Ocean Engineering 32 (2005) 513–528

www.elsevier.com/locate/oceaneng

Laboratory investigation on tsunami run-up

N. Gedika,*, E. Irtema, S. Kabdaslib
a
Department of Civil Engineering, Balikesir University, Balikesir, Turkey
b
Civil Engineering Faculty, Istanbul Technical University, Maslak, Istanbul, Turkey
Received 28 May 2004; accepted 13 October 2004
Available online 20 December 2004

Abstract
Experimental investigations of tsunami run-up and erosion area on permeable slope beaches were
carried out in a laboratory channel. A natural sandy beach was configured with a diameter of
0.35 mm and specific gravity of 2.63. The slope of the beach was 1:5. Furthermore, different types of
armor units, the diameter and specific gravity of which varied in the range of 10–13.8 mm and
2.318–2.289, respectively, were placed on permeable slope beaches. Experiments for impermeable
beaches were performed for comparison with previous investigations and it is seen that the results
agree with each other. Tsunami run-up heights were investigated for permeable (armored and not
armored) beaches and empirical formulas for were suggested. From the results of these experiments
it was observed that armor units causes a decrease about 50% in run-up height. In addition to these,
coastal profile changes formed by tsunami was examined and an empirical formula giving
dimensionless erosion area parameter for without armor area is suggested. Also the relation between
run-up height and erosion area is expressed with a formula.
q 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Tsunami; Run-up height; Erosion area; Permeable beach; Experiment; Sloping beach; Sand;
Armor unit

1. Introduction

Tsunamis are sea surface gravity waves generated by large-scale underwater

disturbances. Typical trigger mechanisms are earthquake-initiated seabed displacements,
volcanic eruptions, landslides (including underwater landslides), impact of large objects

* Corresponding author. Tel.: C90 266 612 1194; fax: C90 266 612 1257.
E-mail address: ngedik@balikesir.edu.tr (N. Gedik).

0029-8018/$ - see front matter q 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.oceaneng.2004.10.013
514 N. Gedik et al. / Ocean Engineering 32 (2005) 513–528

(such as meteors) into the open ocean and underwater explosions. Such impulsive
disturbances create water-wave motions where the entire water column—from the bottom
to the free surface—is set in motion. The surface waves generated by such motions
typically have a very long wavelength compared with the depth of the ocean basin where
they propagate; they are commonly referred to as long waves and they are usually
modelled mathematically using a depth-averaged approximation of the Navier–Stokes
equations referred to as shallow-water wave theory (Titov, 1997). Estimating the flooding
area of the coastal zone caused by the tsunami waves is essential for tsunami hazard
mitigation (Pelinovsky et al., 1999).
In order to determine run-up of long waves, different theoretical and experimental
studies have been performed. Some of them are referenced in this section. The early
experimental work reported by Hall and Watts (1953) and Camfield and Street (1969) have
been used in the past to verify analytical results and the accuracy of numerical models
(Li and Raichlen, 2001).
The Hall and Watts (1953) empirical formula for solitary wave run-up on an
impermeable slope with aZ458 is

1:15
R H
Z 3:1 (1)
d d
where R is wave run-up height, d is water depth, and H is wave height. The Hall and Watts
data for aZ458 refers to non-breaking waves (Fritz et al., 2001).
Carrier and Greenspan (1958) solved the shallow-water equations analytically and
obtained solutions for the prediction of long wave run-up over smooth plane beaches
(Teng and Feng, 2000). Kırkgöz (1983) studied the breaking and run-up of long-period
oscillatory waves propagating on a beach sloping at 1/10 theoretically and solved
nonlinear shallow-water wave equations by using the method of characteristics. He
obtained the run-up height from still water level for rough, impermeable beaches.
Synolakis (1986) and Synolakis (1987), investigated the run-up of nonbreaking long
waves theoretically and obtained the following simple power law for the prediction of
solitary wave run-up on a smooth plane beach


R pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi H 5=4
Z 2:831 cot b (2)
d d
where b the inclination angle of the plane beach (Fig. 1). This relationship models the
laboratory data very well.
Kobayashi et al. (1987) developed a numerical flow model to predict the flow
characteristics on rough slopes for specified, normally incident wave trains. The finite
amplitude shallow-water equations including the effects of bottom friction are solved
numerically in the time domain using an explicit dissipative Lax–Wendroff finite
difference method. The effects of permeability are assumed to be negligible, so that the
flow computation may be limited with the region on a rough slope. Kobayashi et al.
(1990) investigated wave run-up and reflection on a 1:3 rough impermeable slope for
irregular wave. Liu (1991) summarized a workshop held in the Marine Science Center
of the University of Southern California at Catalina Island, California, in August 1990.
 N. Gedik et al. / Ocean Engineering 32 (2005) 513–528 515

Fig. 1. Solitary wave run-up.

The workshop covered theoretical, experimental and field studies on run-up

phenomena. Zelt (1991) investigated the run-up of nonbreaking and breaking solitary
waves on plane impermeable beaches with a Lagrangien finite-element Boussinesq
wave model. Kaistrenko et al. (1991) presented analysis of run-up of nonbreaking long
waves on impermeable smooth slopes. Müller (1995) gives solitary wave run-up as
following

0:2
1:25
K0:15
R p H H
Z 1:25 (3)
d 2b d L

where L is wave length (Fritz et al., 2001). Titov and Synolakis (1995) presented a new
variable grid finite difference formulation of the shallow-water-wave equations that
allows calculation of the evolution of breaking waves. The method is simple, explicit,
and direct, and it produces excellent agreement with laboratory data for the maximum
run-up of nonbreaking and breaking waves. The method also predicts wave evolution
profiles that adequately model the laboratory observations. The computational
simplicity and efficiency of this method makes it suitable for calculations over two-
dimensional (2D) topography. The authors referred to this model as VTCS-2. Grilli et
al. (1997) computed run-up on slopes from 1:100 to 1:8 using an experimentally
validated fully nonlinear wave model based on potential flow equations for shoaling
and breaking of solitary waves. No wave breaks for slopes steeper than 128. Kanoğlu
and Synolakis (1998) studied long-wave evolution and run-up on piecewise linear one
and 2D bathymetries analytically and experimentally with the objective of under-
standing certain coastal effects of tidal waves. They compared analytical predictions
with numerical results, with results from a new set of Revere Beach and also with the
data on wave run-up around an idealized conical island. Maiti and Sen (1999) described
a numerical time-simulation algorithm for analysing highly nonlinear solitary waves
interacting with plane, gentle and steep slopes by employing a mixed Eulerian–
Lagrangian method. It is found that the run-up height is crucially dependent on the
wave steepness and the slope of the plane. Pressures and forces exerted on
impermeable walls of different slopes by progressive shallow-water solitary waves
are studied. Pelinovsky et al. (1999) studied run-up of tsunami waves on a vertical wall
in a bay for different cross-sections using shallow-water equations. The analytical
516 N. Gedik et al. / Ocean Engineering 32 (2005) 513–528

relation between the run-up height at a vertical wall and the amplitude of the incident
wave (z0) is found as:
R 1 z0
Z2C (4)
z0 2 d
The nonlinearity causes the run-up height to increase. Teng et al. (2000) carried out
an experimental study to investigate the maximum run-up of nonbreaking solitary
waves on both smooth and rough plane beaches. The plane beaches were made of 1.22
by 2.44 m polished plywood or plexiglass plates. The surface of the plywood plate was
protected by water resistant sealant and polished to ensure smoothness. This plate was
used in run-up measurements to simulate a smooth slope. Rough plane beaches were
simulated gluing small gravel on the surface of the plexiglass plates. Artificial beaches
with different slopes and bottom roughness were studied. Li and Raichlen (2001), deal
with the run-up of solitary waves on a uniform plane beach connected to an open ocean
of constant depth. The waves are nonbreaking during the run-up process. A nonlinear
solution to the classical shallow-water equation, that describes the wave characteristics
on the beach, is obtained analytically by using a hodograph transformation. Melito and
Melby (2002) performed an experimental study to investigate the run-up and
transmission response of a CORE-LOC armor layer for irregular waves. Carrier
et al. (2003) evaluated tsunami run-up and drawn-down motions on a uniformly sloping
beach based on fully nonlinear shallow-water wave theory.
From the studies given above on run-up height of long waves, it is seen that run-up
heights of long waves are examined both experimentally and numerically. In the earlier
experiments performed in aforementioned studies, generally run-up height on smooth
plane is investigated and verified with numerical models. In this present study, run-up
height of tsunami on permeable beaches (armored and not armored) is examined
experimentally due to the complexity in solving shallow-water wave equations. In the
experiments, natural sand and grain having different diameters are used. Based upon
experimental results and earlier studies, the most important parameters governing run-up
in terms of wave and sand/grain properties are evaluated. These terms are written as a
dimensionless group by using pi theory. An extensive regression analysis is carried out and
predictive equations are obtained. Experimental results are compared with earlier studies
and are interpreted. Furthermore, in this study coastal profile changes caused by tsunami
are determined, and erosion areas are calculated. An empirical formula giving
dimensionless erosion area parameter for not armored beach is suggested. The relation
between run-up height and erosion area is given by a formula.

