Krishna's

Krishna's
TEXT BOOK on
Integral Calculus
(For B.A. and B.Sc. II nd Semester students of Kumaun University)
Kumaun University Semester Syllabus w.e.f. 2016-17
By
A.R. Vasishtha A.K. Vasishtha

Retired Head, Dept. of Mathematics M.Sc., Ph.D.
Meerut College, Meerut C.C.S. University, Meerut
Kumaun
KRISHNA Prakashan Media (P) Ltd.

KRISHNA HOUSE, 11, Shivaji Road, Meerut-250001 (U.P.), India
Jai Shri Radhey Shyam
Dedicated
to
Lord
Krishna
Authors & Publishers
P reface
This book on Integral Calculus has been specially written according to the latest
semester Syllabus to meet the requirements of B.A. and B.Sc. Semester-II Students of
all colleges affiliated to Kumaun University.
The subject matter has been discussed in such a simple way that the students will find
no difficulty to understand it. The proofs of various theorems and examples have been
given with minute details. Each chapter of this book contains complete theory and a fairly
large number of solved examples. Sufficient problems have also been selected from
various university examination papers. At the end of each chapter an exercise containing
objective questions has been given.
We have tried our best to keep the book free from misprints. The authors shall be
grateful to the readers who point out errors and omissions which, inspite of all care, might
have been there.
The authors, in general, hope that the present book will be warmly received by the
students and teachers. We shall indeed be very thankful to our colleagues for their
recommending this book to their students.
The authors wish to express their thanks to Mr. S.K. Rastogi, M.D., Mr. Sugam
Rastogi, Executive Director, Mrs. Kanupriya Rastogi, Director and entire team of
KRISHNA Prakashan Media (P) Ltd., Meerut for bringing out this book in the present
nice form.
The authors will feel amply rewarded if the book serves the purpose for which it is
meant. Suggestions for the improvement of the book are always welcome.
— Authors
Syllabus
Integral Calculus
B.A./B.Sc. II Semester
Kumaun University
Second Semester – Second Paper
B.A./B.Sc. Paper-II M.M.-50

MM 60
Paper II: Integral Calculus
Definite Integrals: Integral as a limit of sum, Properties of Definite integrals,

Fundamental theorem of integral calculus, Summation of series by integration, Infinite
integrals, Differentiation and integration under the integral sign.
Functions Defined by Infinite Integrals: Beta function, Properties and various forms,
Gamma function, Recurrence formula and other relations, Relation between Beta and
Gamma function, Evaluation of integrals using Beta and Gamma functions.
Multiple Integrals: Double integrals, Repeated integrals, Evaluation of Double integrals,

Double integral in polar coordinates, Change of variables and Introduction to Jacobians,
Change of order of integration in Double integrals, Triple integrals, Evaluation of Triple
integrals, Drichlet’s theorem and its Liovelle’s extension.
Geometrical Applications of Definite Integrals: Area bounded by curves (quadrature),

Rectification (length of curves), Volumes and Surfaces of Solids of revolution.
B rief C ontents
Dedication.........................................................................(v)
Preface............................................................................(vi)
Syllabus (Kumaun University)............................................(vii)
Brief Contents ................................................................(viii)
Integral Calculus.....................................................I-01—I-224
1. Definite Integrals....................................................................................................I-03—I-28
2. Improper Integrals ( Infinite Integrals)..................................................................I-29—I-36
3. Differentiation and Integration Under the Sign of Integration....................I-37—I-52
4. Beta and Gamma Functions..................................................................................I-53—I-84
5. Dirichlet's and Liouville's Integrals..................................................................I-85—I-102
6. Double and Triple Integrals

(Multiple Integrals, Change of Order of Integration)............................................I-103—I-134
7. Areas of Curves....................................................................................................I-135—I-162
8. Rectification (Lengths of Arcs and Intrinsic Equations of Plane Curves).........I-163—I-186
9. Volumes and Surfaces of Solids of Revolution.............................................I-187—I-224

Krishna's
INTEGRAL CALCULUS
C hapters
1.
1. Definite Integrals
2. Improper Integrals (Infinite integrals)
Differentiation and Integration

3.
Under the Sign of Integration
4 Beta and Gamma Functions

5. Dirichlet's and Liouville's Integrals
Double and Triple Integrals

6. (Multiple Integrals , Change of Order of
Integration)
1.
7. Areas of Curves
Rectification
8. (Lengths of Arcs and Intrinsic
Equations of Plane Curves)
Volumes And Surfaces of Solids

9.
of Revolution
I-3
1
D efinite I ntegrals
1 Definite Integral
ometimes in geometrical and other applications of integral calculus it becomes
S necessary to find the difference in the values of an integral of a function f ( x) for
two given values of the variable x, say a and b. This difference is called the definite
integral of f ( x) from a to b or between the limits a and b.
This definite integral is denoted by
b
∫a f ( x) dx
and is read as “the integral of f ( x) with respect to x between the limits a and b”.
It is often written thus:
b
∫a f ( x) dx = [ F ( x)]ba = F (b) − F (a),
where F ( x) is an integral of f ( x), F (b) is the value of F ( x) at x = b, and F (a) is the value of
F ( x) at x = a.
The number a is called the lower limit and the number b, the upper limit of integration.
The interval (a, b) is called the range of integration.
I-4
Fundamental Theorem of Integral Calculus: Let f ∈ R[a, b] and let φ be a

differentiable function on [a, b] such that φ ′( x) = f ( x) for all x ∈[a, b]. Then
b
∫a f ( x) dx = φ(b) − φ(a).
2 Fundamental Properties of Definite Integrals

b b
Property 1: We have
∫a f ( x) dx =
∫a f (t ) dt , i.e., the value of a definite integral does not
change with the change of variable of integration (also called ‘argument’) provided the limits of
integration remain the same.
Proof: Let
∫ f ( x) dx = F( x); then ∫ f (t) dt = F (t).
b
Now
∫a f ( x) dx = [ F ( x)]ba = F (b) − F (a), …(1)
b
and
∫a f (t) dt = [ F (t)]ba = F (b) − F (a), …(2)
b b
From (1) and (2), we see that
∫a f ( x) dx =
∫a f (t) dt.
b a
Property 2: We have
∫a f ( x) dx = −
∫b f ( x) dx, i. e., interchanging the limits of a definite
integral does not change the absolute value but changes only the sign of the integral.
Proof : Let
∫ f ( x) dx = F ( x). Then
b
∫a f ( x) dx = [ F ( x)]ba = F (b) − F (a) ...(1)
a
∫b
a
Also − f ( x) dx = − [ F ( x)] b = − [ F (a) − F (b)] = F (b) − F (a). ...(2)
b a
∫a f ( x) dx = −
∫b f ( x) dx.
b c b
Property 3: We have
∫a f ( x) dx =
∫a f ( x) dx +
∫c f ( x) dx.
Proof: Let
∫ f ( x) dx = F ( x).
Then the R.H.S.

c
= [ F ( x)]a + [ F ( x)] bc = { F (c ) − F (a)} + { F (b) − F (c )}
b
= F (b) − F (a) =
∫a f ( x) dx = L.H.S.
I-5
Note 1: This property also holds true even if the point c is exterior to the interval
(a, b) .
Note 2: In place of one additional point c , we can take several points. Thus
b c1 c2 c3
∫a f ( x) dx =
∫a f ( x) dx +
∫c1
f ( x) dx +
∫c 2
f ( x) dx + …
cr b
+
∫c r −1
f ( x) dx + … +
∫c n
f ( x) dx.
a a
Property 4: We have
∫0 f ( x) dx =
∫0 f ( a − x) dx.
a
Proof: Let I =
∫0 f ( x) dx.
Put x = a − t, so that dx = − dt.

When x = 0, t = a and when x = a, t = 0.
0 a
∴ I =
∫a f (a − t) (− dt) =
∫0 f (a − t) dt, [by property 2]
a
=
∫0 f (a − x) dx. [by property 1]
a a
Property 5:
∫− a f ( x) dx = 0 or
∫0 f ( x) dx, according as f ( x) is an odd or an even
function of x .
Proof: Odd and even functions. A function f ( x) is said to be
(i) an odd function of x if f (− x) = − f ( x),
(ii) an even function of x if f (− x) = f ( x).
a 0 a
Now
∫− a f ( x) dx =
∫− a f ( x) dx +
∫0 f ( x) dx, by property 3. ...(1)
0
Let u =
∫−a f ( x) dx. In the integral u, put x = − t so that dx = − dt.
Also t = a, when x = − a and t = 0 when x = 0.
0 a
∴ u=
∫a f (− t) (− dt) =
∫0 f (− t) dt, [by property 2]
a
=
∫0 f (− x) dx, [by property 1]
a
=−
∫0 f ( x) dx, if f ( x) is an odd function of x,
a
or =
∫0 f ( x) dx, if f ( x) is an even function of x.
I-6
∴ from (1), we get

a a a
∫− a f ( x) dx = −
∫0 f ( x) dx +
∫0 f ( x) dx = 0 ,
if f ( x) is an odd function of x
a a a a
and
∫−a f ( x) dx = ∫0 f ( x) dx +
∫0 f ( x) dx = 2
∫0 f ( x) dx,
if f ( x) is an even function of x .
2a a
Property 6:
∫0 f ( x) dx = 2
∫0 f ( x) dx, if f (2 a − x) = f ( x)
2a
and
∫0 f ( x) x = 0, if f (2 a − x) = − f ( x).
2a a 2a
Proof : We have
∫0 f ( x) dx =
∫0 f ( x) dx +
∫a f ( x) dx
a 0
=
∫0 f ( x) dx −
∫a f (2 a − y) dy,
[putting x = 2 a − y in the second integral and changing the limits]

a a
=
∫0 f ( x) dx +
∫0 f (2 a − y) dy,
interchanging the limits in the second integral

a a
=
∫0 f ( x) dx +
∫0 f (2 a − x) dx,
changing the argument from y to x in the second integral

a
=2
∫0 f ( x) dx, if f (2 a − x) = f ( x)
or = 0, if f (2 a − x) = − f ( x).
2a a a
Corollary:
∫0 f ( x) dx =
∫0 f ( x) dx +
∫0 f (2 a − x) dx.
Remember:
π /2 π /2
(i)
∫ − π /2 f (sin x) dx = 2
∫0 f (sin x) dx or = 0
as if, f (sin x) is an even or an odd function respectively.

π π /2
(ii)
∫0 f (sin x) dx = 2
∫0 f (sin x) dx, [by property 6, because sin (π − x) = sin x]
π /2 π /2
(iii)
∫−π /2 f (cos x) dx = 2 ∫0 f (cos x) dx, [by property 5]
I-7
π π /2
(iv)
∫0 f (cos x) dx = 2
∫0 f (cos x) dx or = 0 ,
as if, f (cos x) is an even or an odd function respectively.

π /2 π /2  1 
(v)
∫0 f (sin x) dx =
∫0 f sin  π − x  dx,
  2 
[by property 4]
π /2
=
∫0 f (cos x) dx.
π π /2
(vi)
∫0 sinm x cos n x dx = 2
∫0 sinm x cos n x dx or = 0 ,
according as n is an even or an odd integer, (by property 6).
π
Example 1: Evaluate
∫0 cos2 n x dx.
π π /2
Solution: We have
∫0 cos2 n x dx = 2
∫0 cos2 n x dx,
 2a a
∵

∫0 f ( x) dx = 2
∫0 f ( x) dx if f (2 a − x) = f ( x).
Here taking f ( x) = cos2 n x, we see that


f (π − x) = cos2 n (π − x) = (− cos x)2 n = cos2 n x = f ( x)

(2 n − 1) (2 n − 3) ...... 3 .1 π
=2⋅ ⋅ , by Walli’s formula
2 n (2 n − 2) (2 n − 4) ...... 4 . 2 2
(2 n − 1) (2 n − 3) … 3 .1
= ⋅ π.
2n . n !
π
Example 2: Evaluate
∫0 θ sin3 θ dθ.
π
∫0 θ . sin
3
Solution: Let I = θ dθ. ...(1)
π
∫0 (π − θ) sin
3
Then I = (π − θ) dθ,
 a a 
∵

∫0 f ( x) dx =
∫0 f (a − x) dx, refer prop. 4

π
∫0 (π − θ) sin
3
= θ dθ. ...(2)
I-8
Adding (1) and (2), we get

π π
∫0 [θ sin ∫0 (θ + π − θ) sin
3
2I = θ + (π − θ) sin3 θ] dθ = 3
θ dθ
π π
=
∫0 π sin3 θ dθ = π
∫0 sin3 θ dθ
π /2
= 2π
∫0 sin3 θ dθ, by a property of definite integrals; refer prop. 6
2
= 2π . . 1 , by Walli’s formula
3 .1
= 4 π / 3.
2
∴ I = π.
3
Example 3: Prove without performing integration that
2a x dx 2a x dx
∫− a 2
x +p 2
=
∫a x + p2
2
⋅
Solution: We have
2a x dx a x dx 2a x dx
∫− a 2
x +p 2
=
∫−a x2 + p2 + ∫a x2 + p2
⋅ ...(1)
x −x
But if f ( x) = , then f (− x) = = − f ( x).
x2 + p2 x2 + p2
Therefore f ( x) is an odd function of x .

a x dx
∴
∫− a x + p2
2
= 0.
2a x dx 2a x dx
So from (1), we get
∫− a 2
x +p 2
=
∫a x2 + p2
.
π x dx
Example 4: Evaluate
∫0 a cos x + b2 sin2 x
2 2
⋅
(Kumaun 2012)
π x dx
Solution: Let I =
∫0 a2 cos2 x + b2 sin2 x
⋅ ...(1)
π (π − x) dx
Then I =
∫0 a cos (π − x) + b2 sin2 (π − x)
2 2
,
 a a 
∵

∫0 f ( x) dx =
∫0 f (a − x) dx

π (π − x) dx
=
∫0 a cos2 x + b2 sin2 x
2
⋅ ...(2)

I-9
π x + (π − x) π dx
2I =
∫0 2 2
a cos x + b sin x 2 2
dx = π
2 2
π /2 dx
= 2π
2 2
,
by a property of definite integrals, refer prop. 6.

π /2 dx π /2 sec 2 x dx
∴ I =π
∫0 2 2
a cos x + b sin x 2 2
=π
∫0 a + b2 tan2 x
2
,
dividing the numerator and the denominator by cos2 x .
Now put b tan x = t . Then b sec2 x dx = dt .
Also when x = 0 , t = 0 and when x → π / 2, t → ∞.

∞
π ∞ dt π 1 t
∴ I =
b ∫0 a +t2 2
= ⋅
b a 
tan− 1 
a0
2
π π π  π
= [tan− 1 ∞ − tan− 1 0 ] = − 0  2 ab ⋅
=
ab ab  2
π /2 cos x − sin x
Example 5: Evaluate
∫0 1 + sin x cos x
dx.
Solution: Let I =
dx.
1  1 
π /2 cos  π − x − sin  π − x
2  2 
Then I =
∫0 1  1 
1 + sin  π − x cos  π − x
dx, [Refer prop. 4]
2  2 
π /2 sin x − cos x π /2 cos x − sin x
=
∫0 1 + cos x sin x
dx = −
dx = − I .
∴ 2I = 0 or I =0.
π x dx
Example 6: Evaluate
∫0 1 + sin x ⋅
π x dx π (π − x) dx
Solution: Let I =
∫0 1 + sin x
=
∫0 1 + sin (π − x) , [Refer prop. 4]
π (π − x) π π π x
=
∫0 1 + sin x
dx =
∫0 1 + sin x
dx −
∫0 1 + sin x dx
π 1
=π
∫0 1 + sin x dx − I .
π dx π /2 dx
∴ 2I = π
∫0 1 + sin x = 2π ∫0 1 + sin x
, [Refer prop. 6]
I-10
π /2 dx π /2 dx
or I =π
∫0 1 + sin x
=π
∫0 1 
1 + sin  π − x
, [Refer prop. 4]
2 
π /2 dx π /2 dx π /2 1 1
=π
∫0 1 + cos x
=π
∫0 2 cos
1
x2
=π
∫0 2
sec 2 x dx
2
2
π /2
 1   1 
= π tan x = π tan π − tan 0  = π (1 − 0 ) = π.
 2 0  4 
π /2 1 1 1
Example 7: Show that
∫0 log sin x dx = −
2
π log 2 or
2
π log ⋅
2
π /2
Solution: Let I =
∫0 log sin x dx. ...(1)
π /2  a a 
1 
Then I =
∫0 log sin  π − x dx,
2  ∵

∫0 f ( x) dx =
∫0 f (a − x) dx 

π /2
=
∫0 log cos x dx. ...(2)

π /2 π /2
2I =
∫0 log sin x dx +
∫0 log cos x dx
π /2
=
∫0 log(sin x cos x) dx (Note)
π /2  sin 2 x  π /2
=
∫0 log 
 2 
 dx = ∫0 (log sin 2 x − log 2) dx
π /2 π /2
=
∫0 log sin 2 x dx −
∫0 log 2 dx
π /2
π /2
=
∫0 log sin 2 x dx − (log 2) [ x]0
π /2 π
=
∫0 log sin 2 x dx −
2
log 2.
1
Now put 2 x = t, so that 2 dx = dt . Also t = 0 when x = 0 and t = π when x = π.
2
1 π π
∴ 2I =
2 ∫0 log sin t dt −
2
log 2
1 π π
=
2 ∫0 log sin x dx −
2
log 2, [Refer prop. 1]
1 π /2 π
=
2
.2
∫0 log sin x dx −
2
log 2, [Refer prop. 6]
1
=I − π log 2 .
2
I-11
1
Therefore 2I − I = − π log 2
2
1 1 1 1
or I =− π log 2 = π log (2)− 1 = π log ⋅
2 2 2 2
π /2 1
∫0 x cot x dx =
2
π log 2.
π /2
Solution: Let I =
∫0 x cot x dx. Integrating by parts taking cot x as the second
function, we get
π /2
I = [ x log sin x]0π / 2 −
∫0 1 . log sin x dx
π  π /2
=  log 1 − lim x log sin x −
 2 x → 0 
∫0 log sin x dx
π /2
= 0 − lim x log sin x −
x→0 ∫0 log sin x dx.
log sin x  ∞
Now lim x log sin x = lim  form ∞ 
x→0 x→0 1/ x
(1/sin x)cos x − x2 cos x  ∞

= lim 2
= lim  form ∞ 
x→0 −1/ x x→0 sin x
−2 x cos x + x2 sin x 0
= lim = = 0.
x→0 cos x 1
π /2 π /2
∴ I =0 −
∫0 log sin x dx = −
∫0 log sin x dx.
π /2
Now let u=
∫0 log sin x dx.
1
Then proceeding as in Example 7, we have u = − π log 2.
2
1
∴ I =−u= π log 2.
2
π /4 π
∫0 log (1 + tan θ) dθ =
8
log 2.
π /4
Solution: Let I =
∫0 log (1 + tan θ) dθ.
π /4   a a 
1 
Then I =
∫0 log 1 + tan  π − θ  dθ,
 4  ∵

∫0 f ( x) dx =
∫0 f (a − x) dx 

π /4  (1 − tan θ) π /4  2 
=
∫0 log 1 +  dθ =
 (1 + tan θ)
∫0 log   dθ
1 + tan θ 
I-12
π /4 π /4
=
∫0 log 2 . dθ −
∫0 log (1 + tan θ) dθ
π /4
= log 2 . [θ]0 − I.
1 1
∴ 2I = π log 2 or I = π log 2 .
4 8
π /2 sin x dx π
∫0 = ⋅
sinx + cos x 4 (Lucknow 2014)
π /2 sin x dx
Solution: Let I =
∫0 sin x + cos x
⋅ ...(1)
1 
π /2 sin  π − x
2 
Then I =
∫0 1  1 
sin  π − x + cos  π − x
[Refer prop. 4]
2  2 
π /2 cos x dx
=
∫0 cos x + sin x
⋅ ...(2)

π /2 sin x dx π /2 cos x dx
2I =
∫0 sin x + cos x
+
∫0 sin x + cos x
π /2  sin x cos x 
=
∫0  +
sin x + cos x sin x + cos
 dx
x
π /2 π
=
∫0 1 . dx = [ x]0π /2 =
2
⋅
1
∴ I = π.
4
Comprehensive Exercise 1
Evaluate the following integrals :

π π
1. (i)
∫0 cos6 x dx. (ii)
∫0 sin3 x dx.
1 x2 sin−1 x a
∫−1 ∫−a x √ (a
2
2. (i) 2
dx. (ii) − x2 ) dx.
√ (1 − x )
1 x sin−1 x
(iii)
∫−1 √ (1 − x2 )
dx.
π dx 2π dx
3. (i)
∫0 a + b cos x
⋅ (ii)
∫0 a + b cos x + c sin x
⋅
I-13
π x dx π2 (a2 + b2 )
4. (i) Show that
∫0 2 2
(a cos x + b sin x) 2 2 2
=
4 a3 b3
⋅
(Kumaun 2007, 09)
π x dx π2
(ii) Show that
∫0 2
a − cos x 2
=
2 a √ (a2 − 1)
, (a > 1) .
π x dx
(iii) Evaluate
∫0 1 + cos2 x ⋅
π /2
5. (i) Evaluate
∫0 (sin x − cos x) log (sin x + cos x) dx.
π /2
(ii) Evaluate
∫0 sin 2 x log tan x dx.
π x sin x
6. (i) Evaluate
∫0 (1 + cos2 x)
dx.
(Kumaun 2007)
π
(ii) Evaluate
∫0 x sin6 x cos4 x dx.
π x sin x π 
7. (i) Prove that
∫0 1 + sin x
dx = π  − 1 ⋅
2  (Kumaun 2011)
π x tan x 1
(ii) Show that
∫0 sec x + cos x
dx = π2 .
4
π x tan x dx 1 
(iii) Show that
∫0 sec x + tan x
= π  π − 1 .
2 
π
∫0 sin
3
8. (i) Evaluate θ (1 + 2 cos θ) (1 + cos θ)2 dθ.
π
∫0 sin
5
(ii) Evaluate x (1 − cos x)3 dx.
π /2
9. (i) Show that
∫0 log (tan x) dx = 0 .
(Kumaun 2010)
1
π  1
(ii) Prove that
∫0 log sin  y  dy = log ⋅
2  2
π
10. (i) Evaluate
∫0 x log sin x dx.
π /2
(ii) Evaluate
∫0 log cos x dx.
π /2
(iii) Evaluate
∫0 log sin 2 x dx.
∞ tan− 1 x dx
(iv) Evaluate
∫0 x (1 + x2 )
⋅
2
π /2  θ 
11. (i) Show that
∫0   dθ = π log 2.
 sin θ 
I-14
∞
∫0 (cot
−1
(ii) Show that x)2 dx = π log 2.
1 sin− 1 x 1
(iii) Show that
∫0 x
dx = π log 2.
2
π 1
(iv) Show that
∫0 log (1 + cos x) dx = π log
2
⋅
∞
 1 dx
12. (i) Show that
∫0 log  x + 
 x  1 + x2
= π log 2.
∞ log (1 + x2 ) dx
(ii) Show that
∫0 (1 + x2 )
= π log 2.
1 log (1 + x) 1
(iii) Show that
∫0 1 + x2
dx =
8
π log 2.
(Kumaun 2008)
π /2 dx
13. (i) Evaluate
∫0 1 + tan x
⋅
π /2 dx
(ii) Evaluate
∫0 1 + cot x
⋅
∞ x dx π
14. (i) Show that
∫0 (1 + x) (1 + x ) 2
=
4
⋅
a dx π
(ii) Show that
∫0 x + √ (a2 − x2 )
=
4
⋅
π /2 √ (sin x) π
15. (i) Show that
∫0 √ (sin x) + √ (cos x)
dx =
4
⋅ (Lucknow 2007)
π /2 tan x π
(ii) Show that
∫0 tan x + cot x
dx = ⋅
4
π /2 dx π
(iii) Show that
∫0 = ⋅
1 + √ (tan x) 4
π /2 √ (tan x) dx π
(iv) Show that
∫0 = ⋅
1 + √ (tan x) 4
π /2 √ (tan x) π
16. (i) Prove that
∫0 √ (tan x) + √ (cot x)
dx = ⋅
4
π /2 sin2 x dx 1
(ii) Show that
∫0 =
(sin x + cos x) √ 2
log (√ 2 + 1).
π /2 cos2 x
17. (i) Evaluate
∫0 (sin x + cos x)
dx.
a a dx
(ii) Evaluate
∫0 { x + √ (a2 − x2 )}2 ⋅
π /2 x dx
(iii) Evaluate
∫0 sin x + cos x
⋅
I-15
π /2 π /2
18. (i) Show that
∫0 φ (sin 2 x) sin x dx =
∫0 φ (sin 2 x) cos x dx
π /4
= √2
∫0 φ (cos 2 x) cos x dx.
(Kumaun 2007)
1 
π x2 sin 2 x sin  π cos x
2  8
(ii) Show that
∫0 2x − π
dx = ⋅
π
A nswers 1
5π 4
1. (i) (ii) 2. (i) 0
16 3
π
(ii) 0 (iii) 2 3. (i)
√ (a − b2 )
2
2π π2 √ 2
(ii) 4. (iii) 5. (i) 0
√ (a2 − b2 − c 2 ) 4
1 2 3 π2
(ii) 0 6. (i) π (ii)
4 512
8 32 1 2 1
8. (i) (ii) 10. (i) π log
3 21 2 2
1 1 1 1 1
(ii) π log (iii) π log (iv) π log 2
2 2 2 2 2
π π 1
13. (i) (ii) 17. (i) log (√ 2 + 1)
4 4 √2
1 π
(ii) log (√ 2 + 1) (iii) log (√ 2 + 1)
√2 2 √2
3 The Definite Integrals as the Limit of a Sum

So far integration has been defined as the inverse process of differentiation. But it is
also possible to regard a definite integral as the limit of the sum of certain number of
terms, when the number of terms tends to infinity and each term tends to zero.
Definition: Let f ( x) be a single valued continuous function defined in the interval
(a, b) where b > a and let the interval (a, b) be divided into n equal parts each of length h, so that
nh = b − a ; then we define
b
∫a f ( x) dx = lim h [ f ( a) + f ( a + h) + f ( a + 2 h) +… + f {a + ( n − 1) h}],
when n → ∞, h → 0 and nh → b − a.
I-16
n −1
b
Thus
∫a f ( x) dx = lim h
h→ 0
∑ f (a + rh), where n → ∞ as h → 0 and nh remains equal to
r =0
b
b − a . We call
∫a f ( x) dx as the definite integral of f ( x) w.r.t. x between the limits a
and b.
b
Example 11: Evaluate
∫a x2 dx directly from the definition of the integral as the limit of a
sum.
Solution: From the definition of a definite integral as the limit of a sum, we know
that
b
∫a f ( x) dx = lim h[ f (a) + f (a + h) + f (a + 2 h) +… + f { a + (n − 1)h}].
n→ ∞
where h → 0 as n → ∞ and nh → b − a.
Here f ( x) = x2 ; therefore f (a), f (a + h), f (a + 2 h), etc. will be a2 ,(a + h)2 ,(a + 2 h)2 , …,
respectively.
b
∴
∫a x2 dx = lim h[a2 + (a + h)2 + (a + 2 h)2 +…+ {a + (n − 1) h}2 ],
n→ ∞
where h → 0 as n → ∞ and nh → b − a
2
= lim h [na + 2 ah {1 + 2 + 3 +… + (n − 1)}
n→ ∞
+ h2 { 12 + 22 + 32 + … + (n − 1)2 }] .
But we know that
n (n + 1)
Σn=
2
n (n + 1) (2 n + 1)
and Σ n2 = ⋅
6
Taking n = (n − 1) in the above results, we get
b  (n − 1) n h2 
∫a x2 dx = lim h na2 + 2 ah ⋅
n→ ∞  2
+
6
(n − 1)n (2 n − 1)

