual strives to attain the
16
accepted cultural goals but chooses to do so in a novel or unaccepted method. Ritualism occurs when an
individual continues to do things as prescribed by society but forfeits the achievement of the goals. Retreatism
is the rejection of both the means and the goals of society. Rebellion is a combination of the rejection of
societal goals and means and a substitution of other goals and means.

MARXISM
Marxism is a method of socioeconomic analysis that uses a materialist interpretation of
historical development to understand class relations and social conflict, as well as a dialectical
perspective to view social transformation. Karl Marx (1818-1883) wrote the Communist
Manifesto (1848) that shows the basic struggle between classes and recommends action
against the 'specter' of capitalism Capital (1867). It shows how the capitalist system is
exploitative in that it "transfers the fruit of the work of the majority...to a minority”. The book
contains theories about the nature of society and politics, that in their own words, "The history
of all as yet existing society is the history of class struggles".

Friedrich Engels (1820 – 1895) was a German social scientist, author, political theorist,
philosopher, and father of Marxist theory, together with Karl Marx. He wrote Das Kapital. He
organized Marx's notes on the "Theories of Surplus Value," which he later published as the
"fourth volume" of Capital. He wrote the Origin of the Family, Private Property, and the State
(1884), presents the evolution of humankind from primitive communism to slavery, feudalism,
capitalism, and finally, industrial communism.

Marx and Engels examined the conflict generated by the increasing wealth of the capitalists (Bourgeoisie) at
the expense of the working class (Proletariat) who only sunk deeper into poverty. Violence and repression
could reinforce legal power if the peasantry resisted handing over the surplus. They viewed social change as
an evolutionary process marked by a revolution in which new levels of social, political, and economic
development were achieved through class struggle. A class is defined in terms of the relationship of people's
labor to the means of production. Each mode of production produced characteristic class relationships
involving a dominating and a subordinate class.

Historical materialism is a methodology used that focuses on human societies and their development
through history, arguing that history is the result of material conditions rather than ideals. It is principally a
theory of history that asserts that the material conditions of a society's mode of production, the union of a
society's productive forces and relations of production, fundamentally determine society's organization and
development. It is materialist as it does not believe that history has been driven by an individual's
consciousness or ideas but rather subscribes to the philosophical monism that matter is the fundamental
substance of nature and henceforth the driving force in all of world history.

Dialectical materialism is a philosophy of science and nature developed in Europe and based on the
writings of Marx and Engels. Marxist dialectics emphasizes the importance of real-world conditions in terms of
class, labor, and socioeconomic interactions. Marx supposed that these material conditions contained
contradictions that seek resolution in new forms of social organization. Dialectical materialism accepts the
evolution of the natural world and the emergence of new qualities of being at new stages of evolution. Change
within a society is seen as the result of contradictions arising between the forces of production and the
relations of production. Such contradictions are seen to emerge as a struggle between distinct social classes.

17
 SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISM
Symbolic interactionism is a sociological theory that develops from practical
considerations and suggests to people's particular utilization of dialect to make images
and normal implications, for deduction and correspondence with others. This
perspective relies on the symbolic meaning that people develop and build upon in the
process of social interaction. The interpretation process that occurs between interactions helps create and
recreate meaning. It is the shared understanding and interpretations of meaning that affect the interaction
between individuals. A theory analyzes society by addressing the subjective meanings that people impose on
objects, events, and behaviors. Subjective meanings are given primacy because it is believed that people
behave based on what they believe and not just on what is objectively true. It looks at individual and group
meaning making, focusing on human action instead of large-scale social structures.

Symbolic interaction was conceived by George Herbert Mead. He is the one who
argued that “people's selves are social products, but that these selves are also
purposive and creative.” He argued that people's selves are social products, but these
selves are also purposive and creative and believed that the true test of any theory is if
it is "useful in solving complex social problems”. It is a social theory of the self or a
looking glass self. It studies meaning and communication and they tend to use
qualitative methods. It has been criticized for failing to take into account large-scale
macro-social structures and forces. For example, studies find that teenagers are well
informed about the risks of tobacco, but they also think that smoking is cool, they
will be safe from harm, and smoking projects a positive image to their peers. So, the symbolic
meaning of smoking overrides the facts regarding smoking and risk.

The Three Basic Premises by Herbert Blumer (1969) set out three basic premises of the perspective:
1. "Humans act toward things based on the meanings they ascribe to those things."
includes everything that a human being may note in their world, including physical objects,
actions, and concepts. Essentially, individuals behave towards objects and others based on
the personal meanings that the individuals have already given these items.
2. "The meaning of such things is derived from, or arises out of, the social interaction
that one has with others and the society." arises out of, the social interaction that one has
with other humans.
3. "These meanings are handled in, and modified through, an interpretative process
used by the person in dealing with the things he/she encounters." We naturally talk to
ourselves to sort out the meaning of a difficult situation.