2. Theoretical approach

Tsunamis fall under the general classification of long waves. Solitary waves or
combinations of negative and positive solitary-like waves are often used to simulate the
run-up and shoreward inundation of these catastrophic waves (Synolakis, 1987; Zelt and
Raichelen (1990); Zelt, 1991; and Tadepalli and Synolakis, 1994). Such waves can model
many of the characteristics of tsunamis, and using a simple plane beach, important
 N. Gedik et al. / Ocean Engineering 32 (2005) 513–528 517

characteristics of the run-up tongue can be obtained both analytically and experimentally
(Li and Raichlen, 2001).
Consider the specific case of the run-up of 2D long waves incident upon a uniform
sloping beach connected to an open ocean of uniform depth (Fig. 1). The classical
nonlinear shallow-water equations are

ht C ðuðh C hÞÞx Z 0 (5)

ut C uux C ghx Z 0 (6)

where the subscripts denote differentiation; h, wave amplitude; u, depth averaged velocity;
and g, acceleration of gravity. Carrier and Greenspan (1958), Keller and Keller (1964) and
Synolakis (1987) studied on the solution of these equations. Finally using a solitary wave
located at xZX1, when tZ0, the surface profile is defined as
rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi !
H 2 3 H
hðx; 0Þ Z sech ðx K X1 Þ (7)
d 4 d

where H is the wave height in the constant depth region (hZd); and X1 the distance
seaward from the toe of the slope (X1ZL/2) (Li and Raichelen, 2001). The equations
considered from first-order of H/d are given as following (Yuksel et al., 1998):
rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
2 3 H
h Z Hsech ðx K ctÞ (8)
4 d3

pffiffiffiffiffi
cZ gd ð1 C 0:5ðH=dÞÞ (9)

h pffiffiffiffiffi
uZ gd (10)
d
Considering the variables of subject, previous studies and properties of subject, the
parameters effecting run-up height and erosion area are given as follows.
Run-up height and erosion area increases with increase in wave height. From the
studies it can be observed that an increase in slope causes a decrease in run-up height. In
this study slope is taken as 1:5, which is the limit value for breaking. The beach slope has
great effect on coastal profile change. Erosion area decreases with decreasing in beach
slope. It is observed that as diameter of the material used increases, profile change
decreases. It is seen that a decrease in the specific gravity of sand causes a decrease in run-
up height. As water depth in front of the beach increases, run-up height decreases. From
the studies performed it is found that if water level in front of the beach is high, more
material movement occurs. In this study, the most appropriate water depth (0.33 m)
regarding to the dimensions of the wave channel is used. A decrease in run-up height is
achieved when diameter of armor unit increase. As specific gravity of armor unit decrease,
run-up height also decreases.
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3. Experiments