 1 
= lim (nh)a2 + a (nh)(n − 1) h + (nh)(n − 1) h(2 n − 1) h
n→ ∞  6 
  1 1  1  1 
= lim (nh)a2 + a (nh)2 1 −  + ⋅ 2 (nh)3 1 −  1 −  .
n→ ∞   n 6  n  2 n 
Now as n → ∞ , h → 0 and nh → b − a .
I-17
b 1
∴
∫a x2 dx = (b − a) a2 + a (b − a)2 +
3
(b − a)3
1
= (b − a) { 3 a2 + 3 (b − a) a + b2 − 2 ab + a2}
3
1
= (b − a) (a2 + ab + b2 )
3
1 3
= (b − a3 ) .
3
b b m +1 − am +1
∫a
m
Example 12: Show that x dx = ⋅
(m + 1)
m
Solution: Here f ( x) = x ; therefore f (a) = a m , f (a + h) = (a + h)m , etc.
b
∫a
m
∴ x dx = lim h[a m + (a + h)m +… + { a + (n − 1) h} m ],
h→ 0
where b − a = nh .
(t + h)m + 1 − t m + 1 d m +1
Now lim = t = (m + 1) t m .
h→ 0 h dt
(t + h)m + 1 − t m + 1
∴ lim = (m + 1), i. e.,constant …(1)
h→ 0 h ⋅ tm
Putting t = a , (a + h) , (a + 2 h) , etc., in (1), we get
(a + h)m +1 − a m +1 (a + 2 h)m +1 − (a + h)m +1
lim m
= lim =…
h→ 0 h⋅a h→ 0 h (a + h)m
(a + nh)m +1 − { a + (n − 1) h} m +1
… = lim
h→ 0 h { a + (n − 1) h} m
= (m + 1) i. e., a constant. …(2)

a c e
Also we know that if = = = ......, then each of these ratios is equal to
b d f
a + c + e + ....
...(3)
b + d + f +…
Now we apply the property (3) to various limits given in (2). Thus forming a new
numerator and denominator by adding the numerators and denominators of the
various ratios in (2), we get
(a + nh)m + 1 − a m + 1
lim = (m + 1)
h→ 0 h [a + (a + h)m + … + { a + (n − 1) h} m ]
m
[a + (b − a)]m + 1 − a m + 1
or lim = (m + 1). [∵ nh = b − a]
h→ 0 h [a m + (a + h)m +… + { a + (n − 1) h} m ]
I-18
b m +1 − am +1
or lim h [a m + (a + h)m + … + { a + (n − 1) h} m ] = ⋅
h→ 0 m +1
b b m +1 − am +1
∫a
m
∴ x dx = ⋅
(m + 1)
b
Example 13: From the definition of a definite integral as the limit of a sum, evaluate
∫a e x dx.
Solution: Here f ( x) = e x ; therefore f (a) = e a , f (a + h) = e a + h, etc.

b
∴
∫a e x dx = lim h { e a + e a + h + e a + 2 h +… + e a + (n −1) h }.
h→ 0
where nh = b − a and n → ∞ as h → 0
= lim he a {1 + e h + e2 h +…+ e(n − 1) h}

h→ 0
 (e ) − 1
h n
= lim he a  h  , summing the G.P.
h→ 0  e − 1 
 e nh − 1
= lim he a  h 
h→ 0  e − 1 
 e b − a − 1
= lim he a  h , [∵ nh = (b − a)]
h→ 0  e − 1 
 h 1 
= e a (e b − a − 1), hlim h
= lim h = 1
 → 0 e − 1 h→ 0 e 
= eb − ea .
b
Example 14: Evaluate by summation
∫a sin x dx.
Solution: Here f ( x) = sin x; therefore f (a) = sin a, f (a + h) = sin (a + h) , etc.

b
∴
∫a sin x dx = lim h [sin a + sin (a + h) + … + sin { a + (n − 1) h }] ,
h→ 0
where nh = b − a and n → ∞ as h → 0
 1  
sin  2 nh  1 
= lim h  ⋅ sin  a + (n − 1) h , from Trigonometry
h→ 0  1  2 
sin h
 2 
1
h
 b − a  b − a − h
= lim 2 ⋅ 2 ⋅ sin   ⋅ sin  a + , [∵ nh = b − a]
h→ 0 1  2   2 
sin h
2
I-19
 b − a  b − a  θ 
= 2 ⋅ 1 ⋅ sin   sin  a + , ∵ θlim = 1
 2   2   → 0 sin θ 
b−a a+b
= 2 sin sin = cos a − cos b.
2 2
b
1. Find by summation the value of
∫a x dx.
2
2. Evaluate by summation
∫1 x dx.
2
∫0 x3 dx.
4. Using the definition of integral as the limit of a sum, show that

b
∫a cos x dx = sin b − sin a.
π /2
∫0 sin x dx.
π /2
∫0 cos x dx.
b 1
∫a x2
dx.
A nswers 2
1 2 3
1. (b − a2 ) 2. 3. 4
2 2
1 1
5. 1 6. 1 7. −
a b
4 Summation of Series with the Help of Definite Integrals

The definition of a definite integral as the limit of a sum (article 3) helps us to evaluate
the limit of the sums of some special types of series. We know that
b
∫a f ( x) dx = lim h[ f (a) + f (a + h) +… + f { a + (n − 1) h}]
n→ ∞
I-20
n −1
= lim h
n→ ∞
∑ f (a + rh), where nh = b − a .
r =0
Putting a = 0 and b = 1, so that h = (1/ n), we get

n −1
1 1   r
∫0 f ( x) dx = lim
n→ ∞ n
∑
r =0
f  .
 n
Thus the limit of the sum of a series can be expressed in the form of a definite integral
provided the series has the following properties :
(a) Each term of the series should have (1/ n) as a common factor which tends to zero
as n → ∞.
(b) The general term of the series should be the product of 1/n and a function
f (r / n) of r/n, so that the various terms of the series can be obtained from it by
giving different values to r , say r = 0 ,1 , 2, …, n − 1 .
(c) There should be n terms in the series, but if however the number of terms differs
by a finite number from n , then the required limit does not change because each
term tends to zero. Thus
n+ q
1
1  r
lim
n→ ∞ n ∑
r =p
f   =
 n ∫0 f ( x) dx,
if p and q are independent of n .

Working Rule :
(i) Write down the general term [say r th term or (r − 1)th term etc., as convenient]
of the series. Take out (1/ n) as a factor from the general term and thus write the
n −1
1  r
series in the form
n ∑
r =0
f   . We may have some other limits of r in the
 n
summation; for example, r may vary from 1 to n or from 0 to 2n , etc. .

n −1
1  r
(ii) Now to evaluate lim
n→ ∞ n ∑
r=
f   , replace r / n by x, 1/ n by dx and lim Σ by the
 n n→ ∞
0
sign of integration i. e., by

∫.
(iii) To find the limits of integration of x first note carefully the limits of r in the
summation Σ f (r / n). Divide these limits by n to get the values of r / n. Take
limits of these values of r / n as n → ∞ and get the limits of integration of x.
1 1 1 1
Example 15: Show that the limit of the sum + + +…+ ,
n n +1 n + 2 3n
when n is indefinitely increased is log 3 . (Kumaun 2013)
I-21
1
Solution: Here the general term of the series is and r varies from 0 to 2n .
n+r
2n
1
Now we have to find lim
n→ ∞ ∑
r =0
n+r
.
2n 2n
1 1
We have lim
n→ ∞
∑
r=
= lim
n + r n→ ∞ ∑
r=
n {1 + (n / r)}
,
0 0
expressing the general term in the form (1/ n) f (r / n)

2n
1 1 1
= lim
n→ ∞ n ∑ 1 + (r / n)
, taking outside the sign of summation.
n
r= 0
2n
1 1
Now lim
n→ ∞ n ∑
r=
1 + (r / n)
is of the form
0
1  r  r 1
lim Σ f  , where f   = ⋅
n→ ∞ n  n  n 1 + (r / n)
r 0
The limits of r in this summation are 0 to 2n . When r = 0, = = 0 and when r = 2 n ,
n n
r 2n r
= = 2 . As n → ∞ , these values of tend to 0 and 2 respectively, giving us the limits
n n n
of integration.
Now replacing r / n by x, 1/ n by dx , lim Σ by the sign of integration
n→ ∞ ∫ , taking the limits
of integration of x from 0 to 2, we get

2n
1 1 2 1
lim
n→ ∞ n ∑
r =0
1 + (r / n) ∫0 1 + x
=
2
dx = [log (1 + x)]0
= log 3 − log 1 = log 3 − 0 = log 3.

n n n n 
Example 16: Evaluate lim  2 + 2 2
+ 2 2
+…+ 2 2 .
n→ ∞  n
 n +1 n +2 n + (n + 1) 
n
Solution: Here, the rth term = ⋅ As the r th term contains (r − 1) , we
n2 + (r − 1)2
consider the (r + 1)th term.
n n 1  1 
The (r + 1)th term = 2 2
= 2 2
= ⋅ 2 ,
n +r n {1 + (r / n) } n 1 + (r / n) 
and r varies from 0 to n + 1.

n +1
1 1 
∴ the given limit = lim
n→ ∞ ∑  .
n 1 + (r / n)2 
r =0
I-22
Also the lower limit of integration

0 
= lim   = lim 0 = 0 . [∵ r = 0 for the 1st term]
n→ ∞  n  n→ ∞
 n + 1  1
and the upper limit = lim   = lim 1 +  = 1.
n→ ∞  n  n→ ∞  n
[∵ r = (n + 1) for the last term]

1 1 π
∫0 1 + x2 dx = [tan
−1
x]0 = tan−1 1 =
1
∴ the required limit = .
4
 12 22 n2  1
Example 17: Prove that lim  3 3
+ 3 3
+…+ 3  = log 2 .
n→ ∞ 1 + n
 2 +n n + n3  2
r2 1  r2  1  (r / n)2 
Solution: Here the r th term = 3 3
= 3   = ⋅ ,
r +n n  (r / n) + 1 n  (r / n)3 + 1
3
and r varies from 1 to n.

n
1  (r / n)2  1 x2 dx
n→ ∞ ∑ ⋅ =
n  (r / n)3 + 1 ∫0 x3 + 1
r =1
1
1  1 1 1
=  log ( x3 + 1) = log 2 − log 1 = log 2.
3 0 3 3 3
1  2k π 2π 3π π
Example 18: Evaluate lim sin + sin2 k + sin2 k + … + sin2 k  .
n→ ∞ n  2n 2n 2n 2
1 rπ
Solution: Here the r th term = ⋅ sin2 k , and r varies from 1 to n .
n 2n
n
1 rπ
n→ ∞
∑= n ⋅ sin2 k 2n
r 1
π /2
1
π  2 πx
=
∫0 sin2 k  ⋅ x dx =
2  π ∫0 sin2 k t dt, putting
2
=t
1
so that π dx = dt and the limits for t are 0 to π / 2
2
2 (2 k − 1) (2 k − 3) 3 1 π
= ⋅ ⋅ … ⋅ ⋅ , by Walli’s formula
π 2k (2 k − 2) 4 2 2
(2 k − 1) (2 k − 3) … 3 .1
= ⋅
2 k .(2 k − 2) … 4 .2
Example 19: Find the limit, as n → ∞ , of the product

1 /2 1 /3 1/n
 1  2  3  n
1 +  1 +  1 +  … 1 +  ⋅
 n   n  n  n (Lucknow 2013)
I-23
1 /2 1 /3 1/n
 1  2  3  n
Solution: Let P = lim 1 +  1 +  1 +  … 1 +  ⋅
n→ ∞  n  n  n  n
  1 1  2
Then log P = lim log 1 +  + log 1 + 
n→ ∞   n 2  n
1  3 1  n 
+ log 1 +  + .... + log 1 +  
3  n n  n 
n
1  r
= lim
n→ ∞
∑ r
log 1 + 
 n
r= 1
n
1  
1 r
= lim
n→ ∞
∑ ⋅
n (r / n)
log 1 + 
 n
(Note)
r= 1
1 1 1 1  x2 x3 x4 
=
∫0 x
log (1 + x) dx =
∫0 x
x −
 2
+
3
−
4
+ … dx

1
1  x x2 x3   x2 x3 x4 
=
∫0 1 − +
 2 3
−
4
+ … dx =  x −
  4
+ −
9 16
+ …
 0
1 1 1 π2
or log P = 1 − 2
+ 2
− 2
+…∞ = , from trigonometry.
2 3 4 12
2
∴ P = eπ /12
.
1/n
 1  22   32   n2  
Example 20: Evaluate lim 1 + 2  1 + 2  1 + 2  … 1 + 2   ⋅
n→ ∞  n   n   n   n  

(Lucknow 2008; Kumaun 07, 13)
1/n
 1  22   32   n2  
Solution: Let P = lim 1 + 2  1 + 2  1 + 2  … 1 + 2   ⋅
n→ ∞  n   n   n   n  

1  1  22 
∴ log P = lim log 1 + 2  + log 1 + 2 
n→ ∞ n   n   n 

 32   n2  
+ log 1 + 2  + … + log 1 + 2  
 n   n 
n
1  r2 
= lim
n→ ∞ n ∑ log 1 + 2 
 n 
r= 1
1 1
=
∫0 log (1 + x2 ) dx =
∫0 log (1 + x2 ) .1 dx
1 2 x . x dx
∫0
1
= [ x log (1 + x2 )]0 − ,
1 + x2
integrating by parts taking 1 as the 2nd function
I-24
1 (1 + x2 ) − 1 1  1 
= log 2 − 2
∫0 1+ x 2
dx = log 2 − 2
∫0 1 − 2
 1 + x 
dx
1
= log 2 − 2 [ x − tan− 1 x]0 = log 2 − 2 [1 −
1
π] .
4
1 1
Thus log P = log 2 + (π − 4) or log ( P / 2) = (π − 4)
2 2
or P = 2 e(π − 4) /2 .
1/n
 n !
Example 21: Find the limit of  n  when n tends to infinity.
n  (Kumaun 2010)
1/n 1/n 1/n
 n !  1⋅ 2 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 4… n   1 2 3 n
Solution: P = lim  n  = lim   = lim  ⋅ ⋅ …  .
n→ ∞  n  n→ ∞  n ⋅ n ⋅ n ⋅ n… n n→ ∞  n n n n
1  1  2  3  n 
∴ log P = lim log   + log   + log   +… + log   
n→ ∞ n   n  n  n  n 
n
1 1
 
1 r
= lim
n→ ∞
∑ n  n ∫0
log   = log x dx =
∫0 (log x) ⋅ 1dx
r= 1
1 1
∫0
1
= [(log x) ⋅ x]0 − ⋅ x dx, integrating by parts
x
1
= 0 − [ x]0 = −1.
∴ P = e −1 = 1/ e.
Evaluate the following :

 1 1 1
1. lim  + +…+ ⋅
n→ ∞  n+1 n + 2 2 n
 1 1 1 
2. lim  + +…+ ⋅
n→ ∞  n + m n + 2m n + nm 
 n n n 
3. lim  2
+ 2
+… + .
n→ ∞ (n + 1)
 (n + 2) (n + n)2 
4. lim [{ √ (n + 1) + √ (n + 2) + … + √ (2 n)} / n √ n ].
n→ ∞
 1 1 1 1 
5. lim n  + + + … + 2 .
n→ ∞ (n + 1) (n + 2) (n + 2) (n + 4) (n + 3) (n + 6) 6n 
 n n 1
6. lim + +…+ ⋅
n→ ∞  n2 +1 2 2
n +2 2 2 n

I-25
 n +1 n+2 1
7. lim  2 2
+ 2 2
+…+  ⋅
n→ ∞  n + 1 n +2 n

1 
8. lim  3 (1 + 4 + 9 + 16 + … + n2 ) ⋅
n→ ∞  n 
1 n2 n2 1
9. lim  + 3
+ 3
+…+ ⋅
n→ ∞  n
 (n + 1) (n + 2) 8 n
 n1 /2 n1 /2 n1 /2 n1 /2 
10. lim  3 /2 + 3 / 2
+ 3 / 2
+ … + 3 / 2 ⋅
n→ ∞  n
 (n + 3) (n + 6) { n + 3 (n − 1)}  (Lucknow 2006)
1 1 1 1 
11. lim  + 2 2
+ 2 2
+…+ 2 2 ⋅
n→ ∞  n
 √ (n − 1 ) √ (n − 2 ) √ { n − (n − 1) } 
1 1 2 4 3 9 1 
12. lim  2 sec 2 2 + 2 sec 2 2 + 2 sec 2 2 + … + sec 2 1 ⋅
x→ ∞ n n n n n n n  (Lucknow 2010)
n 3
r
13. lim
n→ ∞ ∑
r =1
r4 + m4
.
n −1
n+r
∑= n ⋅ √  n − r  .
1
14. lim
n→ ∞
r 0 (Lucknow 2014)
n
√n
15. lim
n→ ∞ ∑
r=
√ r ⋅ (3 √ r + 4 √ n)2
.
1
n
n2
16. lim
n→ ∞
∑=1 (n2 + r2 )3 /2
.
r
 1 1 1
17. lim  2
+ 2
+…+  ⋅
n→ ∞  √ (2 n − 1 ) √ (4 n − 2 ) n

 n n n 
18. lim  + +…+ ⋅
n→ ∞ (n + 1) √ (2 n + 1) (n + 2) √ {2 (2 n + 2)} 2 n √ (n .3 n)
(n − m)1 /3 (22 n − m)1 /3 (32 n − m)1 /3 (n3 − m)1 /3 
19. lim  + + +…+ ⋅
n→ ∞ 
 n 2n 3n n2 
1 1 1 1
20. lim  + + +…+  ⋅
n→ ∞  na na + 1 na + 2 nb  (Kumaun 2011)
10 10 10
1+ 2 +3 +…+ n
21. lim 11
⋅
n→ ∞ n
1m + 2 m + 3 m + … + nm 1
22. Prove that lim m +1
= , (m > 1) .
n→ ∞ n m +1
1/n
 1  2  3  n 
23. Evaluate lim 1 +  1 +  1 +  … 1 +   ⋅
n→ ∞  n  n  n  n  (Lucknow 2009)
I-26
1/n
(n + 1) (n + 2) (n + 3) … (n + n)
24. Evaluate lim   .
n→ ∞  nn
 1 /2 1 /3 1/n 
 1  24   34   n4 
25. Evaluate lim 1 + 4  1 + 4  1 + 4  … 1 + 4  ⋅
n→ ∞  n   n   n   n  
 
1/n
 π 2π 3π nπ 
26. Evaluate lim sin sin sin … sin ⋅
n→ ∞  2n 2n 2n 2 n 
1/n
 π 2π 3π nπ 
27. Evaluate lim tan tan tan … tan ⋅
n→ ∞  2n 2n 2n 2 n  (Kumaun 2012)
28. Evaluate the limit

2 / n2 4 / n2 6 / n2 2 n / n2
 1  22   32   n2 
lim 1 + 2  1 + 2  1 + 2  … 1 + 2  ⋅
n→ ∞  n   n   n   n  (Kumaun 2009)
A nswers 3
1
1. log 2 2. (1/ m) log (1 + m) 3.
2
2 3 π
4. [2 √ 2 − 1] 5. log 6.
3 2 4
1 π 1 3 1
7. log 2 + 8. 9. 10.
2 4 3 8 3
1 1 1 π 1
11. π 12. tan 1 13. log 2 14. +1 15.
2 2 4 2 14
1 π π 3
16. 17. 18. 19. 20. log (b / a)
√2 2 3 2
1 2 1
21. 23. 4/e 24. 4 / e 25. eπ /48
26.
11 2
27. 1 28. 4/e
O bjective T ype Q uestions
Multiple Choice Questions

Indicate the correct answer for each question by writing the corresponding letter from
(a), (b), (c) and (d).
π /2
1. The value of the integral
∫ − π /2 sin2 x dx is
π π π 1
(a) (b) (c) (d)
2 4 8 2
I-27
n
r3
2. The value of the limit, lim
n→ ∞
∑
r =1
r4 + n4
is
1 1 1
(a) log 2 (b) log 2 (c) log 2 (d) log 2
4 2 8
π /2
3. The value of the integral
∫ − π /2 sin3 x dx shall be
(a) 1 (b) 0 (c) −1 (d) π

(Kumaun 2010, 12)
π
4. The integral
∫0 f (sin x) dx is equal to
π /2 π
(a) 2
∫0 f (sin x) dx (b)
∫0 f (cos x) dx
π /2 π /2
(c)
∫0 f (cos x) dx (d)
∫0 f (sin x) dx
(Kumaun 2010, 13)
Fill in the Blank(s)

Fill in the blanks “……” so that the following statements are complete and correct.
a
1. If f (− x) = − f ( x), then
∫− a f ( x) dx = …… .
2a
2. If f (2 a − x) = − f ( x), then
∫0 f ( x) dx = …… .
a
3. If f (− x) = f ( x), then
∫− a f ( x) dx = 2 …… .
2a
4. If f (2 a − x) = f ( x), then
∫0 f ( x) dx = 2 …… .
π /2
5.
∫ − π /2 sin3 x cos2 x dx = …… .
1 x2 sin−1 x
6.
∫−1 √ (1 − x2 )
dx = …… .
7.
dx = …… .
π /2 dx
8.
∫0 1 + √ (tan x)
= …… .
π /2 sin x
9.
∫0 sin x + cos x
dx = …… .
n
1 1
10. lim
n→ ∞ n ∑
r =1
1 + (r / n)
= …… .
I-28
True or False
Write ‘T’ for true and ‘F’ for false statement.
a a
1.
∫0 f ( x) dx =
∫0 f (a + x) dx.
a a
2.
∫0 f ( x) dx =
∫0 f (a − x) dx.
3. If m is a positive integer, then

π
∫0 sinm x cos2 m + 1 x dx = 0 .
π /2 x dx π π /2 dx
4.
∫0 =
sin x + cos x 2 ∫0 sin x + cos x
⋅
π /2
5.
∫ − π /2 cos3 x dx = 0 .
2n
1 1 1
6. lim
n→ ∞
∑
r=
n+r
=
∫0 1+ x
dx.
0
n +1
1 1  π
7. lim
n→ ∞
∑  2 = .
n 1 + (r / n)  4
=0
r
1  1
8. lim  3 (1 + 4 + 9 + 16 +… + n2  = .
n→ ∞n  2
A nswers

1. (a) 2. (b) 3. (b) 4. (a)

a a
1. 0 2. 0 3.
∫0 f ( x) dx 4.
∫0 f ( x) dx
π
5. 0 6. 0 7. 0 8.
4
π
9. 10. log 2
4
True or False
1. F 2. T 3. T 4. F 5. F
6. F 7. T 8. F
¨
2
I mproper I ntegrals
( I nfinite I ntegrals )
1 Some Definitions
1. nfinite Interval: The interval whose length (range) is infinite is said to be an
I infinite interval. Thus the intervals (a, ∞), (− ∞, b) and (− ∞, ∞) are infinite
intervals.
2. Bounded Functions: A function f ( x) is said to be bounded over the interval I if
there exist two real numbers a and b (b > a) such that
a ≤ f ( x) ≤ b for all x ∈ I .
A function f ( x) is said to be unbounded at a point, if it becomes infinite at that point.
Thus the function
f ( x) = x / {( x − 1) ( x − 2)}
is unbounded at each of the points x = 1 and x = 2.
3. Monotonic functions: A real valued function f defined on an interval I is said
to be monotonically increasing if
x > y ⇒ f ( x) > f ( y) V x, y ∈ I
and monotonically decreasing if
x > y ⇒ f ( x) < f ( y) V x, y ∈ I .
I-30
A function f defined on an interval I is said to be a monotonic function if it is either

monotonically decreasing or monotonically increasing on I.
For example the function f defined by f ( x) = sin x is monotonically increasing in the
1 1
interval 0 ≤ x ≤ π and monotonically decreasing in the interval π ≤ x ≤ π.
2 2
b
4. Proper Integral: The definite integral ∫ f ( x) dx is said to be a proper integral if
a
the range of integration is finite and the integrand f ( x) is bounded. The integral
π /2 1 sin x
∫0 sin x dx is a proper integral. Also ∫0 x dx is an example of a proper integral
lim sin x
because = 1.
x→0 x
b
5. Improper Integrals: The definite integral ∫a f ( x) dx is said to be an improper
integral if (i) the interval (a, b) is not finite (i. e., is infinite) and the function f ( x) is
bounded over this interval; or (ii) the interval (a, b) is finite and f ( x) is not bounded over
this interval; or (iii) neither the interval (a, b) is finite nor f ( x) is bounded over it.
6. Improper integrals of the first kind or infinite integrals: A definite integral
b
∫a f ( x) dx in which the range of integration is infinite (i. e., either b = ∞ or a = − ∞ or
both) and the integrand f ( x) is bounded, is called an improper integral of the first kind
∞ dx
or an infinite integral. Thus ∫ is an improper integral of the first kind since the
0 1 + x2
upper limit of integration is infinite and the integrand1 / (1 + x2 ) is bounded. Similarly

0
∫− ∞ e x dx is an example of an improper integral of the first kind because here the lower
∞ dx
limit of integration is infinite. Also ∫ is an improper integral of the first kind.
−∞ 1 + x2
In case the interval ( a, b) is infinite and the integrand f ( x) is bounded, we define
∞ x
(i) ∫a f ( x) dx = lim ∫a f ( x) dx,
x→ ∞
provided that the limit exists finitely i. e.,the limit is equal to a definite real number.
b lim b
(ii) ∫− ∞ f ( x) dx =
x→ ∞ ∫− x f ( x) dx,
provided that the limit exists finitely.

∞ lim c lim x2
(iii) ∫− ∞ f ( x) dx =
x1 → ∞ ∫− x1 f ( x) dx +
x2 → ∞ ∫c f ( x) dx
provided that both these limits exist finitely.

b
7. Improper integrals of the second kind: A definite integral ∫ f ( x) dx in which
a
the range of integration is finite but the integrand f ( x) is unbounded at one or more
points of the interval a ≤ x ≤ b, is called an improper integral of the second kind.
I-31
4 dx
Thus ∫0 ( x − 2) ( x − 3)
1 1
and ∫0 x2
dx are improper integrals of the second kind.
In the case of the definite integral

b
∫a f ( x) dx,
if the range of integration (a, b) is finite and the integrand f ( x) is unbounded at one
or more points of the given interval, we define the value of the integral as follows :
(i) If f ( x) is unbounded at x = b only i. e.,if f ( x) → ∞ as x → b only, then we define

b lim b−ε
∫a f ( x) dx =
ε→ 0 ∫a f ( x) dx,
provided that the limit exists finitely. Here ε is a small positive number.
(ii) If f ( x) → ∞ as x → a only, then we define
b lim b
∫a f ( x) dx =
ε→ 0 ∫a + ε f ( x) dx,
provided that the limit exists finitely.