INSTITUTIONALISM
To understand institutionalism, it is important to first define institutions in this theoretical perspective.
Institutions are patterns, norms rules and schemes that govern and direct social thought and action.
Institutionalism, therefore, is an approach that aims to understand and analyze how actions, thoughts, and
meanings penetrate the social consciousness deeply enough to embed themselves into social psyche. There
are different types of institutionalism, but their common concern is to find out the effects of these institutions
and determine how these affects how the society functions.

Institutions provide social legitimacy and survival through Isomorphism. Isomorphism refers to the similarity in
form, shape, or structure. Institutions arise, change, and persist due to their regulative, normative, and cognitive
18
functions. These functions are isomorphic in nature as they adopt in form, shape, or structure to provide social
legitimacy, survival, or both.

Three functions of Isomorphism:

• regulative function operates through coercive isomorphism, which places value on expediency as
effect of compliance. Change either happens or not depending on external factors such as rules and
laws.
• normative function operates through normative isomorphism, which places value on complying with
social obligations. Change either happens or not depending on external factors such as accreditations
and certifications.
• cognitive function operates through mimetic isomorphism, which places value on factors such as
uncertainty and prevalence of others‟ performance.

Key Concepts in Institutionalism

Formal and Informal Institutions

Formal and Informal institutions can be distinguished by what rules, practices, and norms they derive
authority from. Formal institutions are codified rules, policies and norms that are considered official,
originating from state laws, government, or organizations. Examples: constitution, official law, regulation,
standards enforced by the state. Informal institutions, on the other hand, are equally known rules and norms
but are not commonly written down. Informal institutions are social practices that have been commonly viewed
as acceptable and are more persistent than codified laws like that of formal institutions. Examples: Informal
institutions, social norms, attitudes, traditions, self-enforced morals.

Types of Institutionalism:
1. Normative institutionalism- is a sociological interpretation of institutions and holds that a “logic of
appropriateness” guides the behavior of actors within an institution. It predicts that the norms and
formal rules of institutions will shape the actions of those acting within them.
2. Rational Choice Institutionalism- is a theoretical approach to the study of institutions arguing that
actors use institutions to maximize their utility. However, actors face rule-based constraints which
influence their behavior.
3. Historical institutionalism – is a new institutionalist social science approach that emphasizes how
timing, sequences and path dependence affect institutions, and shape social, political, economic
behavior and change.
4. Sociological institutionalism – is a form of new institutionalism that concerns “the way in which
institutions create meaning for individuals, providing important theoretical building blocks for
normative institutionalism within political science”.
5. Institutional Economics – focuses on understanding the role of the evolutionary process and the
role of institutions in shaping economic behavior.
6. Discursive institutionalism – is an umbrella concept for approaches that concern themselves with
the substantive content of ideas and the interactive processes of discourse in institutional context.
7. Constructivist institutionalism – According to multiple theorists, this is so whether the field in
question is directly denoted as or must do more with bringing constructivist ideas into some other
field, or with bringing ideas back into the theory in contrast against structuralist and/or system.
8. Feminist institutionalism – is a new institutionalist approach that looks at how gender norms operate
within institutions and how institutional processes construct and maintain gender power dynamic.

19
 FEMINISM
Feminism studies gender and its relation to power, and the dynamics these two concepts play out in
economics, politics, sexuality, race and nationality among others. It is both a sociological perspective and a
philosophy that aims to promote gender equality, social justice, and women’s rights. However, the primary
concern that feminism tries to address is the oppression of women in society and the patriarchal structure of
most societies. Patriarchy, in its most basic sense, is a social organization wherein the father or eldest male
heads a society or government. The head of the family is the father, and the mother is subordinate to the
decisions of the father. In some contexts, however, patriarchy constructs a social structure where men are
seen as more powerful than women.

Key Concepts in Feminism

Gender Ideology and Inequality

• Gender ideology is a social belief that supports gender inequality. It is a social divide that establishes
perceived roles for men and women and relegating them to specific roles. Some gender ideologies
include women staying at home while men go to work, and women being more delicate, emotional, and
nurturing compared to men who are more aggressive, assertive, and dominant. Gender ideology is also
actualized in how toys are determined for children. Typically, action figures are supposed to be played
by boys and dolls are to be played by girls. A boy playing with a doll is ridiculed as being gay, while a
girl playing action figures is teased as a lesbian.