3.1. Experimental setup and procedure

Experiments were carried out in the glass-side wall wave flume of 22.5 m length, 1 m
width, and 0.50 m depth at the Hydraulics Laboratory, Civil Engineering Faculty, Istanbul
Technical University. The beach was formed by natural beach sand and had a slope of 1
vertical to 5 horizontal. The specific gravity of sand used was 2.63 and the diameter of
sand was 0.35 mm. The experimental set up is given in Fig. 2.
Tsunamis are gravity water waves and usually occur following a large, shallow
earthquake under the sea or in coastal areas. They are generated by a sudden vertical
motion of the ocean bottom (Guesmia et al., 1998). In order to simulate the sudden vertical
motion occurring on the ocean bottom generating tsunamis, following wave generation
mechanism was used. The system consists of a piston, PHS16B bearing and horizontal
plate (0.97!2!0.002 m3). Piston is NS 80–500 pneumatic cylinder and driven by a
manually controlled system. As the piston vertically moves, the plate lifts off and displaces
the adjacent fluid, thereby generating waves. The wave records have been determined with
resistance type wave electrodes, which run according to vertical action of water. Two
wave electrodes were placed in sloping beach and four wave electrodes were placed
between toe of the beach slope and centre of the wave flume. The signals coming through
electrode amplified by HR Wallingford Type amplificator and collected on PCLD-780
type card and reversed voltage value by using PCL 812 PC type converter. These values
were rearranged by using a computer program and converted to heights characterising the
wave. All the wave electrodes were calibrated before the experiments to ensure the
accuracy of the measurements. Velocity measurements were achieved by NORTEK
10 MHz Acoustic Doppler Velocimeter. ADV measures velocity by determination of
phase shifting of the sound waves in 3D. It does not require any recalibration. Explore V is
used as the processing software to observe and to analyse the data perceived from ADV.
Experiments were performed for impermeable beach, permeable (armored and not
armored) beaches. Impermeable beach was formed using a smooth plate on 1:5 slope. Not
armored beach was built as a natural sandy beach with a diameter of 0.35 mm and specific
gravity of 2.63. Armored beaches were formed by placing armor units with a thickness of
0.05 m over the whole slope of the not armored beach. The nominal diameters (Dn50)

Fig. 2. Experimental set-up.

 N. Gedik et al. / Ocean Engineering 32 (2005) 513–528 519

Fig. 3. The variation of free surface.

and specific gravities of the armor units varied in the range of 10–13.8 mm and 2.318–
2.289, respectively.

3.2. Verifying generated wave

At 0.33 m water depth, solitary waves are generated with wave heights varying between
0.012 and 0.11 m. Free surface variations of solitary wave, derived from Eq. (7) for (H/dZ
0.233), are compared in Fig. 3 and it is seen that they fit each other.
Velocity found by replacing free surface variations in Eq. (9) are compared with
measured velocity values in Fig. 4. From the figure it can be seen that the results
correspond to each other.
In Grilli et al. (1997), dimensionless slope parameter for solitary waves (breaking
criteria) is defined as
s
S0 Z 1:521 ! pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi (11)
H=d
where s is beach slope and (H/d) is dimensionless wave height. Waves do not break when
S0O0.37. These results are supported by both computations and experiments. In all
experiments in this study, it is observed that S0 is greater than 0.37 and waves do not break.

Fig. 4. Comparison between measured and calculated from Eq. (9) horizontal component of velocity.
520 N. Gedik et al. / Ocean Engineering 32 (2005) 513–528

Fig. 5. Relationship between H and R on impermeable slope.

3.3. Analysis of run-up height

3.3.1. Impermeable beach

For tsunami waves were generated with different wave heights, run-up heights were
measured and displayed by video-camera. Fig. 5 shows that R increases with increasing
wave height on impermeable slope.

3.3.2. Not armored beach

Fig. 6 shows variation of run-up height (R) with wave height (H) for constant slope
angle and beach sand characteristics under tsunami waves. Fig. 6 implies that R increases
with increasing wave height under tsunami waves. This result was expected.

3.3.3. Armored beach

Fig. 7 shows variation of run-up height with wave height for different armor units. As
Figs. 6 and 7 shows that the R increases with increasing wave height under tsunami waves.
However, run-up heights for armored beaches are less than run-up heights for not armored
beach, Fig. 6, because of roughness.

Fig. 6. Variation of H with R.

 N. Gedik et al. / Ocean Engineering 32 (2005) 513–528 521

Fig. 7. Variation of H, Dn50 with R.

3.4. Erosion area

The variation of different wave heights with erosion area for not armored beach is given
in Fig. 8. Increase in wave height results in increase in erosion area.