(iii) If f ( x) → ∞ as x → c only, where a < c < b, then we define
b lim c −ε lim b
∫a f ( x) dx =
ε→ 0 ∫a f ( x) dx +
ε′ → 0 ∫c + ε′ f ( x) dx,
provided that both these limits exist finitely.

(iv) If f ( x) is unbounded at both the points a and b of the interval (a, b) and is
bounded at each other point of this interval, we write
b c b
∫a f ( x) dx = ∫a f ( x) dx + ∫c f ( x) dx,
where a < c < b and the value of the integral exists only if each of the integrals on the
right hand side exists.
2 Convergence of Improper Integrals

When the limit of an improper integral as defined above, is a definite finite number, we
say that the given integral is convergent and the value of the integral is equal to the
value of that limit. When the limit is ∞ or − ∞, the integral is said to be divergent i. e., the
value of the integral does not exist.
In case the limit is neither a definite number nor ∞ or − ∞, the integral is said to be
oscillatory and in this case also the value of the integral does not exist i. e., the integral is
∞
not convergent. We can define the convergence of the infinite integral ∫ f ( x) dx as
a
follows :
I-32
∞
Definition: The integral ∫ f ( x) dx is said to converge to the value I, if for any arbitrarily
a
chosen positive number ε, however small but not zero, there exists a corresponding positive number
N such that
 b f ( x) dx − I < ε for all values of b ≥ N .
 ∫a 
Similarly we can define the convergence of an integral, when the lower limit is infinite,
or when the integrand becomes infinite at the upper or lower limit.
Example 1: Discuss the convergence of the following integrals by evaluating them

∞ dx ∞ dx
(i) ∫1 √ x , (ii) ∫
1 x3 /2
⋅
Solution: (i) We have

∞ dx lim x dx
∫1 √ x = x → ∞ ∫1 √x
, (By def.)
x
x lim  x1 /2 
= lim ∫1 x − 1 /2 dx =  
x→ ∞ x→ ∞ 1 / 2  1
lim
= [2 √ x − 2] = ∞.
x→ ∞
Thus the limit does not exist finitely and therefore the given integral is divergent (i. e.,
the integral does not exist).
(ii) We have
∞ dx x dx
∫1 = lim ∫1 , (By def.)
x3 /2 x→ ∞ 3 /2
x
x
lim x lim  x − 1 /2  lim − 2 
x
= ∫1 x − 3 /2 dx =   =  
x→ ∞ x→ ∞  − 1 / 2 1 x → ∞  √ x 1
lim  2 
= − + 2 = 2.
x → ∞  √ x 
Thus the limit exists and is unique and finite; therefore the given integral is convergent
and its value is 2.
∞
Example 2: Test the convergence of ∫0 e − m x dx, (m > 0 ).
∞ lim ∞
Solution: We have ∫0 e −m x dx = ∫0 e −m x dx, (by def.)
x→ ∞
x
 e− m x 
lim lim  − 1 (e − m x − 1)
=   =  
x→ ∞
 − m 0 x →∞ m 
1 1
= − [0 − 1] = .
m m
I-33
Thus the limit exists and is unique and finite, therefore the given integral is convergent.
∞ 4 a dx
Example 3: Test the convergence of ∫0 x + 4 a2
2
⋅
∞ 4 a dx x 4 a dx
Solution: We have ∫0 2
x + 4a
= lim
x→ ∞ 2 ∫0 x + (2 a)2
2
, (By def.)
x x

lim 1 −1 x  lim  −1 x 
= 4 a ⋅ tan = 2 tan
x→ ∞ 2a 2 a 0 x → ∞  2 a 0
lim  x  π
=2. tan−1 − 0  = 2 . [tan− 1 ∞] = 2 . = π.
x → ∞  2a  2
Thus the limit exists and is unique and finite; therefore the given integral is convergent.
0 0
Example 4: Test the convergence of (i) ∫ e x dx ; (ii) ∫− ∞ e − x dx.
−∞

0 lim 0
∫− ∞ e x dx =
x→ ∞ ∫− x e x dx, (By def.)
lim lim
= [e x ]0− x = [1 − e − x ] = [1 − 0 ] = 1.
x→ ∞ x→ ∞
0 lim 0
(ii) We have ∫ e − x dx = e − x dx, (By def.)
−∞ x → ∞ ∫− x
0
lim  e− x  lim
=   =− [e0 − e x ] = ∞.
x → ∞  − 1  x→ ∞
− x
Thus the limit does not exist finitely and therefore the given integral is divergent( i. e.,
the integral does not exist).
∞ dx
Example 5: Test the convergence of ∫ ⋅
− ∞ 1 + x2
(Kanpur 2008; Gorakhpur 11)
Solution: We have
∞ dx 0 dx ∞ dx
∫− ∞ 1+ x 2
= ∫− ∞ 1+ x 2
+ ∫0 1 + x2
0 dx lim x dx
= lim ∫− x + ∫0
x→ ∞ 1+ x 2 x→ ∞ 1 + x2
lim lim
= [tan− 1 x]0− x + [tan− 1 x]0x
x→ ∞ x→ ∞
lim lim
= [0 − tan− 1 (− x)] + [tan− 1 x − 0 ]
x→ ∞ x→ ∞
= − (− π / 2) + π / 2 = π.
1 dx
Example 6: Evaluate ∫ ⋅
0 √x (Gorakhpur 2010)
I-34
Solution: In the given integral, the integrand1 / √ x becomes infinite at the lower limit
x = 0. Therefore we have
1 dx lim 1 dx lim
∫0 √ x = ε → 0 ∫0 + ε √x
=
ε→ 0
[2 √ x]1ε
lim
= [2 − 2 √ ε] = 2.
ε→ 0
Hence the given integral is convergent and its value is 2.
1 dx
0 √ (1 − x)
Solution: Here the integrand i. e., 1 / √ (1 − x) becomes unbounded i. e., infinite at the
upper limit (i. e., x = 1).
1 dx lim 1−ε dx
∴ ∫0 √ (1 − x) = ε → 0 ∫0 √ (1 − x)
lim 1−ε lim
= [− 2 √ (1 − x)]0 = [− 2 √ ε + 2] = 2 ,
ε→ 0 ε→ 0
which is a definite real number. Hence the given integral is convergent and its value is 2.
1 dx
− 1 x2
Solution: Here the integrand becomes infinite at x = 0 and − 1 < 0 < 1.

1 dx −ε dx lim 1 dx
∴ ∫−1 = lim ∫−1 + ∫ ε′
2
x ε→ 0 x2 ε′ → 0 x2
−ε 1
lim  1 lim  1
=  −  +  − 
ε → 0  x  − 1 ε′ → 0  x  ε′
lim 1  lim  1
= −1 + − 1+  ⋅
ε → 0  ε  ε′ → 0  ε′ 
Since both the limits do not exist finitely, therefore the integral does not exist and is
divergent.
Evaluate the following integrals and discuss their convergence :

∞ dx ∞ dx
1. ∫ ⋅ 2. ∫ ⋅
1 x 3 ( x − 2)2
∞ ∞ dx
3. ∫0 e2 x dx. 4. ∫0 (1 + x)2 /3
⋅
0 0
5. ∫− ∞ sinh x dx. 6. ∫− ∞ cosh x dx.
I-35
∞ ∞
7. ∫0 cos x dx. 8. ∫− ∞ e − x dx.
∞ dx 1 dx
9. ∫− ∞ 2
x +2 x +2
⋅ 10. ∫0 x3
⋅
1 dx 1 dx
11. ∫0 1− x
⋅ 12. ∫ −1 x2 /3
⋅
(Gorakhpur 2011)
Answers 1
1. ∞, divergent 2. 1, convergent 3. ∞, divergent
4. ∞, divergent 5. − ∞, divergent 6. ∞, divergent
7. Oscillates and so not convergent
8. ∞, divergent 9. π, convergent 10. ∞, divergent
11. ∞, divergent 12. 6, convergent

Indicate the correct answer for each question by writing the corresponding letter from (a),
(b), (c) and (d).
∞ dx
1. The integral ∫ is
1 √x
(a) convergent (b) divergent

(c) uniformly convergent (d) none of these
0
∫−∞ e
x
2. The integral dx is
(a) convergent (b) divergent

(c) uniformly convergent (d) none of these
∞ dx
3. Value of the integral ∫ is
−∞ 1 + x2
(a) π / 2 (b) − π / 2
(c) π (d) − π
1 dx
4. Value of the integral ∫ is
0 √ (1 − x)
(a) 2 (b) − 2
(c) 1 (d) −1
I-36

b
1. The definite integral ∫a f ( x) dx is said to be a …… if the range of integration
(a, b) is finite and the integrand f ( x) is bounded over (a, b).

b
2. The definite integral ∫ f ( x) dx is said to be an improper integral if the inter val
a
(a, b) is finite and f ( x) is not …… over this inter val.
b
3. The definite integral ∫ f ( x) dx is said to be an …… if the inter val (a, b) is not
a
finite and f ( x) is bounded over (a, b).
True or False
b
1. A definite integral ∫ f ( x) dx in which the range of integration (a, b) is finite but
a
the integrand f ( x) is unbounded at one or more points of the interval a ≤ x ≤ b,
is called an improper integral of the second kind.
∞ dx
2. The integral ∫0 1 + x2
is an improper integral of the second kind.
4 dx
3. The integral ∫0 ( x − 2) ( x − 3)
is an improper integral of the first kind.
A nswers

1. (b) 2. (a) 3. (c) 4. (a)

1. proper integral 2. bounded
3. improper integral of the first kind
True or False
1. T 2. F 3. T
¨
I-37
3
D ifferentiation and I ntegration
U nder the S ign of I ntegration
1 Method of Differentiation Under the Sign of Integration

y this method the value of a definite integral can be determined by differentiating
B the integrand with respect to a quantity of which the limits of integration are
independent. This method can also be applied to indefinite integrals. It is a very
important method of integration. By this method the values of many definite integrals
can be determined which are otherwise not easily integrable. This method is applied in
two ways. First, new integrals can be deduced by differentiating certain known
integrals. Secondly, the value of a given integral can be found by first differentiating the
integrand, then evaluating the new integral thus obtained and finally integrating the
result with respect to the same quantity with respect to which the integrand was first
differentiated.
The following examples will illustrate the method.
∞ tan−1 (ax)
Example 1: Evaluate ∫ dx.
0 x (1 + x2 )
I-38
∞ tan−1 (ax)
Solution: Let u = ∫0 x (1 + x2 )
dx. … (1)
tan−1 (ax)
Here the integrand is a function of two variables x and a. Obviously u is a
x (1 + x2 )
function of a. So differentiating both sides of (1) with respect to a, we get
du d  ∞ tan−1 (ax)  ∞  ∂   tan (ax)  
−1
= ∫ 2
dx  = ∫     dx
da da  0 x (1 + x )  0  ∂a  x (1 + x2 )  
  
∞ 1 1 ∞ dx
=∫ 2
⋅ 2 2
⋅ x dx = ∫
0 x (1 + x ) 1 + a x 0 (1 + x ) (1 + a2 x2 )
2
∞  1 a2 
= ∫0  2 2
− 2 2 2 
(1 − a ) (1 + x ) (1 − a ) (1 + a x )
dx,
resolving the integrand into partial fractions

1 a2 1
= 2
[tan−1 x ]0∞ − ⋅ [tan−1 ax]0∞
(1 − a ) 1 − a2 a
1 π a π
= ⋅ − [Assuming that a is positive]
(1 − a2 ) 2 1 − a2  2 
π 1 π
= ⋅ 2
(1 − a) = ⋅
2 1− a 2 (1 + a)
du π
Thus = ⋅
da 2 (1 + a)
Integrating both sides with respect to a, we get
π
u = log (1 + a) + C. … (2)
2
When a = 0, we have from (1) u = 0.
∴ from (2), 0 = 0 + C C = 0. or
1
Putting C = 0 in (2), we get u = π log (1 + a).
2
∞ tan−1 (ax) π
Hence ∫0 x (1 + x2 )
dx = log (1 + a), if a > 0.
2
Case when a is negative :

If a is negative, we have
du 1 a2 1
= 2
[tan−1 x]0∞ − ⋅ [tan−1 ax]0∞
2 a
da (1 − a ) 1− a
1 π  π   −1 π
=  2 − a  − 2  
2  ∵ tan (− ∞) = − 2 
(1 − a )  
π
= ⋅
2 (1 − a)
I-39
Integrating both sides w.r.t. a, we get

π
u = − log (1 − a) + C1 . …(3)
2
Again, when a = 0 , u = 0 . Putting these values in (3), we have C1 = 0 .
π
∴ u = − log (1 − a).
2
∞ tan−1 (ax) π
Hence ∫0 x (1 + x2 )
dx = − log (1 − a), if a < 0.
2

π /2 α + β 
∫0 log (α2 cos2 θ + β2 sin2 θ) dθ = π log 
 2
 ⋅
 (Garhwal 2000)
π /2
Solution: Let u = ∫0 log (α2 cos2 θ + β2 sin2 θ) dθ. … (1)
du π /2 2α cos2 θ π /2 2α cos2 θ
Then =∫ 2 2 2 2
dθ = ∫ dθ
dα 0 α cos θ + β sin θ 0 (α − β2 ) cos2 θ + β2
2
2α π /2 (α2 − β2 ) cos2 θ + β2 − β2
= ∫
(α2 − β2 ) 0 (α2 − β2 ) cos2 θ + β2
dθ
2α π /2  β2 
= ∫
(α2 − β2 ) 0
1 − 2 2 2 2
 (α − β ) cos θ + β 
dθ
2α π /2  β2 sec2 θ 
= 2
(α − β 2 ∫
) 0
1 −
 (α2 − β2 ) + β2 sec2
 dθ
θ
 
2α π /2  β2 sec2 θ 
= 2
(α − β 2 ∫
) 0
1 −
 α2 + β2 tan2
 dθ
θ
 
π /2
2α  1  β tan θ 
= 2 2 
θ − β ⋅ tan−1   
α − β  α  α   0
[Putting β tan θ = t so that β sec2 θ dθ = dt]
2α  π β π π
= 2  − ⋅ = ⋅
α − β2  2 α 2  α + β
du π
Thus = ⋅
dα α + β
Integrating both sides with respect to α , we get

u = π log (α + β) + C. … (2)
From (1), when α = β, we have
π /2 π /2
u= ∫0 log {α2 (cos2 θ + sin2 θ)} dθ = ∫0 log α2 dθ
I-40
π
= log α2 = π log α.
2
So putting β = α in (2), we get
1
π log α = π log (2α) + C or C = π log ⋅
2
1
Hence putting C = π log in (2), we get
2
1 α + β 
u = π log (α + β) + π log = π log   ⋅
2  2 
π /2 dx π (a2 + b2 )
Example 3: Show that ∫ = ⋅
0 (a2 sin2 x + b2 cos2 x)2 4 a3 b3
Solution: Let us first evaluate

π /2 dx
u= ∫0 a sin x + b2 cos2 x
2 2
⋅
π /2
π /2 sec2 x dx1 1  a tan x  
We have u= ∫0 = ⋅  tan−1   ,
2 2
a tan x + b2 a b  b   0
putting a tan x = t so that a sec2 x dx = dt

1 π π
= ⋅ = ⋅
ab 2 2 ab
π /2 dx π
∴ ∫0 =
a2 sin2 x + b2 cos2 x 2 ab
⋅ … (1)
Differentiating both sides of (1) w.r.t. ‘a ’, we get

π /2 − 2 a sin2 x π
∫0 2 2
(a sin x + b cos x) 2 2 2
dx = −
2 a2 b
π /2 sin2 x dx π
or ∫0 2 2
(a sin x + b cos x) 2 2 2
=
4 a3 b
⋅ … (2)
Similarly differentiating both sides of (1) w.r.t. ‘b ’, we get

π /2 cos2 x dx π
∫0 =
(a2 sin2 x + b2 cos2 x)2 4 ab3
⋅ … (3)

π /2 dx π π π (a2 + b2 )
∫0 = +
(a2 sin2 x + b2 cos2 x)2 4 a3 b 4 ab3
=
4 a3 b3
⋅
e −a x sin bx
∞ b
Example 4: Prove that ∫0 dx = tan −1 ⋅
x a
∞ sin bx
Hence also deduce the value of ∫ dx.
0 x
I-41
∞ e − ax sin bx
Solution: Let u = ∫0 x
dx. … (1)
du ∞ e − ax x cos bx ∞
Then =∫ dx = ∫ e − ax cos bx dx
db 0 x 0
[ ]
1 ∞
= 2 2
e − ax (− a cos bx + b sin bx)
a +b 0
 e ax 
∵ ∫ e cos bx dx = 2
ax
2
(a cos bx + b sin bx)
 a +b 
1 lim 1
= 2 ⋅
2 x→ ∞
[e − ax (− a cos bx + b sin bx)] − 2 [− a]
a +b (a + b2 )
a  lim −a x 
= 2 , if a > 0. ∵ if a > 0 , then x → ∞ e = 0
a + b2  
du a
Thus = ⋅
db a2 + b2
Integrating both sides w.r.t. ‘b ’, we get

1 b b
u = a ⋅ tan−1 + C = tan−1 + C. … (2)
a a a
From (1), when b = 0, we have u = 0.
∴ from (2), we have
0 =0 + C or C = 0.
Putting C = 0 in (2), we get
u = tan−1 (b / a).
∞ e − a x sin bx  b
Thus ∫0 dx = tan−1   ⋅ … (3)
x  a
Now putting a = 0 on both sides of (3), we get
∞ sin bx  π / 2, if b > 0
∫0 x dx =  − π / 2, if b < 0.
[∵ tan−1 ∞ = π / 2 and tan−1 (− ∞) = − π / 2]
2
∞  sin ax  πa
Example 5: Show that ∫0 
 x 
 dx =
2
, a > 0.
Solution: We have
2
∞  sin ax  ∞ 1
∫0  x  dx = ∫0 x2 sin ax dx
2
∞
 1  ∞  1
=  −  sin2 ax − ∫  −  2 a sin ax cos ax dx,
  x  0 0  x
integrating by parts taking 1 / x2 as the second function
I-42
∞ sin 2 ax  lim 1 lim sin2 ax 

=0 + a∫ dx ∵ sin2 ax = 0 and =0 
0 x  x→ ∞ x x→0 x 
π  ∞ sin bx π 
= a⋅
2 ∵ from Ex. 4, we have ∫0 x
dx = , if b > 0 
2 
∞ dx π 1. 3 . ≤ (2 n − 1)
Example 6: Show that ∫0 2
( x + a) n +1
= ⋅
2 2 n n ! a(2 n + 1)/2
⋅
∞
∞ dx 1  −1 x  1 π π −1 /2
Solution: We have ∫0 x2 + a
=
√a  tan  = ⋅ = a
√ a 0 √ a 2 2
.
Differentiating both sides n times w.r.t. ‘a’, we get

∞ (− 1)n n ! π (− 1)n 1. 3 . 5 . ≤ (2 n − 1)
∫0 ( x2 + a)n +1
dx =
2 2 n a(2 n +1)/2
∞ dx π 1. 3 . 5 . ≤ (2 n − 1)
or ∫0 ( x2 + a)n +1
=
2 2 n n ! a(2 n +1)/2
⋅
∞ tan −1 αx tan −1 βx 1  (α + β)α +β 

Example 7: Prove that ∫0 x2
dx =
2
π log 
 α α β β 
⋅
∞ tan−1 α x tan−1 β x
Solution: Let u = ∫0 x2
dx. … (1)
∂u ∞ x tan−1 β x ∞ tan−1 β x
Then =∫ dx = ∫0 x (1 + α2 x2 ) … (2)
∂α 0 1 + α2 x2 x2
∂2 u ∞ dx
∴ =∫
∂α ∂β 0 (1 + α x ) (1 + β2 x2 )
2 2
∞ 1  α2 β2 
= ∫0 2 2  2 2
α − β 1 + α x
− 2 2
1 + β x 
dx,
resolving into partial fractions

∞
1  2 1 −1 2 1 −1 
= 2 α ⋅ tan α x − β ⋅ tan β x
α − β2  α β 0
1  π π π α − β π
= 2 α ⋅ 2 − β ⋅ 2  = 2 α2 − β2 = 2 (α + β) ⋅
α − β2
Integrating both sides w.r.t. ‘β ’, we get
∂u π
= log (α + β) + C … (3)
∂α 2
∂u
But when β = 0, we have from (2), = 0.
∂α
1 1
∴ from (3), 0 = π log α + C or C = − π log α.
2 2
Putting this value of C in (3), we get
I-43
∂u π π
= log (α + β) − log α.
∂α 2 2
Now integrating both sides w.r.t. ‘α ’, we get
  
π α log (α + β) − α  1 
u=
2  ∫ α + β  
dα − α log α − ∫ α   + C1
α ⋅ dα
 
π  β  
= α log (α + β) − ∫ 1 −  dα − α log α + α + C1
2   α + β 
π
= [α log (α + β) − α + β log (α + β) − α log α + α] + C1
2
π
= [(α + β) log (α + β) − α log α] + C1 … (4)
2
From (1), when α = 0, we have u = 0.
π  lim 
∴ from (4), 0= β log β + C1 ∵ α → 0 α log α = 0 
2  
π
or C1 = − β log β.
2
Putting this value of C1 in (4), we get
π π
u = [(α + β) log (α + β) − α log α] − β log β
2 2
π
= [(α + β) log (α + β) − (α log α + β log β)]
2
π  (α + β)α +β 
= ⋅ log  ⋅
2  α α β β 
∞ cos mx ∞ x sin mx
Example 8: Evaluate ∫ dx, m > 0 and deduce the value of ∫ dx.
0 1 + x2 0 1 + x2
∞ cos mx
Solution: Let u= ∫0 1 + x2
dx. … (1)
du ∞ x sin mx ∞ x2 sin mx
Then =−∫ dx = − ∫0 x (1 + x2 ) dx
dm 0 1 + x2
∞ {(1 + x2 ) − 1} sin mx
=− ∫0 x (1 + x2 )
dx
∞ sin mx ∞ sin mx
=−∫ dx + ∫ dx
0 x 0 x (1 + x2 )
π ∞ sin mx
=− +∫ dx. … (2)
2 0 x (1 + x2 )
Differentiating both sides of (2) w.r.t. m, we get
d2 u ∞ x cos mx ∞ cos mx
=∫ dx = ∫ dx = u
dm2 0 x (1 + x2 ) 0 1 + x2
I-44
d
or ( D2 − 1) u = 0 , where D ≡ ⋅
dm
The general solution of this differential equation is
u = A e m + B e − m.
du
∴ = A e m − B e − m.
dm
Now when m = 0, from (1) we have
∞ dx ∞ π
u=∫ = [tan−1 x ] =
0 1 + x2 0 2
du π
and from (2), =− ⋅
dm 2
So from (3) and (4), we get
π π
= A + B and − = A − B.
2 2
Solving these equations for A and B, we get
A = 0 and B = π / 2.
Putting these values of A and B in (3), we get
π
u = e − m.
2
∞ cos mx π −m
Hence ∫0 1 + x2 dx = 2 e .
Differentiating both sides w.r.t. m, we get
∞ x sin mx π ∞ x sin mx π −m
−∫ 2
dx = − e − m or ∫0 2
dx = e .
0 1+ x 2 1+ x 2
2 Method of Integration Under the Sign of Integration

This method is similar to that of differentiation. We illustrate the method by means of
the following examples.
Remember: The order of integration can be changed if the limits of integration are
independent of the variables.
1 1 1 xa − xb  a + 1
Example 9: From the integral ∫ x n dx = , prove that ∫0 log x dx = log  b + 1 ⋅
0 n +1
Solution: We have
1 1
∫0 x n dx =
n +1
⋅ …(1)
I-45
Integrating both sides of (1) with respect to n between the limits n = b to n = a,we get
a  1  a 1
∫ n= b ∫0 x n dx  dn = ∫
 b n +1
dn
1  a  a
or ∫x = 0 ∫ n= b x n dn  dx = [ log (n + 1)] n = b ,

changing the order of
integration because the limits of integration of

both x and n are constants
a
1  xn 
or ∫x = 0  log x  dx = log (a + 1) − log (b + 1)
n= b
1 xa − xb  a + 1
or ∫0 log x dx = log  b + 1 ⋅
∞ e − α x − e −β x 1  β2 + p2 
Example 10: Prove that ∫ cos px dx = log  2 ⋅
0 x 2  α + p2 
 
Solution: We know that
∞ a
∫0 e − a x cos px dx = 2 ⋅ … (1)
a + p2
Integrating both sides of (1) w.r.t. ‘a ’, between the limits a = α to a = β, we get
∞  β  1 β 2a
∫x = 0 ∫a = α e − a x da  cos px dx = ∫ da
 2 a = α a + p2
2
β
∞  e −ax  1 2 β
∫x = 0  − x  cos px dx = 2 [log (a + p )] a = α
2
or
a =α
∞ e − α x − e −β x 1  β2 + p2 
or ∫0 cos px dx = log  2 ⋅
x 2  α + p2 
 
∞ sin bx π
Example11: Prove that ∫ dx = , if b > 0.
0 x 2
∞
∞ −z x  e −zx  1
Solution: We have ∫0 e dz =  − x  = x ⋅ … (1)
z =0
Now multiplying both sides of (1) by sin bx and then integrating w.r.t. ‘x ’ between the
limits x = 0 to x = ∞, we get
∞ sin bx ∞  ∞ −z x 
∫0 x dx = ∫ z = 0 ∫ x = 0 e sin bx dx  dz
∞ b
= ∫z= 0 z + b2
2
dz
 z ∞ π
= tan−1  = , if b > 0.
 b  z =0 2
I-46
Example 12: Evaluate the integrals

∞ 2 ∞   2 α2  2 
(i) ∫0 e − x dx (ii) ∫0 exp  −  x +  β  dx
  x2  
∞ 2 2
(iii) ∫0 e − a x cos 2 bx dx.
∞ 2
Solution: (i) Let I = ∫0 e − x dx.
Putting x = α y, we have
∞ 2 2
I = ∫0 α. e − α y dy, if α > 0. … (1)
2
Multiplying both sides of (1) by e − α , we have
2 ∞
I e −α = ∫0 α . exp { − α2 (1 + y2 )} dy. … (2)
Now integrating both sides of (2) w.r.t. ‘α ’ between the limits α = 0 to α = ∞, we have
∞ 2 ∞  ∞ 
I ∫0 e − α dα = ∫ y =0 ∫ α =0 α . exp { − α2 (1 + y2 ) } dα dy