• Gender inequality is the actualization or realization of gender ideology. There is gender inequality
when the perceived role of women subordination to men reflects hiring procedures and requirements.
For example, a secretarial post accepting only female applicants. Salaries are also unequal when it
comes to men and women.

Four types of feminism

• Radical feminism is a movement that believes sexism is so deeply rooted in society that the only cure
is to eliminate the concept of gender completely. Radical feminists suggest changes, such as finding
technology that will allow babies to be grown outside of a woman's body, to promote more equality
between men and women. This will allow women to avoid missing work for maternity leave, which
radical feminists argue is one reason women aren't promoted as quickly as men. In fact, radical
feminists would argue that the entire traditional family system is sexist. Men are expected to work
outside the home while women are expected to care for children and clean the house. Radical feminists
note that this traditional dichotomy maintains men as economically in power over women, and
therefore, the traditional family structure should be rejected.

• Socialist feminism is slightly less extreme but still calls for major social change. Socialist feminism is a
movement that calls for an end to capitalism through a socialist reformation of our economy. Basically,
socialist feminism argues that capitalism strengthens and supports the sexist status quo because men
are the ones who currently have power and money. Those men are more willing to share their power
and money with other men, which means that women are continually given fewer opportunities and
resources. This keeps women under the control of men. In short, socialist feminism focuses on
economics and politics.

• Cultural feminism is a movement that points out how modern society is hurt by encouraging masculine
behavior, but society would benefit by encouraging feminine behavior instead. This also refers to the
philosophy that men and women have different approaches to the world around them, and that greater
20
 value should be placed on the way women approach the world. In some cases, cultural feminism argues
that a woman’s way of looking at the world is superior to men.

• Liberal feminism is an individualistic form of feminist theory, which focuses on women's ability to
maintain their equality through their own actions and choices. Liberal feminism's primary goal is gender
equality in the public sphere, such as equal access to education, equal pay, ending job sex segregation.
It is broadly accepted that the proposition of contemporary advanced industrial societies is meritocratic,
and that women as a group are not innately less.

PSYCHOANALYSIS

Psychoanalytic Theory
Theory of personality organization and the dynamics of personality development that guides
psychoanalysis, a clinical method for treating psychopathology. A therapeutic method, originated by Sigmund
Freud, for treating mental disorders by investigating the interaction of conscious and unconscious elements in
the patient's mind and bringing repressed fears and conflicts into the conscious mind, using techniques such
as dream interpretation and free association.

Fundamental Assumptions of Psychoanalytic Approach

• Unconscious factors motivate our behavior
• Experiences or events of first 6 years of life are determinants of later development of personality
(attention is given to those experiences)
• Unconscious motivates and conflicts are central
• Later personality problems will have its roots on early repressed childhood conflicts

Through the scope of a psychoanalytic lens, humans are described as having sexual and aggressive drives.
Psychoanalytic theorists believe that human behavior is deterministic. It is governed by irrational forces, and
the unconscious, as well instinctual and biological drives. Due to this deterministic nature, psychoanalytic
theorists do not believe in free will. Deterministic means our behavior is determined by irrational forces,
unconscious motivations, and biological and instinctual drives as these evolve through key psychosexual
stages in the first six years of life.

Structure

ID
Id is the part of the personality that is driven by pleasure regardless of morality
and social norms. It is composed of emotions, instincts, physical needs,
sexual needs, aggressiveness, and all other sorts of desires.

The Id also contains the libido. Libido is defined as sexual energy. Id is regarded
as, “the great reservoir of libido.”

The Id has 2 basic instincts: EROS - the Life Instinct expressed by the desire to
“create life”. THANATOS- the Death Instinct expressed by aggression and a
desire to send organic life back to death. Pleasure Principle is the driving force
behind Id. It seeks to minimize/avoid pain and maximize pleasure.

21
Ego
The ego is the component of personality that is responsible for dealing with reality. According to Freud, the ego
develops from the id and ensures that the impulses of the id can be expressed in a manner acceptable in the
real world. The ego functions in both the conscious, preconscious, and unconscious mind. The ego operates
based on the reality principle. The reality principle weighs the costs and benefits of an action before deciding
to act upon or abandon impulses. In many cases, the id's impulses can be satisfied through a process of
delayed gratification--the ego will eventually allow the behavior, but only in the appropriate time and place.

The ego also discharges tension created by unmet impulses through the secondary process, in which the ego
tries to find an object in the real world that matches the mental image created by the id's primary process.

Superego
The superego is the ethical component of the personality and provides the moral standards by which the ego
operates. It develops around the age of 3 – 5 during the phallic stage of psychosexual development.