4. Results and discussion

4.1. Dimensionless parameters

4.1.1. Run-up height

The following parameters play the main role in defining run-up heights in not armored
beach and armored beaches. In this study, R denotes the run-up height. Sand density (gs),
sand diameter (D), density of armor unit (gst), and diameter of armor unit (Dn50), beach
slope (b) are used to define beach characteristics. Water density (gw), water depth (d), and

Fig. 8. The variation of wave height and erosion area for not armored beach.
522 N. Gedik et al. / Ocean Engineering 32 (2005) 513–528

gravitational acceleration (g) are parameters of the medium. Furthermore, wave height (H)
is the characteristic of tsunami wave.
All these parameters are combined into a function that can be written as
f ðH; D; d; gw ; gs ; b; R; g; gst ; Dn50 Þ Z 0 (12)
The parameters of (12) are expressed in terms of dimensionless parameters using the p
theory. Then, Eq. (12) becomes
f ðH=d; Gsb ; cot b; D=d; R=d; Gst ; Dn50 =dÞ Z 0 (13)
where H/d is dimensionless wave height, GsbZgs/gw is specific gravity of sand, cot b is
dimensionless slope angle, D/d is dimensionless diameter of sand, R/d is dimensionless
parameters of run-up height, GstZgst/gw is specific gravity of armor units, Dn50/d is
dimensionless diameter of armor units.

4.1.2. Erosion area

Parameters effecting erosion area as a result of experimental evaluations
f ðH; D; d; b; gs ; gw ; g; AÞ Z 0 (14)
The parameters of (14) are expressed in terms of dimensionless parameters using the p
theory. Then, Eq. (14) becomes
f ðH=d; Gsb ; tan b; D=d; A=d2 Þ Z 0 (15)
where A/d2 is dimensionless erosion area parameters, tan b is dimensionless slope angle.

4.2. Prediction of run-up height and erosion area

4.2.1. Run-up height

4.2.1.1. For not armored beach. A dimensionless group that includes the dimensionless
wave height, the specific gravity of beach sand, slope angle, dimensionless diameter of
sand H(Gsp/D)cot b referred to as par 1, is used to obtain the best-fit line in Fig. 9.

Fig. 9. Variation of par 1 with R/d.

 N. Gedik et al. / Ocean Engineering 32 (2005) 513–528 523

As shown in this figure, the R/d increases with increasing par 1. The empirical
relationship between R/d and par 1 as given in Eq. (16) is determined by the nonlinear
regression method. The correlation coefficient is 0.95

0:921
R Gsp
Z 4 !10K4 H cot b (16)
d D

4.2.1.2. For armored beaches. A dimensionless group that includes the dimensionless
wave height, the specific gravity of beach sand, slope angle, dimensionless diameter of
sand H(Gst/Dn50)cot b referred to as par 2, is used to obtain the best-fit line in Fig. 10.
As shown in this figure, the R/d increases with increasing par 2. The empirical
relationship between R/d and par 2 as given in Eq. (17) is determined by the nonlinear
regression method. The correlation coefficient is 0.93

0:9539
R G
Z 5 !10K3 H st cot b (17)
d Dn50

4.2.1.3. The relation between run-up height on not armored beach and armored beaches.

Gst 1 Gsp
Z (18)
Dn50 18:9 D

By writing the statement (18) in Eq. (17), dimensionless run-up height parameter for
not armored beach can be derived from the equations suggested for armored beaches:

0:9539
R 1 Gsp
Z 5 !10K3 H cot b (19)
d 18:9 D

The results obtained from this two equation are given. The error ratio changes between
0.5 and 7%. Besides, dimensionless wave heights are compared with dimensionless run-up
heights in Fig. 11 and it is observed that values are in good agreement and this equation
can be safely used for not armored beach.

Fig. 10. Variation of par 2 with R/d.

524 N. Gedik et al. / Ocean Engineering 32 (2005) 513–528

Fig. 11. Variation of H/d with R/d obtained from proposed equations.