∞
∞
 − α 2 (1 + y2 ) 
e 
or I2 = ∫ y =0  − 2 (1 + y2 )
dy
  α =0
1 ∞ dy 1 ∞ 1 π π
= ∫ 2
= [ tan−1 y ] 0 = ⋅ = ⋅
2 0 1+ y 2 2 2 4
√π
∴ I = ⋅
2
∞ 2 √π
Thus ∫0 e − x dx = ⋅ (Remember)
2
∞ 2 ∞ 2 √π
Remark 1: ∫−∞ e − x dx = 2 ∫ e − x dx = 2 ⋅ = √ π.
0 2
Remark 2: From (1), we have
∞ 2 2 I 1 √π √π
∫0 e − α y dy = = ⋅ = , if α > 0.
α α 2 2α
∞ 2 α2   
(ii) Let I = ∫0  x +

exp  − β2
  dx.
x2  

… (1)
dI ∞   α2   αβ
2
Then = −2∫ exp  − β2  x2 + 2   ⋅ 2 dx.
dα 0
  x   x
α α
Putting = z so that − 2 dx = dz and adjusting the limits, we get
x x
dI ∞   α2  
= − 2β2 ∫ exp  −  z 2 + 2  β2  dz = − 2 Iβ2
dα 0   z  
I-47
dI
∴ = − 2β2 dα.
I
Integrating both sides, we get
dI
∫ I = − 2β ∫ dα + log C
2
or log I = − 2αβ2 + log C

2
or I = C e −2 αβ . … (2)
To determine C, let α = 0 ; then from (1), we have

∞ 2 2 √π
I = ∫0 e −β x dx = ⋅
2β
√π
∴ from (2), we have = C.
2β
∞   2 α2   √ π −2 αβ2
I = ∫0 exp  − β2  x +  dx =
2  2β
e .
  x  
Remark: If we put β = 1, we have

∞   2 α2   √ π −2 α
∫0 exp  −

 x +

 dx =
2 
x   2
e .
∞ 2 2
(iii) Let I = ∫0 e − a x cos 2 bx dx. … (1)
dI ∞ 2 2
Then = ∫ e − a x (−2 x) sin 2 bx dx
db 0
∞
 − a2 x2  2 2
∞ e −a x
e
= sin 2 bx −
∫0 a2 ⋅ 2b cos 2bx dx, integrating by
 a2 
 0
2 2
parts taking e − a x (− 2 x) as the second function
2b ∞ 2 2 2b
= 0 − 2 ∫ e − a x cos 2 bx dx = − 2 I .
a 0 a
dI 2b
∴ = − 2 db.
I a
Integrating both sides, we get
dI 2
∫ I = − a2 ∫ b db + log C
b2 2 2
or log I = − 2 + log C or I = C e −b / a . … (2)
a
When b = 0, we have from (1)
∞ 2 2 √π
I = ∫0 e − a x dx = ⋅
2a
I-48
√π
∴ from (2), we have = C.
2a
∞ 2 2 √ π −b2 / a2
I = ∫0 e − a x cos 2 bx dx = e .
2a
∞ cos mx
Example 13: Evaluate the integral ∫0 a2 + x2
dx and deduce the values of the integrals
∞ x sin mx ∞ sin mx
∫0 2
a +x 2
dx and ∫
0 x (a2 + x2 )
dx.
∞ cos mx
Solution: Let I = ∫0 a2 + x2
dx.
∞
 2 2 2
∞
 e −(a + x ) z  1
∫0 2z exp { − (a + x ) z } dz = − a2 + x2  = a2 + x2 ⋅
2 2 2
We have
  z =0
Now multiplying both sides by cos mx and integrating from 0 to ∞ w.r.t. ‘x ’, we have
∞ cos mx ∞ ∞
I = ∫0 2
a +x 2
dx = ∫0 ∫0 [cos mx. 2 z exp { − (a2 + x2 ) z 2 } ] dz dx
∞ 2 2  ∞ 2 2 
= ∫0 2 ze − a z ∫ e − x z cos mx dx  dz
 0 
∞ − a2 z2 √ π  m2 
= ∫0 2 ze
2z
exp  −
 4z
2
 dz

[See Ex. 4. part (iii)]
∞  m2 
= √π ∫0 exp  − a2 z 2 − 2  dz
 4z 
∞   m2  
= √π ∫0 exp  − a2  z 2 + 2 2
  4a z



 dz

√π  m 2
= √π⋅ exp  − 2 ⋅ ⋅a  ⋅ [See Ex. 4. part (ii)]
2a  2a 
∞ cos mx π − ma
Hence ∫0 a2 + x2
dx =
2a
e . … (1)
Differentiating both sides of (1) w.r.t. ‘m’, we have

∞ − x sin mx π − ma
∫0 a2 + x2 dx = − a ⋅ 2a e
∞ x sin mx π − ma
or ∫0 a +x2 2
dx =
2
e ⋅ … (2)
Again integrating both sides of (1) w.r.t. ‘m’ between the limits 0 and m, we have
I-49
m
∞ sin mx π  e − ma 
∫0 x (a2 + x2 )
dx =  
2 a  − a 
m =0
π
= [1 − e − ma ]. … (3)
2 a2
Deductions: If in the above results we put a = 1, we have
∞ cos mx π − m ∞ x sin mx π
∫0 2
dx = e ;∫ 2
dx = e − m ;
1+ x 2 0 1+ x 2
∞ sin mx π
and ∫0 2
dx = (1 − e − m).
x (1 + x ) 2
∞ sin rx π − ar
Example 14: Show that ∫ 2 2
dx = e sin br, where r > 0.
−∞ ( x − b) + a a
Solution: Put x − b = y so that dx = dy.

When x = − ∞, y = − ∞ and when x = ∞, y = ∞.
∞ sin rx ∞ sin r (b + y)
∴ ∫−∞ ( x − b) + a2 2
dx = ∫−∞ y2 + a2
dy
∞ sin rb cos r y + cos rb sin r y

= ∫−∞ y2 + a2
dy
∞ cos r y
= 2 sin rb ∫0 y2 + a2
dy, the second integral vanishes because the
sin r y
integrand is an odd function of y
y2 + a2
π − ra  ∞ cos mx π − ma 
= 2 sin rb ⋅ e ∵ ∫ 2 2
dx = e , m > 0 . See Ex. 5. 
2a  0 x +a 2a 
π − ar
= e sin br.
a
π /2 log (1 + cos α cos x)

1. Evaluate ∫0 cos x
dx.
π /2  a + b sin θ  dθ b
2. Show that ∫0 log   = π sin−1 , a > b.
 a − b sin θ  sin θ a
I-50
π dx
3. Evaluate ∫0 a + b cos x
(when a > 0, | b| < a) and deduce that
π dx πa
∫0 (a + b cos x)2
=
(a2 − b2 )3 /2
⋅
∞ log (1 + a2 x2 )
4. Evaluate ∫0 1 + b2 x2
dx.
∞ sin ax cos bx
5. Evaluate ∫0 x
dx.
∞ 1 − cos mx − x 1
6. Prove that ∫ e dx = log (1 + m2 ).
0 x 2
1 x n −1
7. Prove that ∫ dx = log (n + 1).
0 log x
8. Show that if − 1 < a < 1 and − π / 2 < sin−1 a < π / 2, then

π log (1 + a cos x)
∫0 dx = π sin−1 a.
cos x
9. Show that if a > 0, then
π /2 log (1 + a sin2 x)
∫0 sin2 x
dx = π [√ (1 + a) − 1].
∞ ∞
10. From the integrals ∫ e − ax cos bx dx and ∫ e − ax sin bx dx, deduce by the
0 0
method of differentiation, the values of the integrals

∞ ∞
∫0 e − ax x n cos bx dx and ∫0 e − ax x n sin bx dx.
∞ e − α x − e −β x  β  α
11. Prove that ∫0 sin px dx = tan−1   − tan−1   ⋅
x  p  p
∞ cos αx − cos βx  β 
12. Prove that ∫ dx = log   ⋅
0 x  α
∞ cos mx π m 1
13. Show that ∫ dx = 2  2 + 3  e − ma .
0 2
(a + x ) 2 a
2 2
a 
π /2 π −m
14. Prove that ∫ cos (m tan θ) dθ = e .
0 2
∞ cos rx π − ar
15. Show that ∫ 2 2
dx = e cos b r, where r > 0.
−∞ ( x − b) + a a
∞ 2 1  π
16. Show that ∫
0
e − ax dx =
2 √  a  , (a > 0) and deduce that
∞ 2 √ π 1. 3 . 5 . ≤ (2 n − 1)
∫0 x2 n e − ax dx = ⋅ ⋅
2 2 n a n +(1 /2 )
I-51
A nswers
1  π2  π π  a + b
1.  − α2  ⋅ 3. ⋅ 4. log  ⋅
2  4 
2 2
√ (a − b ) b  b 
 π / 2 , when a > 0
∞ sin ax cos bx 
5. ∫0 x
dx =  b, when a < b
 π / 4 , when a = b.

n ! cos {(n + 1) tan−1 (b / a)} n ! sin {(n + 1) tan−1 (b / a)}
10. ; ⋅
(a2 + b2 )(n + 1)/2 (a2 + b2 )(n + 1)/2

(b), (c) and (d).
∞ e − ax sin bx
1. If u = ∫0 x
dx and a > 0 , then
du b du 1
(a) = (b) = 2
db a2 + b2 db a + b2
du a du ab
(c) = (d) =
db a2 + b2 db a2 + b2
∞ sin bx
2. The value of the integral ∫ dx , if b > 0, is
0 x
π
(a) π (b)
2
π 3π
(c) (d)
4 2
1 x n −1
3. The value of the integral ∫ dx is
0 log x
(a) log n (b) log (n + 1)

1 1
(c) (d)
n log (n + 1)
I-52

∞ tan−1 (ax) du ∞ dx
1. If u = ∫0 x (1 + x ) 2
dx, then
da
=∫
0 ……
⋅
π dx π π dx
2. If ∫ = , then ∫ = …… .
0 a + b cos x √ (a2 − b2 ) 0 (a + b cos x)2
∞ cos mx π −m ∞ x sin mx
3. If ∫ 2
dx = e , then ∫ dx = …… .
0 1+ x 2 0 1 + x2
∞ cos mx π − ma ∞ sin mx
4. If ∫ 2 2
dx = e , then ∫ dx = …… .
0 a +x 2a 0 x (a2 + x2 )
True or False
∞ 2 √π
1. ∫0 e−x ⋅ dx =
4
∞ 1 − cos mx − x du 1
2. If u = ∫ e dx, then = ⋅
0 x dm 1 + m2
A nswers

1. (c). 2. (b). 3. (b).

aπ π −m
1. (1 + x2 ) (1 + a2 x2 ). 2. ⋅ 3. e .
(a2 − b2 )3 /2 2
π
4. (1 − e − ma ).
2 a2
True or False
1. F. 2. F.
¨
4
B eta and G amma F unctions
1 Beta Function
uler’s Integrals : Beta and Gamma Functions:
E
Definition: The definite integral
1
∫0 x m − 1 (1 − x)n − 1 dx, for m > 0 , n > 0
is called the Beta function and is denoted by B (m, n) [read as “Beta m, n” ] .

1
Thus B (m, n) = ∫0 x m − 1 (1 − x)n − 1 dx,
where m, n are any positive numbers, integral or fractional. Beta function is also called
the Eulerian integral of the first kind.
2 Some Simple Properties of Beta Function

(i) Symmetry of Beta function i.e., B (m, n) = B (n, m). (Lucknow 2011)
1
We have B (m, n) = ∫0 x m − 1 (1 − x)n − 1 dx, by the def. of the Beta function
I-54
1  a a 
= ∫0 (1 − x)m − 1 {1 − (1 − x)}n − 1 dx ∵ ∫0 f ( x) dx = ∫0 f (a − x) dx
1 1
= ∫0 (1 − x)m − 1 x n − 1 dx = ∫ x n − 1 (1 − x)m − 1 dx
0
= B (n, m), by the def. of Beta function.

Hence B (m, n) = B (n, m).
(ii) If m or n is a positive integer, B ( m, n) can be evaluated in an explicit form.
Case I. When n is a positive integer. If n = 1, the result is obvious because

1
1 1  x m 1
B (m, 1) = ∫0 x m − 1 (1 − x)1 − 1 dx = ∫0 x m −1
dx =   = ⋅
 m  0 m
So let us take n > 1. We have

1
B (m, n) = ∫0 x m − 1 (1 − x)n − 1 dx
1
= ∫0 (1 − x)n − 1 x m − 1 dx
 m 1
n −1 x  1 n−2 xm
= (1 − x) ⋅  − ∫0 (n − 1) (1 − x) (− 1) ⋅ dx ,
 m  m
0
integrating by parts taking x m − 1 as the second function

n −1 1 m
x (1 − x)n − 2 dx
m ∫0
=0 + ⋅ [ ∵ n > 1]
n − 1 1 (m + 1) − 1
(1 − x)(n − 1) − 1 dx
m ∫0
= ⋅ x
n −1
= B (m + 1, n − 1).
m
By the repeated application of this process, we get
n −1 n − 2 n − 3 1
B (m, n) = ⋅ ⋅ ...... B (m + n − 1, 1)
m m +1 m + 2 m+ n−2
n −1 n − 2 n − 3 1 1 m + n−2
= ⋅ ⋅
m m +1 m + 2
...... ∫
m+ n−2 0
x (1 − x)0 dx
n −1 n − 2 n − 3 1 1
x m + n − 2 dx
m + n − 2 ∫0
= ⋅ ⋅ ......
m m +1 m + 2
1
(n − 1) !  x m + n − 1
= ⋅  ⋅
m (m + 1) (m + 2) ...... (m + n − 2)  m + n − 1 
0
1
∴ B (m, n) = ⋅
m (m + 1) (m + 2) ..... (m + n − 2) (m + n − 1)
Case II. When m is a positive integer. Since the Beta function is symmetrical in
m and n i. e., B (m, n) = B (n, m), therefore by case I, we conclude that
I-55
(m − 1) !
B (m, n) = ⋅
n (n + 1) (n + 2) ...... (n + m − 2) (n + m − 1)
(iii) If both m and n are positive integers, then
( m − 1) ! ( n − 1) !
B( m, n) =
( m + n − 1) !
From (ii), we have
(n − 1) !
B (m, n) =
m (m + 1) (m + 2) ...... (m + n − 2) (m + n − 1)
(n − 1) !(m − 1) !
= ,
(m + n − 1) (m + n − 2) ...... (m + 1) m (m − 1) !
writing the denominator in the reversed order
and multiplying the Nr and Dr by (m − 1) !
(m − 1) !(n − 1) !
= ⋅
(m + n − 1) !
Example 1: Express the following integrals in terms of Beta function :

1 1 x2
(i) ∫0 x m (1 − x2 )n dx, m > − 1, n > − 1 ; (Lucknow 2010) (ii) ∫0 √ (1 − x5 )
dx
1
(iii) ∫0 x m − 1 (1 − x2 )n − 1 dx .
(Garhwal 2003)

1 1
∫0 x m (1 − x2 )n dx = ∫ x m − 1 (1 − x2 )n . x dx [Note]
0
1 dy
= ∫0 y(m − 1)/2 (1 − y)n ⋅ ,
2
putting x2 = y so that 2 x dx = dy
1 1
= ∫0 y(m − 1)/2 (1 − y)n dy
2
1 1
= ∫0 y [(m + 1)/2] − 1 (1 − y)(n + 1) − 1 dy
2
1 1 
= B  (m + 1), n + 1 ⋅
2 2 
(ii) We have
1 x2 1
∫0 5
dx = ∫0 x2 (1 − x5 )− 1 /2 dx
√ (1 − x )
I-56
11 1
= x2 ⋅ 4 (1 − x5 )− 1 /2 . x4 dx = ∫ x − 2 (1 − x5 )− 1 /2 x4 dx
∫0 x 0
1 − 2 /5 1
=∫ y (1 − y)− 1 /2 ⋅ dy, putting x5 = y so that 5 x4 dx = dy
0 5
1 1 1 1
= ∫ y − 2 /5 (1 − y)− 1 /2 dy = ∫ y(3 /5) − 1 (1 − y)(1 /2) − 1 dy
5 0 5 0
1  3 1
= B ,  ⋅
5  5 2
(iii) Proceed as in part (i).

Example 2: Prove that
a a m+n−1 Γ m Γ n
∫0 (a − x)m − 1 . x n − 1 dx = a m + n − 1 B (m, n) = ⋅
Γ (m + n)
Solution: We have
a
∫0 (a − x) m − 1 x n − 1 dx
1
= ∫0 (a − ay)m − 1 (ay)n − 1 a dy, putting x = ay
1
= ∫0 a(m − 1) + (n − 1) + 1 (1 − y)m − 1 y n − 1 dy
1
= a m + n − 1 ∫ y n − 1 (1 − y)m − 1 dy
0
m + n −1
=a B (n, m) = a m + n − 1 B (m, n) [ ∵ B (m, n) = B (n, m)]
m + n −1 
a Γ mΓ n Γ mΓ n 
= ⋅ ∵ B (m, n) = 
Γ (m + n)  Γ (m + n)
Example 3: Show that if m, n are positive, then

b
∫a ( x − a)m − 1 (b − x)n − 1 dx = (b − a)m + n − 1 . B (m, n)
Γ mΓ n
= (b − a)m + n − 1 ⋅ ⋅
Γ (m + n) (Agra 2003)
Solution: The given integral is

b
∫a ( x − a)m − 1 (b − x)n − 1 dx .
Put x = a + (b − a) y so that dx = (b − a) dy.

Also when x = a, y = 0 and when x = b, y = 1.
b
∴ ∫a ( x − a)m − 1 (b − x)n − 1 dx
1
= ∫0 [(b − a) y]m − 1 [b − a − (b − a) y]n − 1 . (b − a) dy
1
= ∫0 (b − a)m − 1 . y m − 1 . (b − a)n − 1 . (1 − y)n − 1 . (b − a) dy
I-57
1
= (b − a)m + n − 1 ∫0 y m − 1 (1 − y)n − 1 dy = (b − a)m + n − 1 B (m, n)
Γ mΓ n  Γ mΓ n 
= (b − a)m + n −1 ⋅ ⋅ ∵ B (m, n) = 
Γ (m + n)  Γ (m + n)
1 x m − 1 (1 − x)n − 1 1
Example 4: Show that ∫0 (a + bx)m + n
dx =
(a + b)m . a n
B (m, n) .
(Garhwal 2009)
Solution: The given integral
1 x m − 1 (1 − x)n − 1
I = ∫0 (a + bx)m + n
dx
m −1 n −1
 x 
1  1− x  1
= ∫0  a + bx  ⋅ 
 a + bx 
⋅
(a + bx)2
dx .
[Note]
x y (a + bx) . 1 − x . b dy
Put = so that dx =
a + bx a + b (a + bx)2 a+b
1 dy
i. e., dx = ⋅
(a + bx)2 a (a + b)
1− x 1 a − ax 1  a + bx − ax − bx  1  x (a + b) 1 − y
Further = =   = 1 − = ⋅
a + bx a a + bx a  a + bx  a a + bx  a
Also when x = 0 , y = 0 and when x = 1, y = 1.

m −1 n −1
 y  1 1 − y  dy
∴ I =∫     ⋅
0  a + b  a  a (a + b)
1 1 B (m, n)
= m ∫
n 0
y m − 1 (1 − y)n − 1 dy = ⋅
(a + b) .a (a + b)m . a n
B (m + 1, n) m
Example 5: Prove that = ⋅
B (m, n) m+n
Solution: We have B (m + 1, n) = B (n, m + 1)
[By the symmetry of Beta function]

1 1
= ∫0 x n − 1 (1 − x)(m + 1) − 1 dx = ∫0 (1 − x)m x n − 1 dx [Note]
1
 x n 1 m −1 xn
= (1 − x)m ⋅  − ∫0 m (1 − x) (− 1) ⋅ dx ,
 n  n
0
(integrating by parts)
m 1 n −1
. x (1 − x)m − 1 dx
n ∫0
=0 + x
m 1 n −1
[1 − (1 − x)] (1 − x)m − 1 dx
n ∫0
= x
I-58
m  1 n −1 1 
=  ∫ x (1 − x)m − 1 dx − ∫ x n − 1 (1 − x)m dx
n  0 0 
m m m
= [B (n, m) − B (n, m + 1)] = B (m, n) − B (m + 1, n)
n n n
 m m
or 1 +  B (m + 1, n) = B (m, n) [By transposition]
 n n
B (m + 1, n) m
or (n + m) B (m + 1, n) = m B (m, n) or = ⋅
B (m, n) m+n
3 Another Form of Beta Function

∞ xm −1
B ( m, n) = ∫0 (1 + x) m + n
dx, m > 0, n > 0.
(Lucknow 2007)
Proof: By the definition of Beta function, we have

1
B (m, n) = ∫0 x m − 1 (1 − x)n − 1 dx .
1 1
Put x = so that dx = − dy .
1+ y (1 + y)2
Also when x → 0 , y → ∞ and when x = 1 , y = 0 .
n −1
0 1  1   1 
∴ B (m, n) = ∫ ∞ (1 + y)m − 1 ⋅ 1 − 1 + y  ⋅ − 2
 (1 + y) 
dy
∞ 1 y n −1 ∞ y n −1
= ∫0 (1 + y) m −1 + 2
⋅ n −1
(1 + y)
dy = ∫0 (1 + y)m + n
dy
∞ x n −1
= ∫0 (1 + x)m + n
dx . …(1)
[By a property of definite integrals]
Again since Beta function is symmetrical in m and n , we have
∞ xm − 1
B (m, n) = B (n, m) = ∫0 (1 + x)m + n
dx , by (1).
∞ xm − 1 ∞ xn − 1
Thus B (m, n) = ∫0 (1 + x) m+n
dx = ∫0 (1 + x)m + n
dx , m > 0 , n > 0 .
∞ xm − 1 − xn − 1
Example 6: Prove that ∫0 (1 + x)m + n
dx = 0 , m > 0 , n > 0 .
(Lucknow 2009)
I-59
∞ xm − 1 ∞ xn − 1
Solution: The given integral is = ∫0 (1 + x)m + n
dx − ∫
0 (1 + x)m + n
dx
= B (m, n) − B (n, m)
= B (m, n) − B (m, n) = 0 .
∞ xm − 1
Example 7: Express ∫0 (a + bx)m + n
dx in terms of Beta function where m > 0 , n > 0 ,
a> 0 ,b > 0 . (Kumaun 2013)
Solution: In the given integral put bx = ay i. e., x = (a / b) y so that dx = (a / b) dy .

When x = 0 , y = 0 and when x → ∞ , y → ∞ .
m −1
∞ xm − 1 ∞ a  1 a
∴ ∫0 (a + bx) m+n
dx = ∫0  y
b 
⋅ ⋅ dy
(a + ay)m + n b
∞ am − 1 y m − 1 a 1 ∞ ym −1
= ∫0 b m − 1. a m + n (1 + y)m + n b
dy = ∫
a n b m 0 (1 + y)m + n
dy
1
= n m B (m, n) . [By article 3]
a b
4 Gamma Function
Definition: The definite integral
∞
∫0 e − x x n − 1 dx , for n > 0
is called the Gamma Function and is denoted by Γ (n) [read as “Gamma n”].
(Gorakhpur 2006)
∞ − ∞ n −1
Thus Γ ( n) = ∫0 e x dx, for n > 0.
Gamma function is also called Eulerian integral of the second kind.
5 Elementary Properties of Gamma Function

(i) Γ (n + 1) = n Γ (n) , where n > 0 (Lucknow 2007, 08, 10)
and (ii) Γ (n) = (n − 1) !, where n is a positive integer. (Gorakhpur 2006)
Proof: By the definition of gamma function, we have

∞ ∞
Γ (n + 1) = ∫0 e − x x(n + 1) − 1 dx = ∫ x n e − x dx
0
∞
= [− e − x x n]0∞ + ∫ e − x . nx n − 1 dx , ...(1)
0
integrating by parts taking e − x as the second function.
I-60
n
lim x = lim xn
Now
x → ∞ e x x → ∞ 1 + x + ( x2 / 2 !) + … + ( x n / n !) + …
1 1
= lim = =0.
x→ ∞ 1 1 1 x ∞
+ + … + + + ......
x n x n −1 n ! (n + 1) !
∞
∴ from (1), we get Γ (n + 1) = 0 + n ∫ e − x x n − 1 dx , [ ∵ n > 0]
0
= n Γ (n) , which proves the result (i).

(ii) We have Γ (n) = Γ [(n − 1) + 1] = (n − 1) Γ (n − 1) . [∵ Γ (n + 1) = n Γ (n)]
Similarly Γ (n − 1) = (n − 2) Γ (n − 2) , … etc .
Hence if n is a +ive integer, then proceeding as above, we get
Γ (n) = (n − 1) (n − 2) … 2 .1 Γ (1) .
∞ ∞ ∞
But Γ (1) = ∫0 e − x x1 − 1 dx = ∫ e − x x0 dx = ∫ e − x . 1 dx
0 0
e − x ∞
 lim 
1
=  =− − e0  = − [0 − 1] = 1 .
x → ∞ e
x
 − 1 0 
Hence Γ (n) = (n − 1) (n − 2) …2 .1.1 = (n − 1) ! if n is a + ive integer.
Remember: Γ (n) = (n − 1) Γ (n − 1) , where n > 1 and Γ (1) = 1 .
Also it may be remarked that Γ (0 ) = ∞ and Γ (− n) = ∞ where n is a positive integer.
6 Some Transformations of Gamma Function

∞
We have Γ (n) = ∫0 x n − 1 e − x dx . ...(1)
(i) Put x = ay so that dx = a dy ; when x = 0 , y = 0 and when x → ∞ , y → ∞ .