Functions of Superego
1. Control the id's impulses, especially those which society forbids,
such as sex and aggression.
2. Persuades the ego to turn to moralistic goals rather than simply
realistic ones and to strive for perfection.

Two Systems of Superego - Conscience & Ideal Self

1. The conscience can punish the ego through causing feelings of
guilt.
2. The ideal self is an imaginary picture of how you ought to be, and
represents career aspirations, how to treat other people, and how to
behave as a member of society.

Defense Mechanisms
What is Defense Mechanism? It is a coping style. It is an unconscious protective process that keep primitive
emotions associated with conflicts in check so that the ego can continue its coordinating function. It is a
procedure that ward off anxiety and prevents its conscious perception.

Features:
• unconscious level
• deny or distort reality to make it less threatening with the ego
• Severe internal conflicts that produce more anxiety trigger self-defeating defensive symptoms
e.g., Phobic, and obsessive symptoms
• Shown to have great importance in the study of psychopathology
• Not necessarily maladaptive, we cannot survive without them

Projection
• Refers to the unconscious attribution of an impulse, attitude, or behavior onto someone or something
else in the environment.
• Defending ourselves against our own unconscious qualities by denying its existence in ourselves while
attributing it to others.
• Reduces anxiety by placing its source in the external world, which make it seem easier to handle.

22
 • It permits us to defend ourselves aggressively against our opponent and thereby indirectly express our
impulses.

Displacement
• When the object that satisfies the impulse of the id is unavailable, we shift our impulse to another object
that is available.
• Satisfying an impulse with a substitute object.
• The substitute object is less satisfying than the original object.
• Displacement does not bring complete satisfaction but leads to buildup of undischarged tension.

Rationalization
• Making explanations for things you can’t accept.
Example: Jay broke up with you for no reason
• You rationalize by saying “wa man jud to siyay ayo” or convincing yourself that you were never happy in
the relationship even though you were. You do this so it hurts a little less.

Reaction Formation
• Acting completely opposite from what you think or believe in.
Example: “Palugit effect”. An attractive person is flirting with you. You like this person but what you do
instead is act as if you don’t. You do this to mask your true feelings towards this person.

Repression
• The unconscious blocking of unacceptable thoughts, feelings, and impulses.
Example: You can’t remember your father’s funeral.

Sublimation
• Satisfying an impulse (e.g., aggression) with a substitute object in a socially acceptable way.
Example: Intense rage redirected in the form of participation in sorts such as boxing or football.

RATIONAL CHOICE THEORY

What is The Rational Choice Theory?

Rational choice theory is the view that people behave as they do because they believe that performing
their chosen actions has more benefits than costs. That is, people make rational choices based on their goals,
and those choices govern their behavior.
Some sociologists use rational choice theory to explain social change. According to them, social
change occurs because individuals have made rational choices. For example, suppose many people begin to
conserve more energy, lowering thermostats and driving less. An explanation for this social change is that
individual people have decided that conserving energy will help them achieve their goals (for example, save
money and live more healthfully) and cause little inconvenience.

Historical Context of Rational Choice Theory

Rational choice theory originated during the late 18th century with the work of Cesare Beccaria. Since
then, the theory has been expanded upon and extended to include other perspectives, such as deterrence,
situational crime prevention, and routine activity theory. The rational choice perspective has been applied to a
wide range of crimes, including robbery, drug use, vandalism, and white-collar crime. In addition,

23
neuropsychological literature shows that there are neurobiological mechanisms involved in our “rational
choices.”
Basic Principles of Rational Choice Theory
• Individuals are rational. They can think in a logical way
• Individuals have interests. Different people have different interests. The interests of a person define her
utilities.
• Individuals make choices. The choices people make influence their utilities.
• Individuals make choices in a rational way to increase their utilities. A person does not have full
control over the results of her choices

ASSUMPTIONS OF THE RATIONAL CHOICE THEORY

1. Individualism – it is individuals who ultimately take actions. Individuals, as actors in the society and
everywhere, behave and act always as rational beings, self-calculating, self-interested and self-
maximizing, these individual social actions are the ultimate source of larger social outcomes.
2. Optimality – Individual choose their actions optimally, given their individual preferences as well as the
opportunities or constraints with which the individual faced.
3. Structures - The range of choices in other circumstances differs from choices in a strong structural
circumstance, where there may be only one choice. Although these structures may be damaging to the
rational choice model, individuals will often find a way to exercise action optimally, hence the rational
choice model may not necessarily show harmony, consensus, or equality in courses of action.
4. Self-Regarding Interest – This assumption states that the actions of the individual are concerned
entirely with his or her own welfare.

24