4.2.2. Erosion area

A dimensionless group that includes the dimensionless wave height, the specific gravity
of beach sand, slope angle, dimensionless diameter of sand H(Gsp/D)tan b referred to as
par 3 is used to obtain the best-fit line in Fig. 12.
In Fig. 12, variation of dimensionless parameters effecting on erosion area with
dimensionless erosion area parameter is shown for not armored beach. As can be seen
from here, A/d2 ratio increases with increasing par 3. By nonlinear regression method an
empirical formula (20) between A/d2 and par 3 is suggested. The correlation coefficient of
this equation is 0.96

1:8242
A Gsp
Z 8 !10 K6
H tan b (20)
d2 D

Fig. 12. Variation of par 3 with A/d2 for not armored beach.
 N. Gedik et al. / Ocean Engineering 32 (2005) 513–528 525

Eq. (21) is proposed for the calculation of dimensionless erosion area consisting
dimensionless run-up height parameter:

1:981
A R
2
Z 42:9822 tan3:6484 b (21)
d d

There is a maximum difference of 0.056% between dimensionless erosion area

(Eq. (21)) calculated with dimensionless run-up height and the dimensionless erosion area
calculated from Eq. (20).

4.3. Comparison of suggested and earlier studies

Firstly, run-up heights on impermeable plane are measured and their comparison with
Eq. (2), which is also known as run-up law, is shown in Fig. 13. From the figure it is found
that the experiment results are in agreement with each other.
The variation of dimensionless run-up height (R/d) with dimensionless wave height
(H/d) is compared with Hall and Watts (1953) by the results of experimental studies and
with Titov and Synolakis (1995) by numerical solution of shallow-water wave equations
referred to as VTCS-2. In this study, run-up heights and wave heights obtained from
experimental data are turned into dimensionless values and comparison of these results
with the results of the researchers are shown in Fig. 14. From this figure it can be seen that
the results are in agreement. In previous studies only impermeable beach was considered.
As in this study permeable and rough beaches are considered, dimensionless run-up height
found are smaller than previous studies.
R/d calculated by run-up law (Eq. (2)) and proposed equations (Eqs. (16) and (17)) are
compared for areas without armor and with armor (Fig. 15). Previous studies on
impermeable beach and our studies on permeable and rough beaches are compared and it
is concluded that armor units cause 50% decrease in run-up height (Figs. 14 and 15).

Fig. 13. Comparison of H/d obtained by laboratory data and run-up law (Eq. (2)).
526 N. Gedik et al. / Ocean Engineering 32 (2005) 513–528

Fig. 14. Comparisons between VTCS-2 (Titov and Synolakis, 1995, Hall and Watts, 1953) and our laboratory
data.

Fig. 15. Comparison of dimensionless run-up heights parameters obtained from laboratory data and run-up law
(Eq. (2)).

5. Conclusions

In this paper, in order to determine the run-up height of long waves, experimental tests
were performed on permeable slope beaches. Tsunamis are generated by a sudden vertical
motion of the bottom. To simulate the generation of tsunamis by sudden vertical motion of
the bottom under laboratory conditions, a system is designed. Some sets of experiments
were carried out for impermeable, not armored and armored beaches. All the waves were
nonbreaking during the run-up process.
Also run-up heights of tsunami over permeable (not armored and armored) beaches are
examined experimentally in this study because of the complexity in solving shallow-water
wave equations. Firstly run-up heights on impermeable plane are measured and it is seen
 N. Gedik et al. / Ocean Engineering 32 (2005) 513–528 527

that the experiment results agree with Eq. (2), which is also known as run-up law. Then,
laboratory data are evaluated and empirical formulas are suggested for not armored and
armored beaches. Previous studies on impermeable beach and our studies on permeable
and rough beaches are compared and it is concluded that armor units cause 50% decrease
in run-up height. The dimensionless run-up height parameter for not armored beach
obtained from the equation suggested for armored beach.
The erosion areas formed on not armored beach under tsunami effect are
experimentally investigated and Eq. (20) is suggested for dimensionless erosion area
parameter. The relation between dimensionless run-up height and dimensionless erosion
area is suggested by Eq. (21) for not armored beach.

Acknowledgements

This research was supported by Research Project Fund of Balikesir University. The
authors appreciate technical staff of ITU Hydraulic Laboratory for their contributions.

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