∞
∴ Γ (n) = ∫0 e − ay a n y n − 1 dy .
∞ Γ (n)
Hence ∫0 e − ay y n − 1 dy = ⋅ (Remember)
an
(ii) In (1) if we put x = log (1 / y) or y = e − x so that dy = − e − x dx ,
n −1 n −1
 01 
1 1
then Γ (n) = − ∫  log  dy = ∫  log  dy .
1  y 0  y
(Kanpur 2006, Garhwal 12)
n n −1
(iii) In (1) if we put x = y so that nx dx = dy , we get
1 ∞ 1 /n
e − ( y)
n ∫0
Γ (n) = dy
∞ 1 /n
or ∫0 e − ( y) dy = n Γ (n) = Γ (n + 1) .
I-61
7 Relation between Beta and Gamma Functions

Γ ( m) Γ ( n)
B ( m, n) = , where m > 0, n > 0.
Γ ( m + n)
(Agra 2001; Lucknow 07; Kanpur 09; Garhwal 10; Kumaun 15)
Proof: We have
Γ (m) ∞
m
= ∫0 e − z x x m − 1 dx .
z [See article 6, part (ii)]
∞ ∞
∴ Γ (m) = z m ∫ e − z x . x m − 1 dx = ∫ z m e − z x x m − 1 dx .
0 0
−z n −1
Multiplying both sides by e z , we get
∞
Γ (m) e − z z n − 1 = ∫ e − z (1 + x) z m + n − 1 x m − 1 dx . ...(1)
0
Now integrating both sides of (1) with respect to z from 0 to ∞, we get

∞ ∞  ∞ 
Γ (m) ∫ e − z z n − 1 dz = ∫  ∫0 e − z (1 + x) z m + n − 1 x m − 1 dx dz
0 0  
∞
 ∞ − z (1 + x) m + n − 1  m − 1
or Γ (m) Γ (n) = ∫0 ∫0 e z dz  x

dx
∞ Γ (m + n)
=∫ x m − 1 dx [By article 6, part (ii)]
0 (1 + x)m + n
∞ xm − 1
= Γ (m + n) ∫ dx
0 (1 + x)m + n
= Γ (m + n) . B (m, n) , by article 3 .
Γ (m) Γ (n)
∴ B (m, n) = ⋅
Γ (m + n)
1 Γ (m) Γ (n)
Thus remember that ∫0 x m − 1 (1 − x)n − 1 dx = ⋅
Γ (m + n) (Kanpur 2009)
π
Corollary: Γ ( n) Γ (1 − n) = , where 0 < n < 1.
sin n π (Garhwal 2006)
∞ n −1
x
Proof: We know that B (m, n) = ∫0 (1 + x)m + n
dx , [See article 3]
Γ (m) Γ (n)
and B (m, n) = , where m > 0 and n > 0 .
Γ (m + n)
Γ (m) Γ (n) ∞ x n −1
∴ =∫ dx .
Γ (m + n) 0 (1 + x)m + n
Putting m + n = 1 or m = 1 − n in the above relation, we get

Γ (1 − n) Γ (n) ∞ x n −1
=∫ dx , where 0 < n < 1 .
Γ (1) 0 1+ x
[Note that m > 0 ⇒ 1 − n > 0 ⇒ n < 1.]
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But Γ (1) = 1 . Also

∞ x n −1 π
∫0 1+ x
dx =
sin nπ
⋅ (Remember)
π
∴ Γ (n) Γ (1 − n) = , where 0 < n < 1 .
sin nπ
8 The Value of Γ   = √ π

1
2
(Agra 2000)
Γ (m) Γ (n)
Proof: We know that B (m, n) = ...(1)
Γ (m + n)
1 1
If we take m = , n = , then from (1), we have
2 2
2
 1  1   1 
 1 1
Γ Γ
 2
 
 2 Γ  2     1 
2
B ,  = =   = Γ    [∵ Γ (1) = 1]
 2 2 1 1 Γ (1)   2 
Γ + 
2 2
2
  1   1 1 1
Thus Γ   = B  ,  = ∫ x1 /2 − 1 (1 − x)1 /2 − 1 dx ,
  2   2 2 0
by the definition of Beta function
1
= ∫0 x − 1 /2 (1 − x)− 1 /2 dx .
Now put x = sin2 θ so that dx = 2 sin θ cos θ dθ .

1
Also when x = 0 , θ = 0 and when x = 1 , θ = π.
2
2
  1  π /2 1 1
∴ Γ

 
 2 
= ∫0 ⋅
sin θ cos θ
⋅ 2 sin θ cos θ dθ
π/2 π /2
=2∫ dθ = 2 [θ] 0
0
1 
= 2  π − 0 = π .
2 
Taking square root of both the sides, we get
 1
Γ   = √π. (Remember)
 2
∞ 2 √π
Important Deduction: To prove that ∫ e − x dx = ⋅
0 2
∞ 2
Proof: Let I = ∫0 e − x dx .
Put x2 = z so that 2 x dx = dz
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1 1 1
or dx = dz = dz = z − 1 /2 dz .
2x 2√z 2
Also when x = 0 , z = 0 and when x → ∞, z → ∞ .
∞ 1
∴ I = ∫ e − z z − 1 /2 dz
0 2
1 ∞ − z 1 /2 − 1 1  1 √ π
2 ∫0
= e z dz = Γ   = ⋅
2  2 2
∞ 2 √π
Hence ∫0 e − x dx = ⋅ (Remember)
2
 m + 1  n + 1
Γ Γ 
π/2  2   2 
9 ∫0 cos m θ sin n θ dθ =
 m + n + 2
, m > − 1, n > − 1
2Γ  
 2 
(Garhwal 2005, 07)

2
Proof: Put sin θ = x so that 2 sin θ cos θ dθ = dx
or 2 sin θ. √ (1 − sin2 θ) dθ = dx or 2 x1 /2 . √ (1 − x) dθ = dx .
dx
∴ dθ = 1 /2
⋅
2x (1 − x)1 /2
1
Also when θ = 0 , x = 0 and when θ = π , x = 1.
2
π/2 π/2
∴ ∫0 cos m θ sinn θ dθ = ∫0 (1 − sin2 θ)m /2 . sin n θ dθ
1 dx
= ∫0 (1 − x)m /2 . x n /2 .
2 x1 /2 (1 − x)1 /2
1 1 (n − 1)/2
(1 − x)(m − 1)/2 dx
2 ∫0
= x
1 1 {(n + 1)/2} − 1
(1 − x){(m + 1)/2} − 1 dx
2 ∫0
= x
1  m + 1 n + 1
= B ,  , provided m > − 1 and n > − 1
2  2 2 
1 1
Γ
(m + 1) Γ (n + 1)  Γ (m) Γ (n)
1 2 2
= ∵ B (m, n) = 
2 1 Γ (m + n) 
Γ (m + 1 + n + 1) 
2
1 1
Γ (m + 1) Γ (n + 1)
= 2 2 ⋅
1
2 Γ (m + n + 2)
2
I-64
10 Some Important Transformations of Beta Function

Beta function can be transformed into many other forms. A few of them are given
below.
∞ ym −1
(i) We know that ∫0 (1 + y)m + n
dy = B (m, n) .
∞ ym −1 1 ym −1 ∞ ym −1
Now ∫0 (1 + y) m+n
dy = ∫0 (1 + y) m+n
dy + ∫1 (1 + y)m + n
dy .
Making the substitution y = 1 / x in the last integral, we get

∞ ym −1 1 x n − 1 dx
∫1 (1 + y)m + n
dy = ∫0 (1 + x)m + n
⋅
∞ ym −1
∴ B (m, n) = ∫0 (1 + y)m + n
dy
1 ym −1 1 xn − 1
= ∫0 (1 + y)m + n dy + ∫0 (1 + x)m + n dx
1 xm − 1 1 x n −1
= ∫0 (1 + x) m+n
dx + ∫0 (1 + x)m + n
dx
1 x m −1 + x n −1
= ∫0 (1 + x)m + n
dx .
1 x m −1 + x n −1 Γ ( m) Γ ( n)
Hence ∫0 (1 + x) m+ n
dx = B ( m, n) =
Γ ( m + n)
.
∞ xm − 1
(ii) We know that ∫0 (1 + x)m + n
dx = B (m, n) .
ay a
If we put x = , so that dx = dy , we get
b b
∞ x m −1 ∞ y m −1
∫0 (1 + x) m+n
dx = a m b n ∫
0 (ay + b)m + n
dy .
∞ ym −1 1 ∞ x m −1 1
∴ ∫0 (ay + b)m+n
dy = m n ∫0
a b (1 + x)m+n
dx = m n B (m, n) .
a b
∞ ym −1 Γ ( m) Γ ( n)
Hence ∫0 ( ay + b) m+ n
dy = m n
a b Γ ( m + n)
⋅
Again putting y = tan2 θ i. e.,dy = 2 tan θ sec 2 θ dθ in the integral just obtained, we get
π/2 sin2 m − 1 θ cos2 n − 1 θ dθ Γ ( m ) . Γ ( n)
∫0 ( a sin2 θ + b cos2 θ) m + n
=
2 a mb n Γ ( m + n)
⋅
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1
(iii) We know that ∫0 x m − 1 (1 − x)n − 1 dx = B (m, n) .
Putting x = sin2 θ , so that dx = 2 sin θ cos θ dθ , we have

1 π/2
∫0 x m − 1 (1 − x)n− 1 dx = 2 ∫ sin2 m − 1 θ cos2 n − 1 θ dθ .
0
π/2 B ( m, n)
∴ ∫0 sin 2 m − 1 θ cos 2 n − 1 θ dθ =
2
Γ (m) Γ (n)
= ⋅
2 Γ (m + n)
This result may also be written in the form
 p + 1  q + 1
Γ  ⋅Γ  
π /2  2   2 
∫0 sin p θ cos q
θ dθ = ,
 p + q + 2
2Γ  
 2 
by putting 2 m − 1 = p and 2 n − 1 = q .
1
(iv) We know that ∫0 y m − 1 (1 − y)n − 1 dy = B (m, n) .
x−b dx
Putting y = , so that dy = , we have
a−b a−b
m −1 n −1
1 m −1 n −1 a  x − b  a − x dx
∫0 y . (1 − y) dy = ∫ b  a − b   
 a − b
⋅
a−b
1 a
= m + n −1 ∫b ( x − b)m − 1 (a − x)n − 1 dx .
(a − b)
a 1
∴ ∫b ( x − b)m − 1 (a − x)n − 1 dx = (a − b)m + n − 1 ∫0 y m − 1 (1 − y)n − 1 dy
a
or ∫b ( x − b) m − 1 ( a − x) n − 1 dx = ( a − b) m + n − 1 B ( m, n)
Γ ( m) Γ ( n)
= ( a − b) m + n − 1 ⋅
Γ ( m + n)
11 Duplication Formula
1 √π
Γ ( m) Γ  m +  = 2 m − 1 Γ (2 m), where m > 0.
 2 2
(Agra 2001, 03; Kanpur 09; Garhwal 11, 13)
Proof: We know that

Γ (m) Γ (n)
B (m, n) = , where m > 0 , n > 0 .
Γ (m + n)
If we take n = m , then
I-66
[Γ (m)]2
B (m, m) = ⋅ ...(1)
Γ (2 m)
Again by the definition of Beta function, we have
1
B (m, m) = ∫0 x m − 1 (1 − x)m − 1 dx .
Let us put x = sin2 θ so that dx = 2 sin θ cos θ dθ .

1
Also when x = 0 , θ = 0 and when x = 1 , θ = π.
2
π/2
Then B (m, m) = ∫0 sin2 (m − 1) θ .cos2 (m − 1) θ.2 sin θ cos θ dθ
π/2
=2∫ sin2 m − 1 θ .cos2 m − 1 θ dθ
0
π/2
=2∫ (sin θ cos θ)2 m − 1 dθ
0
2m − 1
π/2  sin 2θ  1 π/2
=2∫   dθ = 2 m − 2 ∫ sin2 m − 1 2θ dθ
0  2  2 0
1 π dφ
= 2 m − 2 ∫ sin2 m − 1 φ ⋅ ,
2 0 2
1
putting 2θ = φ so that dθ = dφ
2
1 π
= 2 m − 1 ∫ sin2 m − 1 φ dφ
2 0
1 π/2
= 2m − 1 ⋅ 2 ∫ sin2 m − 1 φ dφ (Note)
2 0
1 π/2
= 2m − 2 ∫ sin2 m − 1 φ .cos0 φ dφ (Note)
2 0
1 1 1
Γ (2 m − 1 + 1) Γ (0 + 1) Γ (m) Γ ( )
1 2 2 1 2
= 2m − 2 = 2m − 1 ⋅
2 1 2 1
2 Γ (2 m − 1 + 0 + 2) Γ (m + )
2 2
1 Γ (m) √ π
= 2m − 1 ⋅ ⋅ ...(2)
2 1
Γ (m + )
2
1
[∵ Γ ( ) = √ π]
2
Now equating the two values of B (m, m) obtained in (1) and (2), we get
[Γ (m)]2 1 Γ (m) . √ π
= 2m − 1 ⋅
Γ (2 m) 2 1
Γ (m + )
2
1 √π
or Γ (m) Γ (m + ) = 2 m − 1 Γ (2 m) . (Remember)
2 2
I-67
 1   2   3  n − 1 (2π ) ( n − 1)/ 2 ,
12 Γ   Γ   Γ   …Γ 
 n  n  n  n 
 =
n 1/ 2
where n is a positive integer.
 n − 1
Proof: Let A = Γ   Γ   Γ   … Γ 
1 2 3
⋅ ...(1)
 n  n  n  n 
Writing the above expression in the reverse order, we have
 1  2  n − 2  n − 1
A = Γ 1 −  Γ 1 −  … Γ 1 −  Γ 1 − ⋅ ...(2)
 n  n  n   n 
Multiplying (1) and (2), we get
 1  1  2   2  n − 1  n − 1
A2 = Γ   Γ 1 −  Γ   Γ 1 −  …… Γ   Γ 1 − 
 n  n  n  n  n   n 
πn −1
= ⋅ [See corollary of article 7] …(3)
π 2π n −1
sin sin … sin π
n n n
To calculate this expression, we factorize 1 − x2 n.
Now the roots of the equation x2 n − 1 = 0 are given by
x = (1)1 /2 n = (cos 2 r π + i sin 2 r π)1 /2 n

rπ rπ
= cos + i sin , where r = 0 , 1, 2 , … , 2 n − 1 .
n n
Hence, we have
 π π  π π
1 − x2 n = (1 − x) (1 + x)  x − cos − i sin   x − cos + i sin …
 n n   n n
 n −1 n −1   n −1 n −1 
…  x − cos π − i sin π  x − cos π + i sin π
 n n   n n 
 π   2π 
= (1 − x2 ) 1 − 2 x cos + x2  1 − 2 x cos + x2  …
 n   n 
 n −1 
… 1 − 2 x cos π + x2  ⋅
 n 
1 − x2 n  π   2π   n −1 
∴ = 1 − 2 x cos + x2  1 − 2 x cos + x2  … 1 − 2 x cos π + x2  ⋅
1− x 2  n   n   n 
Putting x = 1 and x = − 1 respectively, we have in the limit,

 π  2π   n −1 
n = 2 − 2 cos  2 − 2 cos  … 2 − 2 cos π
 n   n   n 
 π  2π   n −1 
and n = 2 + 2 cos  2 + 2 cos  … 2 + 2 cos π ⋅
 n   n   n 
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Multiplying these, we get

π 2π n −1
n2 = 22 n − 2 sin2 ⋅ sin2 … sin2 π
n n n
π 2π n −1
or n = 2 n − 1 .sin ⋅ sin … sin π.
n n n
Hence, from (3), we get
πn −1 (2 π)n − 1 (2 π)(n − 1)/2

A2 = = or A= ⋅
n / 2n − 1 n n1 /2
π 2π n −1
Remark: The value of sin sin … sin π can also be found by using the
n n n
trigonometrical identity
sin nθ  π  2π   3θ   n −1 
= 2 n − 1 sin θ +  sin θ +  sin θ +  …sin θ + π ⋅
sin θ  n  n  n  n 
From the above identity, we have
sin nθ θ  π  2π   n −1 
⋅ ⋅ n = 2 n − 1 sin θ +  sin θ +  … sin θ + π ⋅
nθ sin θ  n   n   n 
Taking limit as θ → 0 , we get
π 2π 3π n −1
n = 2 n − 1 sin sin sin … sin π.
n n n n
∞ Γm
13 (i) ∫0 e − ax cos bx . x m − 1 dx = cos mα
km
∞ Γm
(ii) ∫0 e − ax sin bx . x m − 1 dx = m sin mα ,
k
 a
where k = √ ( a 2 + b 2 ) and α = tan −1  
 b
Proof: We have
∞ ∞ Γ (m)
∫0 e − ax e ibx x m − 1 dx = ∫ e − (a − ib) x x m − 1 dx =
0 (a − ib)m
[See article 6, part (i)]
−m
= (a − ib) Γ (m) . ...(1)
−m
Let us first separate (a − ib) into real and imaginary parts.
Put a = k cos α and b = k sin α so that

α = tan− 1 (b / a) and k = √ (a2 + b2 ) .
Then (a − ib)− m = [k (cos α − i sin α)]− m
= k − m (cos α − i sin α)− m

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= k − m (cos mα + i sin mα) , by De-Moivre’s theorem.

Now from (1), we have
∞
∫0 e − ax e ibx x m − 1 dx = k − m (cos mα + i sin mα) Γ (m)
∞ Γ (m)
or ∫0 e − ax (cos bx + i sin bx) x m − 1 dx = m (cos mα + i sin mα) ,
k
[ ∵ e iθ = cos θ + i sin θ , by Euler’s theorem]
∞ ∞
or ∫0 e − ax cos bx . x m − 1 dx + i ∫ e − ax sin bx . x m − 1 dx
0
Γ (m) Γ (m)
= m
cos mα + i sin mα . ...(2)
k k m
Equating real and imaginary parts in (2), we get
∞ Γ (m)
∫0 e − ax cos bx . x m − 1 dx = cos mα ,
k m
∞ Γ (m)
and ∫0 e − ax sin bx . x m − 1 dx = sin mα ,
k m
where k = √ (a2 + b2 ) and α = tan− 1 (b / a) .
Deductions: (i) If we put a = 0 , then α = π / 2 and k = b .

∞ Γ (m) mπ
Hence ∫0 x m − 1 cos bx dx = m
cos
b 2
∞ Γ (m) mπ
and ∫0 x m − 1 sin bx dx = m
sin ⋅
b 2
(ii) If we put m = 1, then
∞ Γ (1) k cos α a
∫0 e − ax cos bx dx = cos α = = 2
k k2 a + b2
∞ Γ (1) k sin α b
and ∫0 e − ax sin bx dx = sin α = = 2 .
k k2 a + b2
Example 8: Evaluate the following integrals:

∞ x (1 − x6 )
8
(i) ∫0 (1 + x)24
dx ,
(Garhwal 2000)
∞ x4 (1 + x5 )
(ii) ∫0 (1 + x)15
dx ,
∞ x dx
(iii) ∫0 1 + x6
⋅
I-70

∞ x8 (1 − x6 ) ∞ x8 dx ∞ x14
∫0 (1 + x)24
dx = ∫
0 (1 + x)24
−∫
0 (1 + x)24
dx
∞ x9 − 1 ∞ x15 − 1
= ∫0 (1 + x) 9 + 15
dx − ∫0 (1 + x)15 + 9
dx
= B (9, 15) − B (15, 9) , [By article 3]

= B (9, 15) − B (9, 15) ,
by symmetry of Beta function
=0.
4 5
∞ x (1 + x ) ∞ x4 dx ∞ x9 dx
(ii) We have ∫0 (1 + x)15
dx = ∫
0 (1 + x)15
+∫
0 (1 + x)15
∞ x5 − 1 ∞ x10 − 1
= ∫0 (1 + x) 5 + 10
dx + ∫0 (1 + x)10 + 5
dx
= B (5, 10 ) + B (10 , 5) = B (5, 10 ) + B (5, 10 )

Γ5 Γ10
= 2 B (5, 10 ) = 2
Γ15
4 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 2 ⋅1 1
=2⋅ = ⋅
14 ⋅ 13 ⋅ 12 ⋅ 11 ⋅ 10 5005
∞ x dx
(iii) Let I = ∫0 1 + x6
⋅
1 − 5 /6
Put x6 = y or x = y1 /6 , so that dx = y dy .
6
1 ∞ y1 /6 . y − 5 /6 1 ∞ y − 2 /3
6 ∫0
∴ I = dy = ∫ dy
1+ y 6 0 1+ y
1 ∞ y(1 /3) − 1 1  1 2
= ∫
6 0 (1 + y)(1 /3) + (2 /3)
dy = B  ,  ,
6  3 3
[By article 3]
1 2 1 1
Γ Γ Γ Γ (1 − )
1 3 3 = 1 3 3
=
6 Γ (1 + 2) 6 Γ1
3 3
1 π  π 
= ⋅ ∵ Γn Γ (1 − n) = 
6 sin 1 π  sin nπ 
3
1 π 1 2π π
= ⋅ = ⋅ = ⋅
6 (√ 3 / 2) 6 √ 3 3 √ 3
1 dx √ π Γ (1 / n)
Example 9: Show that ∫0 (1 − x )n 1 /2
=
n Γ (1 / n + 1 / 2)
⋅
(Kumaun 2012)
I-71
2
Solution: Let x n = sin2 θ i. e., x = sin2 / n θ so that dx = sin(2 / n) − 1 θ cos θ dθ .
n
1 dx 2 π /2 sin(2 / n) − 1 θ cos θ dθ
Then ∫0 √ (1 − x n) n ∫0
=
cos θ
2 π /2
sin(2 / n) − 1 θ cos0 θ dθ
n ∫0
=
1
Γ (1 / n) Γ ( ) Γ (1 / n)
2
= ⋅ 2 = √π ⋅ ⋅
n 2 Γ (1 / n + 1 / 2) n Γ (1 / n + 1 / 2)
1 xm − 1 + x n − 1
Example 10: Evaluate ∫ dx .
0 (1 + x)m + n (Kumaun 2002, 10)
Solution: We have
1 xm − 1 + xn − 1 1 x m − 1 dx 1 x n − 1 dx
∫0 (1 + x) m+n
dx = ∫0 (1 + x) m+n
+ ∫0 (1 + x)m + n
⋅ ...(1)
Now in the second integral on the R.H.S. of (1), we put x = 1 / y so that

dx = − (1 / y2 ) dy ; also when x → 0 , y → ∞ and when x = 1 , y = 1 .
1 x n − 1 dx 1 (1 / y)n − 1  1 
∴ ∫0 (1 + x)m + n
= ∫ ∞ (1 + 1 / y)m + n
−

dy
 y2 


1 y m + n dy ∞ y m −1
=− ∫ ∞ (1 + y)m + n. y n − 1. y2 = ∫1 (1 + y)m + n
dy
(Note)
∞ m −1
x  b b 
= ∫1 (1 + x) m+n
dx. ∵ ∫a f ( x) dx = ∫ a f ( y) dy
Now from (1), we have

1 xm − 1 + xn − 1 1 xm − 1 ∞ x m −1
∫0 (1 + x)m + n
dx = ∫0 (1 + x)m + n dx + ∫1 (1 + x)m + n dx
∞ xm − 1
= ∫0 (1 + x)m + n
dx ,
by a property of definite integrals

Γ (m) Γ (n)
= B (m, n) = ⋅ [Refer articles 3 and 7]
Γ (m + n)
π /2 π nπ
Example 11: Show that ∫0 (tan x)n dx =
2
sec
2
, where − 1 < n < 1 .
Solution: We have
I-72
π /2 π /2 sinn x π /2
∫0 tann x dx = ∫0 n
dx = ∫0 sinn x cos − n x dx
cos x
1 1
Γ (n + 1) . Γ (− n + 1)
= 2 2 ,
1
2 Γ (n − n + 2)
2
where − n + 1 > 0 i. e., n < 1 and n + 1 > 0 i. e., n > − 1
1 1 1
= Γ (n + 1) Γ (1 − n)
2 2 2
1 1 1 1 π
= Γ (n + 1) Γ [1 − (n + 1)] = ,
2 2 2 1
2 sin (n + 1) π
2
 π 
 ∵ Γ (n) Γ (1 − n) = , by cor. to article 7
 sin nπ 
π 1 π 1
= ⋅ = ⋅
2 1 1 1
sin ( π + n π) 2 cos ( n π)
2 2 2
π nπ
= sec , where − 1 < n < 1 .
2 2
∞ 2 Γ (n)
(i) ∫0 x2 n − 1 e − ax dx = ;
2an
∞ n Γ [(m + 1) / n]
(ii) ∫0 x m e − a x dx = ;
na(m + 1)/ n
1 dx
(iii) ∫0 √ (− log x)
= √π.
∞ 2 ∞ 2
Solution: (i) Let I = ∫0 x2 n − 1 e − ax dx = ∫ x2 n − 2 e − a x x dx .
0
Put ax2 = z so that 2ax dx = dz . When x = 0 , z = 0 and when x → ∞ , z → ∞ .

∞ n −1
z 1 1 ∞ − z n −1
∴ I = ∫0   e− z dz = ∫ e z dz
 a 2a 2an 0
1
= Γ (n) , by definition of Gamma function.
2a n
∞ n ∞ xm n
(ii) Let I = ∫0 x m e − ax dx = ∫0 n −1
e− a x x n − 1 dx [Note]
x
∞ n
= ∫0 x m − n + 1 e− a x x n − 1 dx .
Put ax n = t so that na x n − 1 dx = dt . Also when x = 0 , t = 0 and when x → ∞ , t → ∞ .
∞ (m − n + 1)/ n  1/ n 
 t 1  t
∴ I = ∫0  a e− t ⋅ dt , n
∵ a x = t ⇒ x =   
na   a 
I-73
1 ∞
= (m − n + 1)/ n 0 ∫ t {(m + 1)/ n} − 1 e − t dt
na . a
1
= (m + 1)/ n
Γ {(m + 1) / n} , by the definition of Gamma function.
na
1 dx 1 dx 1  1 − 1 /2
(iii) Let I = ∫0 √ (− log x)
=∫
0 √ { log (1 / x)}
= ∫  log 
0  x
dx .
Put log (1 / x) = y i. e., 1 / x = e y i. e., x = e − y so that dx = − e − y dy .
Also when x → ∞ , y → ∞ and when x = 1 , y = 0 .

0 ∞
∴ I =− ∫∞ y − 1 /2 e − y dy = ∫ e − y y1 /2 − 1 dy
0
1
= Γ ( ) , by the def. of Gamma function
2
= √π.
Example 13: Evaluate the integral

b
∫a ( x − a) p (b − x)q dx , where p and q are positive integers.
b
Solution: Let I = ∫a ( x − a) p (b − x)q dx .
Put x = a cos2 θ + b sin2 θ so that

dx = − 2 a cos θ sin θ dθ + 2 b sin θ cos θ dθ
i. e., dx = 2 (b − a) cos θ sin θ dθ .
Also x − a = a cos2 θ + b sin2 θ − a = b sin2 θ − a (1 − cos2 θ)
= b sin2 θ − a sin2 θ = (b − a) sin2 θ
and b − x = b − a cos2 θ − b sin2 θ = b (1 − sin2 θ) − a cos2 θ
= (b − a) cos2 θ .
To find the limits for θ , when x = a , we have
a = a cos2 θ + b sin2 θ
i. e., (b − a) sin2 θ = 0 i. e., sin2 θ = 0 as a ≠ b i. e., θ = 0

and when x = b , we have
b = a cos2 θ + b sin2 θ
i. e., (a − b) cos2 θ = 0 i. e., cos2 θ = 0 as a ≠ b i. e., θ = π / 2 .

Thus the new limits for θ are 0 to π / 2 . Hence the given integral
π /2
I = ∫0 (b − a) p sin2 p θ .(b − a)q cos2 q θ . 2 (b − a) cos θ sin θ dθ
π /2
= 2 (b − a) p + q + 1 ∫ sin2 p + 1 θ cos2 q + 1 θ dθ
0
I-74
1 1
Γ { (2 p + 1 + 1)} Γ { (2 q + 1 + 1)}
= 2 (b − a) p + q + 1 2 2 ,
2 Γ (2 p + 1 + 2 q + 1 + 2)
provided 2 p + 1 > − 1 and 2 q + 1 > − 1 i. e., p > − 1 and q > − 1
which is so because p and q are given to be + ive integers
Γ ( p + 1) Γ ( q + 1)
= (b − a) p + q + 1
Γ ( p + q + 1 + 1)
p!q !
= (b − a) p + q + 1 ,
( p + q + 1) !
because Γ (n + 1) = n ! if n is a positive integer.
 1  2   3   8
Example 14: Find the value of Γ   Γ   Γ   … Γ   ⋅
 9  9  9  9
Solution: We know that
(n − 1)/2
 1  2   3   n − 1 (2 π)
Γ   Γ   Γ   …Γ   = ,
 n  n  n  n  n1 /2
where n is a positive integer.
Putting n = 9 in the above relation, we get
 1  2   8 (2 π)(9 − 1)/2 (2 π)4 16 4
Γ   Γ   …Γ   = = = π .
 9  9  9 91 /2 3 3

1
(i) 2 n Γ (n + ) = 1.3.5.… (2 n − 1) √ π , where n is a + ive integer,
2 (Lucknow 2009)
3  3  1 
(ii) Γ  − x Γ  + x =  − x2  π sec πx , provided − 1 < 2 x < 1 .
2  2  4 
(Kumaun 2011)
1 1 1  1  3  3
Γ (n + ) = (n − ) Γ (n − ) =  n −  n −  Γ n − 
2 2 2  2  2  2
 1  3  5 3 1  1
= n −  n −  n −  … ⋅ ⋅Γ  
 2  2  2 2 2  2
2n − 1 2n − 3 2n − 5 3 1
= ⋅ ⋅ … ⋅ ⋅√π
2 2 2 2 2
1
= n (2 n − 1) (2 n − 3) (2 n − 5) … 31
. .√ π .
2
1
∴ 2 n Γ (n + ) = 1.3.5. … (2 n − 1) √ π .
2
I-75
(ii) We have
3  3  1 1 1 1
Γ  − x Γ  + x = ( − x) Γ ( − x) . ( + x) Γ ( + x)
2  2  2 2 2 2
1  1 − 2 x  1 + 2 x 
=  − x2  Γ  Γ 
4   2   2 
1  1 − 2 x   1 − 2 x 
=  − x2  Γ   Γ 1 − 
4   2   2 
1  π
=  − x2 
4  1 − 2 x 
sin  π
 2 
1  π
=  − x2  ⋅
4  1 
sin  π − xπ
2 
1  π 1 
=  − x2  ⋅ =  − x2  ⋅ π sec π x .
4  cos x π  4 
Example 16: With certain restrictions on the values of a, b, m and n , prove that
∞ ∞ 2 2 Γ (m) Γ (n)
∫0 ∫0 e − (a x + by ) x2 m − 1 y2 n − 1 dx dy = ⋅
4 am b n
Solution: Let us denote the given integral by I . Then
∞ 2 ∞ 2
I = ∫0 e − ax x2 m − 1 dx × ∫ e − by y2 n − 1 dy = I1 × I2 .
0
To evaluate I1 , put ax2 = t so that 2ax dx = dt .

∞ dt
∴ I1 = ∫0 e − t (t / a)(2 m − 1)/2 ⋅
2 √ (at)
1 ∞
= m ∫0 e − t t m − 1 dt
2a
Γ (m)
= , provided a and m are +ive.
2am
Γ (n)
Similarly, I2 = , provided b and n are +ive.
2b n
Γ mΓ n
Hence I = ⋅
4am b n
Example 17: Show that the sum of the series

1 1 m (m + 1) 1 m (m + 1) (m + 2) 1
+m + ⋅ + ⋅ +…
n +1 n+2 2! n+3 3! n+4
Γ (n + 1) Γ (1 − m)
is , where − 1 < n < 1 .
Γ (n − m + 2)
I-76
Solution: We have
Γ (n + 1) Γ (1 − m)
= B (n + 1, 1 − m)
Γ (n − m + 2)
1
= ∫0 x n (1 − x)− m dx
1  m (m + 1) 2 m (m + 1) (m + 2) 3 
= ∫0 x n 1 + mx +
 2 !
x +
3 !
x + … dx

1  n n +1 m (m + 1) n + 2
= ∫0  x + mx

+
2!
x
m (m + 1) (m + 2) n + 3 
+ x + … dx
3! 
 x n +1 x n + 2 m (m + 1) x n + 3
= +m +
 n + 1 n+2 2! n+3
1
m (m + 1) (m + 2) x n + 4 
+ + …
3! n+4  0
1 1 m (m + 1) 1 m (m + 1) (m + 2) 1
= + m. + ⋅ + +…
n +1 n+2 2! n+3 3! n+4
∞ sin bz π
Example 18: Prove that ∫ dz = ⋅
0 z 2
Solution: We have
∞ ∞
I = ∫0 ∫0 e − x z sin bz dx dz
∞
∞ e− x z 
= ∫0  − z  sin bz dz , on first integrating w.r.t. x
0
∞ sin bz
= ∫0 z
dz . ...(1)
Again on first integrating w.r.t. z , we have

∞ ∞ ∞  ∞ 
I = e − x z sin bz dx dz = ∫ ∫ e − x z sin bz dz  dx
∫0 ∫0 0  0 
∞ b
=∫ dx ,
0 b + x2
2
[See article 13, Deduction (ii)]
 x∞ π
= tan− 1  = ⋅ ...(2)
 b 0 2
Hence equating the two values (1) and (2) of I, we have
∞ sin bz π
∫0 z dz = 2 ⋅
I-77

∞ 1 nπ
∫0 cos (bz1 / n) dz = n Γ (n + 1) . cos
b 2
⋅
Solution: Put z1/ n = x i. e., z = x n, so that dz = nx n − 1 dx .

∞ ∞
∴ ∫0 cos(bz1 / n) dz = ∫0 cos (bx) . nx n − 1 dx
∞
=n∫ x n − 1 cos (bx) dx
0
∞
= real part of n ∫ e − ibx x n − 1 dx
0
Γ (n)
= real part of n
(ib)n
n Γ (n)
1 1
= real part of ⋅ (cos π + i sin π)− n
bn 2 2
Γ (n + 1)  nπ n π
= real part of cos − i sin 
b n  2 2 
1  n π
= n ⋅ Γ (n + 1) .cos  ⋅
b  2 
∞ xc Γ (c + 1)
Example 20: Show that ∫0 c x
dx =
(log c )c + 1
, c > 1.
(Gorakhpur 2005; Kanpur 07; Lucknow 10)

Solution: We have
∞ xc ∞ xc
I = ∫0 cx
dx = ∫
0 x
dx
e log c
∞ xc ∞
= ∫0 x log c
dx = ∫0 e − x log c x c dx .
e
Put x log c = y so that (log c ) dx = dy .
When x = 0, we have y = 0 and when x → ∞, y → ∞ .
Also c > 1 ⇒ log c > 0 .
c
∞ − y y  dy
∴ I = ∫0 e  log c  log c
1 ∞
= c +1 0 ∫ e − y y(c + 1) − 1 dy
( log c)
1
= Γ (c + 1) ,
( log c )c + 1
provided c + 1 > 0 which is so because c > 1.
I-78
1. Prove that
a dx 1 π
(i) ∫0 n
(a − x ) n 1/ n
= ⋅
n sin (π / n)
⋅
(Kanpur 2010)
2 2π
(ii) ∫ (8 − x3 )−1 /3 dx = ⋅
0 3 √3 (Kumaun 2008)
m −1 n −1
1 x (1 − x) B (m, n) Γ (m) Γ (n)
2. Show that ∫0 (a + x) m+n
dx = n
a (1 + a)m
= n
a (1 + a)m Γ (m + n)
⋅
x (1 + a)
[Hint. Put = y] .
a+ x
π /2 1  p+1 q +1 
3. Show that ∫0 sin p θ cos q θ dθ = B 
2  2
,
2 
 , p > − 1, q > − 1.
2 16  5 2 
Deduce that ∫0 x4 (8 − x3 )−1 /3 dx = B , ⋅
3  3 3
4. Prove that B (m, n) = B (m + 1, n) + B (m, n + 1) for m > 0 , n > 0 .
(Kanpur 2005; Gorakhpur 05; Bundelkhand 11)
5. Prove that
∞
−a x n −1 Γ (n) 1  1 n −1
(i) ∫0 e x dx = an ⋅ (ii) ∫0  x  dx = Γ (n).
 log
(Kumaun 2007)
6. Show that, if m > − 1, then

∞ 2 2 1  m + 1
∫0 x m e −n x dx = m +1
Γ ⋅
2n  2 
(Kumaun 2009)
1 1 m + n 
7. Prove that ∫ x m (1 − x n)p dx = B  , p + 1 (Lucknow 2010)
0 n  n 
1 1 [Γ (1 / n)]2
8. Prove that ∫0 (1 − x n)1 / n dx =
n 2 Γ (2 / n)
⋅
(2 π)9 /2
9. Show that Γ (0 ⋅ 1) Γ (0 ⋅ 2) Γ (0 ⋅ 3) … Γ (0 ⋅ 9) = ⋅
√ (10 )
π /2 π /2 dθ
10. Show that ∫0 √ (sin θ) dθ × ∫0 √ (sin θ)
= π. (Lucknow 2009)
1 x2 dx 1 dx π
11. Show that ∫0 (1 − x ) 4 1 /2
× ∫0 (1 + x )4 1 /2
=
4 √2
⋅
(Lucknow 2006, 11)
 1  3  π /2 ∞ x2 dx
12. Show that Γ   Γ   = 2 ∫ √ (tan θ) dθ = 4 ∫ = π √2.
 4  4 0 0 1 + x4
(Lucknow 2008, 11)
I-79
13. Show that the perimeter of a loop of the curve r n = a n cos nθ is

2
a (1 / n) −1 [Γ (1 / 2 n)]
⋅2 ⋅ ⋅
n Γ (1 / n)
2
1 dx √2   1 
14. Prove that ∫0 √ (1 − x4 ) = 8 √ π Γ  4   ⋅
 
π /2 1 1 p +1 
15. Show that ∫0 sinp θ dθ = B ,
2 2 2 
⋅
16. Show that

∞ −α x (α2 − β2 )
(i) ∫0 xe cos β x dx =
(α2 + β2 )2
∞ 2αβ
(ii) ∫0 xe −α x sin βx dx = ⋅
(α2 + β2 )2
∞ 1 
17. Prove that ∫ cos  π x2  dx = 1.
−∞ 2 
π m −1
18. Show that B (m, m) . B  m +
1 1
,m +  = 4 m −1 ⋅
 2 2 2 (Rohilkhand 2005)
π n −1 n −1
sin x dx 2  n n
19. Prove that ∫0 (a + b cos x)n
=
(a2 − b2 )n /2
⋅ B  ,  , a > b.
 2 2
(Kumaun 2008)

(b), (c) and (d).
1. For m > 0 , n > 0 ,
Γ (m) Γ (m) Γ (n)
(a) B (m, n) = (b) B (m, n) =
Γ (n) Γ (m + n)
Γ (n) Γ (m + n)
(c) B (m, n) = (d) B (m, n) =
Γ (m) Γ (m) Γ (n)
∞
2. The value of the integral ∫ e − x x −1 /2 dx is
0
√π π
(a) (b)
2 2
(c) √ π (d) π (Kumaun 2008, 09, 11, 13)
I-80
3. For m > 0 , n > 0 ,
1 x m −1 + x n −1 1 x m −1
(a) B (m, n) = ∫0 (1 + x)m + n
dx (b) B (m, n) = ∫0 (1 + x)m + n
dx
1 x n −1 ∞ xm
(c) B (m, n) = ∫0 (1 + x) m+n
dx (d) B (m, n) = ∫0 (1 + x)m + n
dx
4. If a > 0 and n > 0, then the value of the integral

∞
∫0 e −ax x n −1 dx is
(a) a n Γ (n) (b) a −n Γ (n)

Γ (n) Γ (n)
(c) n
(d)
2a n2
1
5. The value of ∫ x4 (1 − x)3 dx is
0
1 1
(a) (b)
280 180
1 1
(c) (d)
380 80 (Garhwal 2001)
π /2
6. The value of the integral ∫ sin4 x cos2 x dx is
0
π π
(a) (b)
4 8
π π
(c) (d)
16 32 (Garhwal 2001)
∞ x m − 1 dx
7. The value of ∫ is
0 (1 + x)m + n
Γ (m)
(a) Γ (m) + Γ (n) (b)
Γ (n)
Γ (m) Γ (n)
(c) Γ (m) . Γ (n) (d)
Γ (m + n) (Garhwal 2002)
1  1 m − 1
8. If m, n > 0 , then the value of ∫ x n − 1  log  dx is equal to
0  x
Γ (m) Γ (n)
(a) (b)
nm nm
Γ (n) Γ (m)
(c) (d)
mn mm (Garhwal 2003)
I-81
1 3
9. The value of Γ ( ) ⋅ Γ ( ) is …… .
4 4
π
(a) π (b)
√2
π
(c) π √ 2 (d)
2 (Garhwal 2004, 11, 14)
1 dx
10. The value of integral ∫0 − log x
is
(a) √ π (b) π
π
(c) (d) none of these
2 (Garhwal 2004)
11. If m > 0, n > 0, then B (m, n) is defined as

1 1
(a) ∫0 x m(1 − x)n dx (b) ∫0 x m −1(1 − x)n dx
1 1
(c) ∫0 x m −1(1 − x)n −1 dx (d) ∫0 x m −1(1 − x)n +1 dx
(Garhwal 2006; Kumaun 15)
 m + 1  n + 1
Γ Γ 
π /2  2   2 
∫0
m n
12. cos θ sin θ dθ = when
 m + n + 2
2Γ  
 2 
(a) m > 0, n > 0 (b) m > − 1, n > − 1
1 1
(c) m > − , n > − (d) 0 < m < 1, 0 < n < 1
2 2
(Garhwal 2006)
n −1
1  1
13. The value of ∫0  log 
 x
dx is
(a) 1 (b) zero

(c) (n − 1)! (d) Γ n (Garhwal 2008)
 1  2   3   8
14. The value of Γ   Γ   Γ   ... Γ   is
 9  9  9  9
1
(a) π3 (b) 16π 4
6
1 4 16 4
(c) π (d) π
3 3 (Garhwal 2009)
∞ x n −1
15. Integral ∫0 (1 + x)m + n
dx is equal to
(a) B (m + 1, n + 1) (b) B (m, n + 1)

(c) B (m, n) (d) none of these (Garhwal 2012)
I-82
π /2
16. Value of integral ∫0 cos m θ sinn θ dθ is
 m + 1  n + 1  m   n
Γ Γ  Γ Γ 
 2   2   2   2
(a) (b)
 m + n + 2  m + n + 2
2Γ   2Γ  
 2   2 
 m + 1  n + 1  m − 1  n − 1
Γ Γ  Γ Γ 
 2   2   2   2 
(c) (d)
 m + n + 1  m − n − 2
2Γ   2Γ  
 2   2 
(Garhwal 2013)
∞
17. The integral ∫0 x n −1 e − x dx is known as
(a) Beta function (b) Gamma function

(c) Beta and Gamma function (d) none of these
(Kumaun 2007)
 1  2
18. The value of Γ  
 3
Γ   shall be
 3
π π
(a) (b)
2 2
3π 2π
(c) (d)
2 3 (Kumaun 2010)

1
1. The definite integral ∫ x m −1 (1 − x)n −1 dx, for m > 0 , n > 0 is called the ……
0
∞
2. The definite integral ∫0 e − x x n −1 dx, for n > 0 is called the …… .
(Garhwal 2001)
Γ (m) Γ (n)
3. B (m, n) = ⋅
……
B (m + 1, n) m
4. = ⋅
B (m, n) ……
∞ x m −1 − x n −1
5. For m > 0 , n > 0 , ∫ dx = …… .
0 (1 + x)m + n
6. For n > 0 , Γ (n + 1) = …… Γ (n).
7. If n is a positive integer, then Γ (n) = …… .

I-83
8. If 0 < n < 1, then Γ (n) Γ (1 − n) = …… .
 1
9. Γ   = …… .
 2 (Kumaun 2014)
 m + 1  n + 1
Γ Γ 
π /2  2   2 
10. If m > − 1, n > − 1, then ∫0 cos m θ sin n θ dθ =
……
∞ 2
11. ∫0 e − x dx = …… .
√π
12. For m > 0 , Γ (m) Γ  m +  =
1
Γ (2 m).
 2 ……
∞ Γ (n)
13. For a > 0 , n > 0 , ∫ e −a x x n −1 dx = ⋅
0 ……
1 2
14. The value of Γ ( ) ⋅ Γ ( ) is …… .
3 3 (Agra 2002)
True or False
∞ − x 1 /2  1
1. ∫0 e x dx = Γ   .
 2
∞ x dx π
2. ∫0 1+ x 6
=
3 √3
⋅
∞ x8 (1 − x6 )
3. ∫0 (1 + x)24
dx = 1.
∞ x n −1
4. For m > 0 , n > 0 , B (m, n) = ∫0 (1 + x)m + n
dx.
∞ x m −1 ∞ x n −1
5. For m > 0 , n > 0 , ∫ dx = ∫ dx.
0 (1 + x)m + n 0 (1 + x)m + n
6. Γ (6) = 120 .
Γ (m) Γ (n)
7. For m > 0 , n > 0 , B (m, n) = ⋅
2 Γ (m + n)
∞ 2 √π
8. ∫0 e − x dx = ⋅
4
9. B (m + 1, n) + B (m, n + 1) = B (m + 1, n + 1). (Agra 2003)

I-84
A nswers

1. (b) 2. (c) 3. (a) 4. (b) 5. (a)
6. (d) 7. (d) 8. (a) 9. (c) 10. (a)
11. (a) 12. (b) 13. (d) 14. (d) 15. (c)
16. (a) 17. (b) 18. (d)

1. Beta function 2. Gamma function 3. Γ (m + n)
4. m + n 5. 0 6. n
π
7. (n − 1) ! 8. 9. √π
sin nπ
 m + n + 2 √π
10. 2 Γ   11. 12. 22 m −1
 2  2
2π
13. a n. 14.
3
True or False
1. F 2. T 3. F 4. T 5. T
6. T 7. F 8. F 9. F
¨
5
D irichlet's and L iouville's I ntegrals
1 Dirichlet’s Theorem for three Variables

heorem: If l, m, n are all positive, then the triple integral
T Γ (l) Γ (m) Γ (n)
∫∫∫ x l − 1 y m − 1 z n − 1 dx dy dz = ,
Γ (l + m + n + 1)
where the integral is extended to all positive values of the variables x, y and z subject to the condition
x + y + z ≤ 1. (Lucknow 2007)
Proof: Let us first consider the double integral

I2 = ∫∫ x l − 1 y m − 1 dx dy ,
where the integral is extended to all positive values of the variables x and y subject to
the condition x + y ≤ 1.
Obviously the region of integration of I2 , in the 2-dimensional Euclidean space, is
bounded by the straight lines x = 0 , y = 0 and x + y = 1. The limits of integration for
this region can be expressed as 0 ≤ x ≤ 1 , 0 ≤ y ≤ 1 − x .
I-86
1 1− x
∴ I2 = ∫x =0 ∫ y =0 x l − 1 y m − 1 dx dy
1− x
1  m
l −1 y 1 1 l −1
= ∫0 x  m  dx = ∫0 m
x (1 − x)m dx
 0
1 1 l −1
(1 − x)m + 1 − 1 dx
m ∫0
= x
1
= B (l, m + 1) , by the def. of Beta function
m
1 Γ (l) Γ (m + 1) 1 Γ (l) . m Γ (m)
= = , [∵ Γ (n + 1) = n Γ (n)]
m Γ (l + m + 1) m Γ (l + m + 1)
Γ (l) Γ (m)
= ⋅ ...(1)
Γ (l + m + 1)
(Remember)
This is Dirichlet’s theorem for two variables.
Now consider the double integral U2 = ∫∫ x l − 1 y m − 1 dx dy ,
where the integral is extended to all positive values of the variables x and y subject to
the condition x + y ≤ h .
x y
We have x + y ≤ h ⇒ + ≤ 1.
h h
So putting x / h = u and y / h = v so that dx = h du and dy = h dv , the integral U2
becomes
U2 = ∫∫ (hu)l − 1 (hv)m − 1 h2 du dv
= hl + m ∫∫ ul − 1 vm − 1 du dv , where u + v ≤ 1
Γ ( L) Γ (m)
=h l+m , by (1). ...(2)
Γ (l + m + 1)
Now we consider the triple integral
I3 = ∫∫∫ x l − 1 y m − 1 z n − 1 dx dy dz ,
subject to the condition x + y + z ≤ 1 i. e., y + z ≤ 1 − x and 0 ≤ x ≤ 1.

We have
[∫ ∫ ]
1
I3 = ∫x =0 y m − 1 z n − 1 dy dz x l − 1 dx , where y + z ≤ 1 − x
1 Γ (m) Γ (n)
= ∫0 (1 − x)m + n x l − 1 dx , by using (2)
Γ (m + n + 1)
Γ (m) Γ (n) 1 l − 1
(1 − x)m + n + 1 − 1 dx
Γ (m + n + 1) ∫0
= x
Γ (m) Γ (n)
= B (l, m + n + 1)
Γ (m + n + 1)
I-87
Γ (m) Γ (n) Γ (l) Γ (m + n + 1)

= ⋅
Γ (m + n + 1) Γ (l + m + n + 1)
Γ (l) Γ (m) Γ (n)
= , which proves the required result.
Γ (l + m + n + 1)
Remark: The triple integral
Γ (l) Γ (m) Γ (n)
∫∫∫ x l − 1 y m − 1 z n − 1 dx dy dz = h l + m + n ,
Γ (l + m + n + 1)
where the integral is extended to all positive values of the variables x, y and z subject to
the condition x + y + z ≤ h .
Alternative proof of Dirichlet’s theorem for three variables:
Let I3 = ∫∫∫ x l − 1 y m − 1 z n − 1 dx dy dz ,
where the integral is extended to all positive values of the variables x, y and z subject to
the condition x + y + z ≤ 1.
Obviously the region of integration, in the 3-dimensional Euclidean space, is the
volume bounded by the coordinate planes x = 0 , y = 0 , z = 0 and the plane
x + y + z = 1. After a little geometric consideration, we observe that the limits of
integration for this region can be expressed as
0 ≤ x ≤ 1, 0 ≤ y ≤ 1 − x , 0 ≤ z ≤ 1 − x − y .
Hence the triple integral I3 may be written as
1 1− x 1− x − y
I3 = ∫ x = 0 ∫ y = 0 ∫z = 0 x l − 1 y m − 1 z n − 1 dx dy dz
1 − x− y
1 1− x  z n
= ∫0 ∫0 x l −1 y m −1   dx dy
 n 0
1 1 1 − x l −1 m −1
n ∫0 ∫0
= x y (1 − x − y)n dx dy
1 1 l −1  1 − x 
y m − 1 {(1 − x) − y }n dy dx .
n ∫0 ∫0
= x

To integrate w.r.t. y, put y = (1 − x) t so that dy = (1 − x) dt ; also when y = 0 , t = 0 and
when y = 1 − x , t = 1 .
∴ the required integral
1 1  1 
I3 = ∫ x l − 1 ∫ (1 − x)m − 1 t m − 1 {(1 − x)n (1 − t)n} (1 − x) dt dx
n 0  0 
1 1 1 l −1
= ∫ ∫ x (1 − x)m + n t m − 1 (1 − t)n dx dt
n 0 0
1 1 1
= ∫ x l − 1 (1 − x)m + n dx × ∫ t m − 1 .(1 − t)n dt
n 0 0
1
= B (l, m + n + 1) B (m, n + 1) ,
n
(by the definition of Beta function)
I-88
1 Γ (l) Γ (m + n + 1) Γ (m) Γ (n + 1) Γ (l) Γ (m) Γ (n)

= ⋅ ⋅ = ⋅
n Γ (l + m + n + 1) Γ (m + n + 1) Γ (l + m + n + 1)
[∵ Γ (n + 1) = n Γ (n)]
Note: Dirichlet’s theorem holds good even if the condition is taken as x + y + z < 1in
place of x + y + z ≤ 1.
Corollary: Evaluate without using Dirichlet’s Theorem ∫∫∫ x p y q z r dx dy dz ,
where x, y, z are always positive and x + y + z ≤ 1.
2 Dirichlet’s Theorem for n Variables

The theorem states that
Γ (l1) Γ (l2 ) … Γ (ln)
∫∫ … ∫ x1l1 − 1 x2 l2 − 1 … xnln − 1 dx1 dx2 … dxn = ,
Γ (1 + l1 + l2 + … + ln )
where the integral is extended to all positive values of the variables x1, x2 , … , xn subject to the
condition x1 + x2 + … + xn ≤ 1.
Proof: We shall prove the theorem by mathematical induction. To start the
induction we shall first show that the theorem is true for two variables i. e.,for n = 2 .
So let us consider the integral I2 = ∫∫ x1l1 − 1 x2 l2 − 1 dx1 dx2
subject to the condition x1 + x2 ≤ 1.

Γ (l1) Γ (l2 )
Now proceeding as in article 1, show that I2 = ⋅ ...(1)
Γ (1 + l1 + l2 )
The result (1) shows that the theorem is true for two variables i. e., for n = 2 .
Now assume as our induction hypothesis that the theorem is true for n variables i. e.,
assume that
In = ∫∫ …∫ x1l1 − 1 x2 l2 − 1 … xnln − 1 dx1 dx2 … dxn
Γ (l1) Γ (l2 ) … Γ (ln)
= , ...(2)
Γ (1 + l1 + l2 + … + ln)
subject to the condition x1 + x2 + … + xn ≤ 1.
If the condition be x1 + x2 + … + xn ≤ h , then putting
x1 x x
= u1, 2 = u2 , ..., n = un , so that
h h h
dx1 = h du1, dx2 = h du2 , … , dxn = h dun, we have
∫∫ … ∫ x1l1 − 1 x2 l2 − 1 … xnln − 1 dx1 dx2 … dxn

l 1 + l2 + … + l n
=h ∫∫ … ∫ u1l 1 − 1 u2 l2 − 1 … un ln − 1 du1 du2 … dun
subject to the condition u1 + u2 + … + un ≤ 1

I-89
Γ (l1) Γ (l2 ) … Γ (ln)

l1 + l2 + … + ln
=h , ...(3)
Γ (1 + l1 + l2 + … + ln)
using the assumed result (2).
Now for n + 1 variables the condition is
x1 + x2 + … + xn + xn + 1 ≤ 1
i. e., x2 + x3 + … + xn + xn + 1 ≤ 1 − x1, and 0 ≤ x1 ≤ 1.
We then have
∫∫ … ∫ x1l 1 − 1 x2 l 2 − 1 … xnl n − 1 xn + 1 ln+1 − 1 dx1 dx2 … dxn dxn + 1,
where x1 + x2 + … + xn + 1 ≤ 1
[∫ ∫ ]
1
= ∫ x1 = 0 x1 l1 − 1 … ∫ x2 l2 − 1 … xn + 1ln + 1 − 1 dx2 … dxn + 1 dx1
1 Γ (l2 ) Γ (l3 ) … Γ (ln + 1) l2 + l3 + … + ln + 1

= ∫ x1 = 0 x1 l1 − 1 ⋅ ⋅ (1 − x1) dx1,
Γ (1 + l2 + l3 + … + ln + ln + 1)
[using (3)]
Γ (l2 ) Γ (l3 ) … Γ (ln + 1) 1 (1 + l2 + l3 + … + ln + 1) −1

= ⋅∫ x1l 1 − 1 (1 − x1) dx1
Γ (1 + l2 + … + ln + ln + 1) 0
Γ (l2 ) Γ (l3 ) … Γ (ln + 1) Γ (l1) Γ (1 + l2 + … + ln + 1)

= ⋅
Γ (1 + l2 + … + ln + ln + 1) Γ (1 + l1 + l2 + … + ln + ln + 1)
Γ (l1) Γ (l2 ) … Γ (ln + 1)
= ⋅ ...(4)
Γ (1 + l1 + l2 + … + ln + 1)
The result (4) shows that the theorem holds for (n + 1) variables if it holds for n variables.
But we have seen that the theorem is true for two variables. Hence by mathematical
induction the theorem is true for all values of n .
Example 1: Evaluate ∫∫ x2 l − 1 y2 m − 1 dx dy for all positive values of x and y such that
x2 + y2 ≤ c 2 . (Lucknow 2007)
Solution: Let us denote the given integral by I . Then we have to find the value of I
extended to all positive values of x and y subject to the condition
2 2
 x  y
  +   ≤ 1.
c c
1 − 1 /2
Put ( x / c )2 = u i. e., x = cu1 /2 , so that dx = cu du ,
2
1
and ( y / c )2 = v i. e., y = cv1 /2 , so that dy = cv− 1 /2 dv .
2
I-90
Then the required integral

1 1
I = ∫∫ (cu1 /2 )2 l − 1 (cv1 /2 )2 m − 1 . cu− 1 /2 ⋅ cv− 1 /2 du dv
2 2
1 2l + 2m
= c ∫∫ ul − 1 vm − 1 du dv , where u, v take all +ive values
4
subject to the condition u + v ≤ 1
1 2 l + 2 m Γ ( l ) Γ (m)
= c ⋅ , by Dirichlet’s theorem.
4 Γ (l + m + 1)
Example 2: Find the value of ∫∫ … ∫ dx1 dx2 … dxn extended to all positive values of the
variables, subject to the condition x12 + x22 + … + xn2 < R2 .
Solution: Let us denote the given integral by I . Then we have to find the value of I
extended to all positive values of x1, x2 , … , xn subject to the condition
x12 x22 xn2
+ + … + < 1.
R2 R2 R2
1 − 1 /2
Put ( x1 / R)2 = u1 i. e., x1 = Ru11 /2 , so that dx1 = Ru du1,
2 1
1 − 1 /2
( x2 / R)2 = u2 i. e., x2 = Ru21 /2 , so that dx2 = Ru2 du2 ,
2
and so on.
Then the required integral
n
 1
I = ∫∫ … ∫   Rn u1− 1 /2 u2 − 1 /2 … un− 1 /2 du1 du2 … dun
 2
n
 R
=  ∫∫ … ∫ u1(1 /2) − 1 u2(1 /2) − 1 .... un(1 /2) − 1 du1 du2 … dun ,
 2
subject to the condition u1 + u2 + … + un < 1
1 n
n {Γ ( )}
 R 2
=  , by Dirichlet’s theorem
 2 1
Γ (1 + n ⋅ )
2
n n /2
 R π 1
=  ⋅ ⋅ [∵ Γ ( ) = √ π]
 2 1 2
Γ (1 + n)
2
Example 3: Find the volume of the solid surrounded by the surface

( x / a)2 /3 + ( y / b)2 /3 + (z / c )2 /3 = 1 . (Kumaun 2011)
2 /3 2 /3 2 /3
Solution: Since the equation ( x / a) + ( y / b) + (z / c ) = 1 does not change
by putting − x for x , − y for y and − z for z , therefore the surface represented by this
equation is symmetrical in all the eight octants.
So the volume of the solid surrounded by this surface = 8 × the volume of the portion of
this solid lying in the positive octant.
I-91
Now the volume of a small element situated at any point ( x, y, z ) = dx dy dz .

∴ the volume of the solid in the positive octant
= ∫∫∫ dx dy dz ,
where the integral is extended to all positive values of the variables x, y, z subject to the
condition ( x / a)2 /3 + ( y / b)2 /3 + (z / c )2 /3 ≤ 1.
Now put ( x / a)2 /3 = u , ( y / b)2 /3 = v , (z / c )2 /3 = w
i. e., x = au3 /2 , y = bv3 /2 , z = cw3 /2

3 1 /2 3 3
so that dx = au du , dy = bv1 /2 dv , dz = cw1 /2 dw .
2 2 2
∴ the volume in the positive octant
27
=∫∫∫ abc u(3 /2) − 1 v(3 /2) − 1 w(3 /2) − 1 du dv dw ,
8
where u + v + w ≤ 1
1
[Γ (3 / 2)]3 27 ( ⋅ √ π)3
27 2
= abc = abc ⋅
8 9 8 9 7 5 3 1
Γ ( + 1) ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ √π
2 2 2 2 2 2
27 π 32 π abc 4
= abc ⋅ ⋅ = ⋅ ⋅
8 8 27.35 8 35
Hence the required volume
π abc 4 4 π abc
=8⋅ ⋅ = ⋅
8 35 35
3 Liouville’s Extension of Dirichlet’s Theorem

Theorem: If the variables x, y, z are all positive such that
h1 ≤ x + y + z ≤ h2 ,
then the triple integral
∫∫∫ f ( x + y + z) x l − 1 y m − 1 z n − 1 dx dy dz
Γ ( l) Γ ( m) Γ ( n) h2
f ( u) u l + m + n − 1du.
Γ ( l + m + n) ∫h1
=
Proof: Let I = ∫∫∫ x l − 1 y m − 1 z n − 1 dx dy dz , integrated over some region.
Subject to the condition x + y + z ≤ u , we have by Dirichlet’s theorem

Γ (l) Γ (m) Γ (n)
I = ul + m + n ⋅ ...(1)
Γ (l + m + n + 1)
If the condition be x + y + z ≤ u + δu , then
Γ (l) Γ (m) Γ (n)
I = (u + δu)l + m + n ⋅ ...(2)
Γ (l + m + n + 1)
I-92
Therefore the value of the integral I extended to all such positive values of the variables
as make the sum of the variables lie between u and u + δu is
Γ (l) Γ (m) Γ (n)
= [(u + δu)l + m + n − ul + m + n] ,
Γ (l + m + n + 1)
[subtracting (2) from (1)]

l+m+n
Γ (l) Γ (m) Γ (n) l + m + n  δu  
= u 1 +  − 1
Γ (l + m + n + 1)  u
 
Γ (l) Γ (m) Γ (n) l + m + n  δu 

= u 1 + (l + m + n) + … − 1
Γ (l + m + n + 1)  u 
Γ (l) Γ (m) Γ (n)
= (l + m + n) ul + m + n − 1 δu ,
Γ (l + m + n + 1)
to the first order of approximation

Γ (l) Γ (m) Γ (n) l + m + n − 1
= u δu .
Γ ( l + m + n)
Now consider the integral
∫∫∫ f ( x + y + z ) x l − 1 y m − 1 z n − 1 dx dy dz ,
subject to the condition h1 ≤ x + y + z ≤ h2 .

If x + y + z lies between u and u + δu , the value of f ( x + y + z ) can only differ from
f (u) by a small quantity of the same order as δu . Hence neglecting square of δu , the part
of the integral
∫∫∫ f ( x + y + z ) x l − 1 y m − 1 z n − 1 dx dy dz
which arises from supposing the sum of the variables to lie between u and u + δu is
Γ (l) Γ (m) Γ (n)
ultimately equal to f (u) . ul + m + n − 1 δu .
Γ (l + m + n)
Therefore the whole integral
∫∫∫ f ( x + y + z ) x l − 1 y m − 1 z n − 1 dx dy dz ,
where h1 ≤ x + y + z ≤ h2 , is equal to
Γ (l) Γ (m) Γ (n) h2
f (u) . u l + m + n − 1 du .
Γ (l + m + n) ∫h1
Remark: The above theorem holds good even if we take the condition as
h1 < x + y + z < h2 in place of h1 ≤ x + y + z ≤ h2 .
I-93
Example 4: Find the value of ∫ ∫ ∫ log ( x + y + z ) dx dy dz , the integral extending over all
positive values of x, y, z subject to the condition x + y + z < 1.

(Lucknow 2009; Kumaun 10)
Solution: Here the integral is to be extended for all positive values of x, y and z such
that 0 < x + y + z < 1 .
∴ the required integral
=∫∫∫ log ( x + y + z ) dx dy dz , where 0 < x + y + z < 1
=∫∫∫ log ( x + y + z ) x1 − 1 y1 − 1 z1 − 1 dx dy dz (Note)

Γ (1) Γ (1) Γ (1) 1
(log u) u1 + 1 + 1 − 1 du ,
Γ (1 + 1 + 1) ∫0
=
by Liouville’s extension of Dirichlet’s theorem

1 1 2
Γ (3) ∫0
= u log u du , [∵ Γ (1) = 1]
 1 
1  u3  1 1 u3
= (log u) .  − ∫ ⋅ du ,
. 
21 3 0 u 3 
 0 
integrating by parts taking u2 as the second function
1 1 1 1 
= 0 − lim u3 log u − ∫ u2 du
2 3 u→ 0 3 0 
1
1  u3   
=−   , ∵ lim u3 log u = 0 
6  3   u → 0 
0
1
=− ⋅
18
log u 1/ u 1
Note: lim u3 log u = lim 3
= lim 4
= lim − u3 = 0 .
u→ 0 u→ 0 1/ u u → 0 −3 / u u→ 0 3

dx dy dz π2 a2
∫∫∫ √ (a2 − x2 − y2 − z 2 )
=
8
,
the integral being extended for all positive values of the variables for which the expression is real.
(Lucknow 2008, 11)
2 2 2 2
Solution: The given expression is real when x + y + z < a .
Therefore the required integral is to be extended to all positive values of x, y and z such
that
0 < x2 + y2 + z 2 < a2 i. e., 0 < x2 / a2 + y2 / a2 + z 2 / a2 < 1 .
I-94
Put ( x2 / a2 ) = u1 , ( y2 / a2 ) = u2 and (z 2 / a2 ) = u3
i. e., x = au11 /2 , y = au21 /2 and z = au31 /2

1 − 1 /2 1 − 1 /2 1 − 1 /2
so that dx = au du1 , dy = au2 du2 and dz = au3 du3 .
2 1 2 2
With these substitutions the given condition reduces to
0 < u1 + u2 + u3 < 1
and the required integral becomes
1 − 1 /2 − 1 /2 − 1 /2
( )3 . a3 u1 u2 u3 du1 du2 du3
=∫∫∫ 2
a √ {1 − (u1 + u2 + u3 )}
a2 u11 /2 − 1 u21 /2 − 1 u31 /2 − 1 du1 du2 du3
=
8 ∫∫∫ √ {1 − (u1 + u2 + u3 )}
a2 [Γ (1 / 2)]3 1 3 /2 − 1 1
= ⋅ ⋅∫ u ⋅ du ,
8 3 0 √ (1 − u)
Γ( )
2
a2 [√ π]3 π /2 sin θ .2 sin θ cos θ dθ
8 1 ⋅ √ π ∫0
= ⋅ ⋅ 2
, putting u = sin2 θ etc.
√ (1 − sin θ)
2
π a2 π /2 π a2 1 π π2 a2
2 ∫0
2
= sin θ dθ = ⋅ ⋅ = ⋅
2 2 2 8
Example 6: Prove that when x and y are positive and x + y < h ,

π
∫∫ f ′ ( x + y) x l − 1 y − l dx dy = [ f (h) − f (0 )] .
sin lπ
(Kumaun 2008)
I = ∫∫ f ′ ( x + y) x l − 1 y(1 − l ) − 1 dx dy , where 0 < x + y < h
Γ (l) Γ (1 − l ) h
f ′ (u) ul + (1 − l ) − 1 du ,
Γ (l + 1 − l ) ∫0
=

Γ (l ) Γ (1 − l ) h
=
Γ (1) ∫0 f ′ (u) du
π π
= [ f (u)]0h = [ f (h) − f (0 )] .
sin π l sin π l
Example 7: Evaluate ∫∫∫ x α yβ z γ (1 − x − y − z )λ dx dy dz over the interior of the
tetrahedron formed by the coordinate planes and the plane x + y + z = 1.

Solution: Here the region of integration is bounded by the planes x = 0 , y = 0 , z = 0
and x + y + z = 1.So the variables x, y, z take all positive values subject to the condition
0 < x + y + z < 1.
I-95
Hence the given integral

= ∫∫∫ x(α + 1) − 1 y( β + 1) − 1 z (γ + 1) − 1 [1 − ( x + y + z )]λ dx dy dz
Γ (α + 1) Γ ( β + 1) Γ (γ + 1) 1 α + 1 + β + 1 + γ + 1 − 1
= ⋅∫ u (1 − u)λ du ,
Γ (α + β + γ + 3) 0
Γ (α + 1) Γ (β + 1) Γ (γ + 1) 1 (α + β + γ + 3) − 1
= ⋅∫ u (1 − u)(λ + 1) − 1 du
Γ (α + β + γ + 3) 0
Γ (α + 1) Γ (β + 1) Γ (γ + 1)
= B (α + β + γ + 3 , λ + 1)
Γ (α + β + γ + 3)
Γ (α + 1) Γ (β + 1) Γ (γ + 1) Γ (α + β + γ + 3) Γ (λ + 1)
= ⋅
Γ (α + β + γ + 3) Γ (α + β + γ + λ + 4)
Γ (α + 1) Γ (β + 1) Γ (γ + 1) Γ (λ + 1)
= ⋅
Γ (α + β + γ + λ + 4)
Example 8: Evaluate
∫∫∫ √ (a2 b2 c 2 − b2 c 2 x2 − c 2 a2 y2 − a2 b2 z 2 ) dx dy dz
taken throughout the ellipsoid x2 / a2 + y2 / b2 + z 2 / c 2 = 1 .

(Lucknow 2009; Kumaun 12)
2 2 2 2 2 2
Solution: The given ellipsoid x / a + y / b + z / c = 1 is symmetrical in all the
eight octants. Let us first evaluate the given integral over the region of the ellipsoid
which lies in the positive octant i. e., where x, y, z are all positive.
Put x2 / a2 = u , y2 / b2 = v , z 2 / c 2 = w .
1 − 1 /2
Then x = au1 /2 , dx = au du etc.
2
Now the given integral extended over the positive octant of the given ellipsoid is
 x2 y2 z 2 
I = abc ∫∫∫ 1 −


2
a
− 2 − 2  dx dy dz ,
b c 
where 0 < x2 / a2 + y2 / b2 + z 2 / c 2 ≤ 1
1
= abc ∫∫∫ √ (1 − u − v − w) ⋅ abc u− 1 /2 v− 1 /2 w − 1 /2 du dv dw,
8
where 0 < u + v + w ≤ 1
2 2 2
a b c
= ∫∫∫ u(1 /2) − 1 v(1 /2) − 1 w(1 /2) − 1 √ {1 − (u + v + w)} du dv dw
8
1
[Γ ( )]3 1
a2 b2 c 2 2 √ (1 − t) . t1 /2 + 1 /2 + 1 /2 − 1 dt ,
Γ (3 / 2) ∫0
= ⋅
8
I-96
a2 b2 c 2 (√ π)3 1 (3 /2) − 1 (3 /2) − 1

=
8
⋅
1 ∫0 (1 − t) t dt
.√π
2
2 2 2 Γ (3 / 2) Γ (3 / 2) π2 a2 b2 c 2
a b c
= ⋅2 π ⋅ = ⋅
8 Γ (3) 32
Hence if the integration is extended throughout the ellipsoid, the given integral
π2 a2 b2 c 2 π2 a2 b2 c 2
=8 I =8⋅ = ⋅
32 4
1 − x2 / a2 − y2 / b2 
Example 9: Evaluate ∫ ∫   dx dy ,
1 + x2 / a2 + y2 / b2 
where x2 / a2 + y2 / b2 ≤ 1.
Solution: The ellipse x2 / a2 + y2 / b2 = 1 is symmetrical in all the four quadrants.
Let us first evaluate the given integral over the region of the ellipse x2 / a2 + y2 / b2 = 1
which lies in the first quadrant i. e., where x and y are both positive.
Put x2 / a2 = u , y2 / b2 = v .
1 − 1 /2
Then x = au1 /2 , dx = au du ,
2
1
y = bv1 /2 , dy = bv− 1 /2 dv .
2
∴ the given integral extended over the region of the ellipse x2 / a2 + y2 / b2 = 1 which
lies in the first quadrant is given by
1 − u − v 1
I = ∫∫   ⋅ abu− 1 /2 v− 1 /2 du dv , where 0 < u + v ≤ 1
1 + u + v 2
ab 1 − (u + v) (1 /2) − 1 (1 /2) − 1

=
4 ∫∫   u
1 + (u + v)
v du dv
1 1
Γ ( )Γ ( ) 1  1 − t  1 /2 + 1 /2 − 1
ab 2 2
=
4
⋅
Γ (1) ∫0 
1 + t 
 ⋅t dt
π ab 1 1− t π ab π /2 1 − sin θ
⋅∫
4 ∫0
= 2
dt = cos θ dθ ,
4 0 √ (1 − t ) cos θ
putting t = sin θ so that dt = cos θ dθ
π ab π /2 π ab
= ∫ (1 − sin θ) dθ = [θ + cos θ]0π /2
4 0 4
π ab  π   π ab  π 
=  + 0  − (0 + 1) =  − 1 ⋅
4  2   4  2 
Hence the given integral extended over the whole region of the ellipse
1
x2 / a2 + y2 / b2 = 1 = 4. I = π ab ( π − 1) .
2
I-97
Example 10: Prove that I = ∫∫∫∫ dx dy dz dw , for all positive values of the variables for
which x2 + y2 + z 2 + w2 is not less than a2 and not greater than b2 is π2 (b4 − a4 ) / 32 .
Solution: We have to evaluate I subject to the condition
a2 < x2 + y2 + z 2 + w2 < b2 .
1
Putting x2 = u1 i. e., x = u11 /2 , dx = u1− 1 /2 du1 etc., we get
2
1 − 1 /2 1 − 1 /2 1 − 1 /2 1 − 1 /2
I = ∫∫∫∫ u
2 1
⋅ u2
2
⋅ u3
2
⋅ u4
2
du1 du2 du3 du4
subject to the condition a2 < u1 + u2 + u3 + u4 < b2

1
or I = ∫∫∫∫ u1(1 /2) − 1 u2(1 /2) − 1 u3(1 /2) − 1 u4(1 /2) − 1 du1 du2 du3 du4
16
1
[Γ ( )]4 b2 1 / 2 + 1 / 2 + 1 / 2 + 1 / 2 − 1
1 2
= ⋅ ∫
16 Γ ( 1 + 1 + 1 + 1) a
2 t dt ,
2 2 2 2
by Liouville’s theorem
b2
(√ π)4 b2 π2  t2  π2 4
16 Γ (2) ∫ a
= 2 t dt = ⋅   = (b − a4 ) .
16  2  2 32
a
l −1
1. Show that the integral ∫ ∫ ∫ x y m −1 z n −1 dx dy dz integrated over the region
in the first octant below the surface ( x / a) p + ( y / b)q + (z / c )r = 1 is
a l b m c n Γ (l / p) Γ (m / q) Γ (n / r)
⋅ ⋅
pqr Γ (l / p + m / q + n / r + 1)
2. Show that if l, m, n are all positive,
a l b m c n Γ (l / 2) Γ (m / 2) Γ (n / 2)
∫∫∫ x l −1 y m −1 z n −1dx dy dz = ⋅ ,
8 Γ (l / 2 + m / 2 + n / 2 + 1)
where the triple integral is taken throughout the part of the ellipsoid
x2 / a2 + y2 / b2 + z 2 / c 2 = 1, which lies in the positive octant.
3. Prove that the area in the positive quadrant between the curve x n + y n = a n and
the coordinate axes is
a2 [Γ (1 / n)]2
⋅
2 n Γ (2 / n)
I-98
4. (i) Find the volume in the positive octant of the ellipsoid

x2 / a2 + y2 / b2 + z 2 / c 2 = 1.
(ii) Find the volume of the ellipsoid x2 / a2 + y2 / b2 + z 2 / c 2 = 1.

(Kumaun 2015)
(iii) Evaluate ∫∫∫ dx dy dz, where x2 / a2 + y2 / b2 + z 2 / c 2 ≤ 1.

(Kumaun 2007)
5. Evaluate ∫ ∫ ∫ xyz dx dy dz for all positive values of the variables throughout the
ellipsoid x2 / a2 + y2 / b2 + z 2 / c 2 = 1.
6. Find the volume of the tetrahedron bounded by the plane x / a + y / b + z / c = 1

and the coordinate axes.
7. The plane x / a + y / b + z / c = 1meets the coordinate axes in the points A, B, C.
Use Dirichlet’s integral to evaluate the mass of the tetrahedron OABC , the
density at any point ( x, y, z ) being k xyz.
8. Evaluate the integral ∫∫∫ x2 y z dx dy dz over the volume enclosed by the
region x, y, z , ≥ 0 and x + y + z ≤ 1.
∫ ∫ ∫D x
1 /2
9. Evaluate the double integral y1 /2 (1 − x − y)2 /3 dx dy
over the domain D bounded by the lines x = 0 , y = 0 , x + y = 1.

10. Evaluate ∫ ∫T x1 /2 y1 /2 (1 − x − y)3 /2 dx dy, where T is the region bounded by
x ≥ 0 , y ≥ 0 , x + y ≤ 1.
11. Find the value of ∫∫ x l −1 y − l e x + y dx dy,
extended to all positive values of x and y subject to x + y < h.

12. Evaluate ∫∫∫ e x + y + z dx dy dz taken over the positive octant such that
x + y + z ≤ 1.
13. Evaluate ∫∫∫ x −1 /2 y −1 /2 z −1 /2 (1 − x − y − z )1 /2 dx dy dz extended to all

positive values of the variables subject to the condition x + y + z < 1.
dx dy dz π2
14. Prove that ∫∫∫ =
√ (1 − x2 − y2 − z 2 ) 8
, the integral being extended to all
positive values of the variables for which the expression is real. (Lucknow 2006)
dx1 dx2 … dxn π(n +1)/2
15. Show that ∫∫ …∫ =
√ (1 − x12 − x22 − … − xn2 ) 2 n Γ  n + 1
 
 2 
the integral being extended to all positive values of the variables for which the
expression is real.
16. If S is a unit sphere with its centre at the origin, then prove that
dx dy dz
∫ ∫ ∫S √ (1 − x2 − y2 − z 2 )
= π2 .
I-99
17. Evaluate ∫ ∫ ∫ ( x + y + z + 1)2 dx dy dz , where R is the region defined by

R
x ≥ 0 , y ≥ 0 , z ≥ 0 , x + y + z ≤ 1.
1 /2
1 − x2 − y2  π
18. Show that ∫∫ 
1 +


x2 + y2 
dx dy =
8
(π − 2)
over the positive quadrant of the circle x2 + y2 = 1.
19. Find the value of ∫∫∫ xyz sin ( x + y + z ) dx dy dz ,
the integral being extended to all positive values of the variables subject to the
condition x + y + z ≤ π / 2 .
1 − x2 − y2 − z 2 
20. Evaluate ∫∫∫ 
1 +

 dx dy dz integral being taken over all
x2 + y2 + z 2 
positive values of x, y, z such that x2 + y2 + z 2 ≤ 1.
− x2 − y2 π 2
21. Prove that ∫ ∫D e dx dy = (1 − e −R ), where D is the region defined by
4
x ≥ 0 , y ≥ 0 , x2 + y2 ≤ R2 . (Lucknow 2009)
22. (i) Evaluate ∫ ∫ √ ( x2 + y2 ) dx dy

R
where R is the region in the xy-plane bounded by x2 + y2 = 4 and x2 + y2 = 9.
(ii) Evaluate ∫ ∫ √ ( x2 + y2 ) dx dy where R is the region x2 + y2 ≤ a2 .

R
∫ ∫ ∫ R √ (1 − x
2
23. Evaluate the integral − y2 − z 2 ) dx dy dz
where R is the region interior to the sphere x2 + y2 + z 2 = 1.

24. Find the mass of the region bounded by the ellipsoid
x2 / a2 + y2 / b2 + z 2 / c 2 = 1
if the density varies as the square of the distance from its centre.
dx dy dz 1 5
25. Prove that ∫ ∫ ∫ 3
= log 2 − 
( x + y + z + 1) 2  8
throughout the volume bounded by the coordinate planes and the plane
x + y + z = 1.
26. Evaluate the integral
∫ ∫ ∫ R (ax
2
+ by2 + cz 2 ) dx dy dz
where R is the region given by x2 + y2 + z 2 ≤ d 2 .
27. Evaluate the following integrals :

a √(a2 − y2 )
(i) ∫0 ∫0 (a2 − x2 − y2 ) dx dy
2 √(4 − x2 )
(ii) ∫0 ∫0 ( x2 + y2 ) dx dy.
I-100
A nswers 1
4 4
4. (i) π abc / 6 (ii) π abc (iii) π abc
3 3
5. a2 b2 c 2 / 48 6. abc / 6 7. k a2 b2 c 2 / 720
8. 1 / 2520 9. 27 π / 1760 10. 2 π / 315

π
11. (e h − 1) 12. (e − 2) / 2 13. π2 / 4
sin lπ
17. 31 / 60 19. (π4 − 48 π2 + 384) / 384

1   3 1  5 1 
20. π B  ,  − B  ,  22. (i) 38 π / 3 (ii) 2 πa3 / 3
8   4 2   4 2 
23. π2 / 4
24. 8 π abck (a2 + b2 + c 2 ) / 30 , where k is constant.
4 5
26. d π (a + b + c ) 27. (i) πa4 / 8 (ii) 2π
15

(b), (c) and (d).
1. If x, y, z ≥ 0 and h1 ≤ x + y + z ≤ h2 , the value of
∫∫∫ F ( x + y + z ) x l − 1 y m − 1 z n − 1 dx dy dz is equivalent to
Γ (l) Γ (m) Γ (n) h2
F (u) u l + m + n − 1 du
Γ (l + m + n) ∫ h1
(a)
Γ (l) Γ (m) Γ (n) h2

F (u) u l + m + n − 1 du
Γ (l + m + n + 1) ∫ h1
(b)
Γ (l) Γ (m) Γ (n) h2

F (u) u l + m + n du
Γ (l + m + n) ∫ h1
(c)
Γ (l) Γ (m) Γ (n) h2

F (u) u l + m + n du
Γ (l + m + n + 1) ∫ h1
(d)
I-101
2. Dirichlet’s theorem can be generalized for n variables, where

(a) n ≤ 4 (b) n ≤ 100
(c) n is any positive integer (d) none of these (Kumaun 2008)
3. Dirichlet’s theorem
Γ (m1) Γ (m2 ) … Γ (mn)
∫∫ … ∫ x1m1 − 1 x2 m2 − 1 … xnmn − 1 dx1 dx2 … dxn = ,
Γ (1 + m1 + m2 + … + mn )
hold to the condition
(a) x1 + x2 + … + xn = 1 (b) x1 + x2 + … + xn ≥ 1
(c) x1 + x2 + … + xn ≤ 1 (d) none of these (Kumaun 2007)

1. If l, m, n are all positive, then the triple integral
Γ (l) Γ (m) Γ (n)
∫∫∫ x l −1 y m −1 z n −1 dx dy dz = ,
……
where the integral is extended to all positive values of the variables x, y and z
subject to the condition x + y + z ≤ 1.
2. If the variables x, y, z are all positive such that h1 ≤ x + y + z ≤ h2 ,
∫∫∫ F ( x + y + z ) x l −1 y m −1 z n −1 dx dy dz
Γ (l) Γ (m) Γ (n) h2 l + m + n −1
=
…… ∫h1 F (t) t dt.
True or False
dx dy dz 1 1 u2
1. ∫∫∫ ( x + y + z + 1)3
= ∫
3 0 (u + 1)3
du,
where the region of integration is the volume bounded by the coordinate planes
and the plane x + y + z = 1.
1 1 2
∫ ∫ ∫ ( x + y + z + 1) dx dy dz = 2 ∫0 u (u + 1) du,
2 2
2.
where the region of integration is the volume bounded by the coordinate planes
and the plane
3. If l and m are both positive, then the double integral
l −1 m −1 Γ (l) Γ (m)
∫ ∫ x y dx dy = Γ (l + m) ,
where the integral is extended to all positive values of the variables x and y subject
to the condition x + y ≤ 1.
I-102
A nswers

1. (a) 2. (c) 3. (c)

1. Γ (l + m + n + 1) 2. Γ (l + m + n).
True or False
1. F 2. T 3. F
¨
6
D ouble and T riple I ntegrals
(Multiple Integrals,
Change of Order of Integration)
1 Double Integrals
he concept of double integral is an extension of the concept of a definite integral to
T the case of two arguments (i.e. a two dimensional space). Let a function f ( x, y )
of the independent variables x and y be continuous inside some domain (region) A
and on its boundary. Divide the domain A into n subdomains A1, A2 , … , An of areas
δA1, δA2 , … ,δAn . Let ( xr , yr ) be any point inside the rth elementary area δAr . From the
sum
Sn = f ( x1, y1) δA1 + f ( x2 , y2 ) δA2 + … + f ( xr , yr ) δAr
+ … + f ( xn , yn) δAn
n
= Σ f ( xr , yr ) δAr . ...(1)
r =1
Now take the limit of the sum (1) as n → ∞ in such a way that the largest of the areas δAr
approaches to zero. This limit, if it exists, is called the double integral of the function
f ( x, y ) over the domain A . It is denoted by ∫ ∫A f ( x, y ) dA and is read as “the
double integral of f ( x, y ) over A”.

I-104
Suppose the domain (region) A is divided into rectangular partitions by a network of

lines parallel to the coordinate axes. Let dx be the length of a sub-rectangle and dy be its
width so that dx dy is an element of area in Cartesian coordinates. The integral
∫∫ f ( x, y ) dA is written as ∫ ∫A f ( x, y ) dx dy and is called the double integral of
f ( x, y ) over the region A .
2 Evaluation of Double Integrals

If the region A be given by the inequalities a ≤ x ≤ b , c ≤ y ≤ d , then the double
integral
b d
∫ ∫A f ( x, y ) dx dy = ∫a ∫c f ( x, y ) dx dy
b  d f ( x, y ) dy dx ,
= ∫a ∫c 
...(1)
d b
or ∫ ∫A f ( x, y ) dx dy = ∫c ∫a f ( x, y ) dy dx
d  b f ( x, y ) dx dy
= ∫c ∫a 
...(2)
i.e., in this case the order of integration is immaterial, provided the limits of integration
are changed accordingly.
d
Note: In formula (1) the definite integral ∫ f ( x, y ) dy is calculated first. During
c
this integration x is regarded as a constant. While in the formula (2) the definite
b
integral ∫ f ( x, y ) dx is calculated first and during this integration y is regarded as a
a
constant.
3 Evaluation of Double Integrals by Repeated Integrals

The double integrals over domains that have special shapes can be reduced to a pair of
ordinary integrals. If the region A is bounded by the curves
y = f1 ( x) , y = f2 ( x) , x = a and x = b , then
b f2 ( x)
∫∫ A f ( x, y ) dx dy = ∫a ∫ f1( x) f ( x, y ) dx dy
b  f2 ( x) 
= ∫a ∫ f1( x) f ( x, y ) dy dx ,

…(1)
where the integration with respect to y is performed first treating x as a constant.

Similarly, if the region A is bounded by the curves
x = f1 ( y) , x = f2 ( y) , y = c , y = d , we have
I-105
d f2 ( y)
∫∫ A f ( x, y ) dx dy = ∫c ∫ f1( y) f ( x, y ) dy dx
d  f2 ( y) 
= ∫c ∫ f1( y) f ( x, y ) dx dy,

…(2)
where the integration with respect to x is performed first treating y as a constant.

The integrals in the right hand sides of (1) and (2) are called repeated integrals.
Remember: While evaluating double integrals, first integrate w.r.t. the

variable having variable limits (treating the other variable as constant) and then
integrate w.r.t. the variable with constant limits.
b d
Remark: In the double integral ∫ ∫c f ( x, y ) dx dy , it is generally understood that
a
the limits of integration c to d are those of y and the limits of integration a to b are those
of x . However this is not a standard convention. Some authors regard these limits in
the reverse order i.e. they regard the limits c to d as those of x and the limits a to b as those
b d
of y . So it is better to write this double integral as ∫ ∫y= c f ( x, y ) dx dy so that
x=a
there is no confusion about the limits. However in the double integral

b f2 ( x)
∫a ∫ f1( x) F ( x, y ) dx dy , there is no confusion about the limits. Obviously, the variable
limits are those of y because they are in terms of x and so the constant limits must be
those of x . Here the first integration must be performed with respect to y regarding x as
constant.
4 Properties of Double Integral

I. If the region A is partitioned into two parts, say A1 and A2 , then
∫ ∫A f ( x, y ) dx dy = ∫ ∫A1 f ( x, y ) dx dy + ∫ ∫A2 f ( x, y ) dx dy .
Similarly for a sub-division of A into three or more parts.

II. The double integral of the algebraic sum of a fixed number of functions is equal to
the algebraic sum of the double integrals taken for each term. Thus
∫ ∫A [ f1 ( x, y ) + f2 ( x, y ) + f3 ( x, y ) + …] dx dy
= ∫ ∫A f1 ( x, y ) dx dy + ∫ ∫A f2 ( x, y ) dx dy
+ ∫ ∫A f3 ( x, y ) dx dy + …
III. A constant factor may be taken outside the integral sign. Thus
∫ ∫A m f ( x, y ) dx dy = m ∫ ∫
A
f ( x, y ) dx dy ,
where m is a constant.
I-106
Example 1: Evaluate the following double integrals :

a b
(i) ∫0 ∫0 ( x2 + y2 ) dx dy (Kanpur 2006; Lucknow 10; Purvanchal 14)
2 x dx dy
(ii) ∫1 ∫0 x + y2
2
⋅
(Kumaun 2015)
a  3 b
a b y
Solution: (i) We have ∫0 ∫0 ( x2 + y2 ) dx dy = ∫  x2 y +
0 

3 
dx ,
 y =0
(integrating w.r.t. y treating x as constant)
a
 a b3   x3 b3  ba3 b3 a 1
= ∫ bx2 +  dx = b + x = + = ab (a2 + b2 ) .
0  3   3 3  0 3 3 3

2 x dx dy 2  x dy 
(ii) We have ∫1 ∫0 2
x + y 2
= ∫1 ∫0 2
x + y  2
dx

x
1
2 −1 y
= ∫1  x tan
x  y = 0
dx

1 2 −1 −1  π 2 dx π 2
= ∫1
 x (tan 1 − tan 0 ) dx = 4 ∫1 x = 4 [log x]1
1 1
= π [log 2 − log 1] = π log 2 .
4 4
Example 2: Evaluate :
3 2
(i) ∫0 ∫1 xy (1 + x + y ) dx dy
1 √(1 + x2 ) dx dy
(ii) ∫0 ∫0 ⋅
1 + x2 + y2 (Gorakhpur 2005; Kanpur 12; Avadh 14; Kumaun 14)
3 2
Solution: (i) We have ∫0 ∫1 xy (1 + x + y) dx dy
2
 3y2 y2 y3 
= ∫ x ⋅ + x2 ⋅ + x⋅  dx ,
0  2 2 3 
 y =1
3 x x x  2
= ∫  (4 − 1) + (4 − 1) + (8 − 1) dx
0 2 2 3 

3
 3 7 
3 3 2 23 x2 3 x3 
= ∫  +  x + x  dx =  ⋅ + ⋅ 
0  2 3  2   6 2 2 3  0
I-107
23 9 27 123 3
= ⋅ + = = 30 ⋅
6 2 2 4 4
1 √(1 + x2 ) dx dy
(ii) We have ∫0 ∫0 1 + x2 + y2
√(1 + x2 )
1  1
−1 y 
=∫ 2 tan 2  dx ,
0 √ (1 + x )  √ (1 + x ) y = 0

1 1 π 1 dx
∫0 [tan− 1 1 − tan− 1 0 ] dx =
4 ∫0 √ (1 + x2 )
= 2
√ (1 + x )
π 1 π
= [log { x + √ (1 + x2 )}] = log (1 + √ 2) .
4 0 4
a √(a2 − y2 )
Example 3: Evaluate ∫0 ∫0 √ (a2 − x2 − y2 ) dy dx .
Solution: Here the variable limits are those of x and so the first integration must be
performed w.r.t. x taking y as constant.
a √(a2 − y2 )
∴ ∫0 ∫0 √ (a2 − x2 − y2 ) dy dx
a √(a2 − y2 ) 
= ∫0 ∫0 √ { (a2 − y2 ) − x2 } dx dy

√(a2 − y2 )
 x √ (a2 − y2 − x2 ) (a2 − y2 )
a −1 x 
=∫  + sin  dy,
0
 2 2 √ (a2 − y2 ) x = 0
(integrating w.r.t. x treating y as constant)
a
 aa2 − y2 π  π 2 y3  π  3 a3  1
= ∫ 0 + ⋅  dy = a y −  = a −
3
= πa .
0  2 2  4  3  4  3  6
   0  
2 y /2 2 x /2
Example 4: Show that ∫1 ∫0 y dy dx = ∫1 ∫0 x dx dy .
Solution: We have
2 y /2 2  y /2  2 y /2
∫1 ∫0 y dy dx = ∫1  y ∫0 dx dy = ∫ y [ x]0 dy ,
 1
(integrating w.r.t. x treating y as a constant)

2
2 y  1 2 2 1  y3  1 7
= ∫1 y  − 0  dy = ∫ y dy =   = [8 − 1] =
2  2 1 2  3  6 6
...(1)
1
2 x /2 2  x /2  2
Again ∫1 ∫0 x dx dy = ∫1 x ∫
 0
dy dx = ∫ x [ y]0x /2 dx ,
 1
(integrating w.r.t. y treating x as a constant)

I-108
2
2 x  1 2 2 1  x3  1 7
= ∫1 x 2 − 0 dx = 2 ∫1 x dx = 2  3  = 6 (8 − 1) = 6 ...(2)
1
2 y /2 2 x /2
∫1 ∫0 y dy dx = ∫1 ∫0 x dx dy .
Examples on the region of integration (Double Integration)

Example 5: Evaluate ∫ ∫ x2 y2 dx dy over the region x2 + y2 ≤ 1 .
Solution: Let R denote the region x2 + y2 ≤ 1 . Then R is the region in the xy-plane
bounded by the circle x2 + y2 = 1 . The limits of integration for this region can be
expressed either as
− 1 ≤ x ≤ 1, − √ (1 − x2 ) ≤ y ≤ √ (1 − x2 )
or as − √ (1 − y2 ) ≤ x ≤ √ (1 − y2 ), − 1 ≤ y ≤ 1 .
Because from the equation of the circle x2 + y2 = 1 , we have x2 = 1 − y2 so that
x = ± √ (1 − y2 ) . Thus for a fixed value of y, x varies from − √ (1 − y2 ) to √ (1 − y2 ) in the
area bounded by the circle x2 + y2 = 1 . Also y varies from − 1 to 1 to cover the whole
area of the circle x2 + y2 = 1 . Therefore if the first integration is to be performed w.r.t. x
regarding y as constant, then
1 √(1 − y2 )
∫ ∫R x2 y2 dx dy = ∫
y = −1 ∫x = − √ (1 − y2 )
x2 y2 dx dy
1  √(1 − y2 ) 
= ∫ y = −1 y2  ∫ 2
 x = − √(1 − y )
x2 dx dy

1  √(1 − y2 ) 2 
= ∫ −1 y2 2 ∫
 x = 0
x dx dy

√(1 − y2 )
1  x3 
= ∫ 2 y2   dy
−1  3 0
1 2 2
= ∫ −1 3
y (1 − y2 )3 /2 dy
2 1 2
3 ∫0
=2. y (1 − y2 )3 /2 dy.
Put y = sin θ so that dy = cos θ dθ ;

when y = 0 , θ = 0 and when y = 1, θ = π / 2 .
4 π /2
∫ ∫ R x y dx dy = 3 ∫0 sin θ (1 − sin θ) . cos θ dθ
2 2 2 2 3 /2
∴
4 π /2 . . π
4 131 π
3 ∫0
= sin2 θ cos4 θ dθ = ⋅ ⋅ = ⋅
3 6.4.2 2 24
I-109
Example 6: Find by double integration the area of the region bounded by the circle
2 2 2
x + y =a . (Agra 2007; Kanpur 09)
Solution: The area of a small element situated at any point ( x, y ) is dx dy . To find the
area bounded by the circle x2 + y2 = a2 , the region of integration R can be expressed
as − a ≤ y ≤ a , − √ (a2 − y2 ) ≤ x ≤ √ (a2 − y2 ) ,
where the first integration is to be performed w.r.t. x regarding y as constant.
∴ the required area
a √(a2 − y2 )
= ∫ ∫R dx dy = ∫ y = − a ∫ x = − √(a2 − y2 )
1 . dx dy
a  √(a2 − y2 )  a √(a2 − y2 )
= ∫ −a  ∫0
 2 1. dx dy = 2 ∫
 − a
[ x]0 dy
a a
=2∫ √ (a2 − y2 ) dy = 2.2 ∫ √ (a2 − y2 ) dy (Note)
−a 0
a
 y √ (a2 − y2 ) a2 y  a2 
=4 + sin− 1  = 4 0 + sin− 1 1
 2 2 a   2 
0
1 1
= 4 . a2 . π = π a2 .
2 2
Example 7: Evaluate ∫∫(x+ y )2 dx dy over the area bounded by the ellipse
x2 / a2 + y2 / b2 = 1 . Hence find the mass of an elliptic plate whose density per unit area is
given by ρ = k ( x + y )2 .
Solution: The region of integration can be considered as bounded by

y = − b √ (1 − x2 / a2 ) , y = b √ (1 − x2 / a2 ) , x = − a and x = a .
a b √(1 − x2 / a2 )
∫ ∫ ( x + y ) dx dy = ∫ −a ∫ − b √(1 − x2 a2 )
2
∴ ( x2 + y2 + 2 xy) dx dy ,
the first integration to be performed

w.r.t. y regarding x as a constant
a b √(1 − x2 / a2 )
= ∫ −a 2 ∫0 ( x2 + y2 ) dx dy ,
[ ∵ 2 xy being an odd function of y , its integration

under the given limits of y is 0]
2 2
b √(1 − x / a )
 2
a y3 
=2∫ x y +  dx
−a 3 
 0
 
3 /2 
 2
a x2  b3  x2  
=2∫  x b 1 −  + 1 −   dx
−a
  a2  3  a2  
I-110
 
3 /2 
 a x2  b3  x2  
= 4 ∫  x2 b 1 −  + 1 −   dx
0
  a2  3  a2  
π /2  2 b2 
∫0
2
= 4b  a sin θ cos θ + cos3 θ a cos θ dθ ,
 3 
putting x = a sin θ so that dx = a cos θ dθ
π /2  2 b2 
∫0
2 2
= 4 ab  a sin θ cos θ + cos4 θ dθ
 3 
 π /2 b2 π /2 
= 4 ab a2 ∫ sin2 θ cos2 θ dθ + ∫ cos4 θ dθ
 0 3 0 
 1.1 π b2 3.1 π 
= 4 ab a2 ⋅ ⋅ + ⋅ ⋅  [By Walli’s formula]
 4.2 2 3 4.2 2 
1 1  1
= 4 ab  πa2 + π b2  = π ab (a2 + b2 ) .
16 16  4
The mass of an elliptic plate whose density is given by ρ = k ( x + y )2
= ∫ ∫A k ( x + y )2 dx dy , where the integration is to be performed
over the area A of the ellipse

1
= k . ⋅ π ab (a2 + b2 ) .
4
Example 8: Evaluate ∫ ∫ ( x2 + y2 ) dx dy over the region in the positive quadrant for which
x + y ≤ 1. (Rohilkhand 2012; Avadh 14)
Solution: The region of integration R is the area bounded by the coordinate axes and
the straight line x + y = 1. Therefore the region R is bounded by y = 0 , y = 1 − x and
x = 0 , x = 1.
Therefore
1 1− x
∫ ∫R ( x ∫x =0 ∫ y =0
2
+ y2 ) dx dy = ( x2 + y2 ) dx dy ,
the first integration to be performed w.r.t. y regarding x as constant

1− x

1 y3  1  2 (1 − x)3 
= ∫  x2 y +  dx = ∫0 
 x (1 − x) +  dx
0 3  3 
 0 
1
 x3 x4 (1 − x)4  1 1 1  1
= − −  = − + = ⋅
 3 4 3 × 4 0 3 4 12  6
Example 9: Evaluate ∫ ∫ xy ( x + y ) dx dy over the area between y = x2 and y = x .
(Gorakhpur 2005, 06)
2
Solution: Draw the given curves y = x and y = x in the same figure. The two curves
intersect at the points whose abscissae are given by x2 = x or x ( x − 1) = 0 i.e., x = 0 or 1.
I-111
When 0 < x < 1 , we have x > x2 . So the area of integration can be considered as lying
between the curves y = x2 , y = x , x = 0 and x = 1.
Therefore the required integral

1 x 1  x 
= ∫ x = 0 ∫ y = x2 xy ( x + y ) dx dy = ∫0  ∫ x2
( x2 y + xy2 ) dy dx

x
1 x y
2 2
xy 
3 1  x 4
x  x
4 6
x  
7
=∫  +  dx = ∫  +  −  +   dx
0 0
 2 3  2
x  2 3 2 3  
1
1 5 x4 x6 x7   x5 x7 x8 
=∫  − −  dx =  − − 
0  6 2 3   6 14 24  0

1 1 1 28 − 12 − 7 9 3
= − − = = = ⋅
6 14 24 168 168 56
Example 10: Prove by the method of double integration that the area lying between the
16 2
parabolas y2 = 4 ax and x2 = 4 ay is a .
3
Solution: Draw the two parabolas in the same figure. The two parabolas intersect at
the points whose abscissae are given by ( x2 / 4 a)2 = 4 ax i.e., x ( x3 − 64 a3 ) = 0 i.e.,
x = 0 and x3 = 64 a3 . Thus the two parabolas intersect at the points where x = 0 and
x = 4a .
Now the area of a small element situated at any point ( x, y ) = dx dy .
4a √(4 ax) 4a √(4 ax)
= ∫ x = 0 ∫ y = x2 /4 a dx dy = ∫0 [ y]
x2 /4 a
dx
4a
 4a 1 2  3 /2 2 1 x3 
∫0 
1 /2
= 2 √ a . x − . x  dx =  2 √ a . x . − ⋅ 
4a  3 4 a 3 
0
4 1 32 16 16
= √ a. (4 a)3 /2 − . 64 a3 = a2 − a2 = a2 .
3 12 a 3 3 3
Evaluate the following double integrals :

2 √(4 + x2 ) dx dy
1. (i) ∫0 ∫0 4 + x2 + y2
⋅
(Rohilkhand 2005)
a b dx dy
(ii) ∫1 ∫1 xy
⋅
π /2 π
(iii) ∫0 ∫ π /2 cos ( x + y) dy dx.
(Kanpur 2007, 11)
I-112
1 x2 2 3y
(iv) ∫0 ∫0 e y / x dx dy. (v) ∫1 ∫0 y dy dx.
2 √(2 x − x2 )
(vi) ∫0 ∫0 x dx dy.
(Lucknow 2006; Kanpur 08)
1 1 dx dy
2. (i) ∫0 ∫0 √ {(1 − x2 ) (1 − y2 )}
⋅
1 √(1 − y2 )
(ii) ∫0 ∫0 4 y dy dx.
(Lucknow 2008)
1 √x 3 y −1 dy dx
(iii) ∫0 ∫ x ( x2 + y2 ) dx dy. (iv) ∫2 ∫0 y
⋅
a √(a2 − y2 )
(v) ∫0 ∫0 (a2 − x2 − y2 ) dy dx.
a √(a2 − x2 )
(vi) ∫0 ∫0 ( x + y) dx dy.
2 4 4 2
3. Show that (i) ∫1 ∫3 ( xy + e y) dx dy = ∫
3 ∫1 ( xy + e y) dy dx.
(Kumaun 2015)
1 1 x− y 1 1 x− y
(ii) ∫0 dx ∫
0 ( x + y)3
dy ≠ ∫0 dy ∫
0 ( x + y)3
dx.
Find the values of the two integrals.

a √(a2 − x2 )
4. (i) Evaluate the double integral ∫0 ∫0 x2 y dx dy.
Mention the region of integration involved in this double integral.

(ii) Evaluate ∫∫ x2 y3 dx dy over the circle x2 + y2 = a2 .
(Rohilkhand 2013B)
∫ ∫ ( x + y + a) dx dy over the circular area x + y ≤ a .

2 2 2
5. Evaluate
6. Evaluate ∫ ∫ x2 y2 dxdy over the region bounded by x = 0 , y = 0 and
x2 + y2 = 1. (Avadh 2012)
7. Evaluate ∫∫ xy dx dy over the region in the positive quadrant for which

x + y ≤ 1.
8. Evaluate ∫∫ e2 x +3 y dx dy over the triangle bounded by x = 0, y = 0 and
x + y = 1.
xy
9. Evaluate ∫ ∫ dx dy over the positive quadrant of the circle x2 + y2 = 1.
√ (1 − y2 )
y2
x2
10. Find the area of the ellipse + = 1, by double integration.
a2 b2
11. Compute the value of ∫ ∫R y dx dy, where R is the region in the first quadrant
bounded by the ellipse x2 / a2 + y2 / b2 = 1.

I-113
12. Find the mass of a plate in the form of a quadrant of an ellipse

x2 / a2 + y2 / b2 = 1 whose density per unit area is given by ρ = k x y.
13. Show by double integration that the area between the parabolas y2 = 4 ax and
x2 = 4 by is (16 / 3) ab.
14. Find by double integration the area lying between the parabola y = 4 x − x2 and
the line y = x.
15. Evaluate ∫ ∫ y dx dy over the area between the parabolas y2 = 4 x and x2 = 4 y.
16. Find by double integration the area of the region enclosed by the circle
x2 + y2 = a2 and the line x + y = a (in the first quadrant).
A nswers 1
1
1. (i) π log (1 + √ 2) (ii) (log b) (log a) (iii) −2
4
1 1
(iv) (v) 7 (vi) π
2 2
1 2 4
2. (i) π (ii) (iii) 3 / 35
4 3
(iv) 1 − log (3 / 2) (v) πa4 / 8 (vi) 2 a3 / 3
1 1
3. (ii) and −
2 2
4. (i) a5 / 15. The area of the circle x2 + y2 = a2 in the positive quadrant.

(ii) 0
1
5. πa3 6. π / 96 7.
24
1 1
8. (e − 1)2 (2 e + 1) 9. 10. π ab
6 6
9
11. ab2 / 3 12. k a2 b2 / 8 14.
2
1
15. 48 / 5 16. (π − 2) a2
4
I-114
5 To Express a Double Integral in Terms of

Polar Coordinates
Let a function f ( r, θ) of the
polar coordinates ( r, θ) be
continuous inside some region A
and on its boundary. Let the
region A be bounded by the
curves r = f1 (θ) , r = f2 (θ) and
the lines θ = θ1 , θ = θ2 .
Divide the area A into elements
by a series of concentric circular
arcs with centre at origin and
successive radii differing by
equal amounts and a series of
straight lines drawn through the
origin at equal intervals of
angles. Let δr be the distance
between two consecutive circles and δθ be the angle between two consecutive lines.
There is thus a network of elementary areas (say n in number) of which a typical one is
PQRS . If P is the point (r, θ) , the area of the element PQRS situated at the point P is
1 1 1
(r + δr)2 δθ − r2 δθ = r δθ δr , by neglecting the term (δr)2 δθ being an
2 2 2
infinitesimal of higher order.
Now by the definition of the double integral of f (r, θ) over the region A , we have
n
∫ ∫A f (r, θ) dA = lim n → ∞ Σ f (rk , θ k ) rk δθ δr,
δr → 0, δθ → 0 k = 1
where r k δθδr is the area of the element situated at the point (rk , θ k ) .
Using the area of integration, this double integral is generally written as
θ2 f2 (θ) θ2 f2 (θ)
∫ θ1 ∫ f1(θ) f (r, θ) dθ dr or ∫ θ1 dθ ∫
f1(θ)
f (r, θ) dr .
The first integration is performed with respect to r , keeping θ as a constant. After

substituting the limits for r , the second integration with respect to θ is performed.
Remark: The area of the typical element PQRS situated at the point P (r, θ) can also
be found as below :
We have OP = r , OQ = r + δr so that PQ = δr . Also PS is the arc of a circle of radius r
subtending an angle δθ at the centre of the circle and so arc PS = r δθ . Therefore the
area of the element PQRS is δr. r δθ i.e., r δθ δr .
I-115
π a (1 + cos θ)
Example 11: Evaluate ∫ ∫0 r2 cos θ dθ dr.
0
Solution: We have
a (1 + cos θ)
π a (1 + cos θ)  r3 
π
∫0 ∫0 r cos θ dθ dr = ∫ cos θ  
2
dθ
0  3  0
1 π
3 ∫0
= cos θ ⋅ a3 (1 + cos θ)3 dθ
a3 π
3 ∫0
= cos θ (1 + 3 cos θ + 3 cos2 θ + cos3 θ) dθ
a3 π
3 ∫0
= [cos θ + 3 cos2 θ + 3 cos3 θ + cos4 θ] dθ
a3 π /2  π
3 ∫0 ∵ ∫0 cos θ dθ = 0
=2⋅ [3 cos2 θ + cos4 θ] dθ n
π /2 
or 2 ∫0 cos n θ dθ according as n is odd or even

2 a3 3
 1 π 3 ⋅ 1 π  2 a 3 π  1 2 a 3 π 5 5 πa
3 3
= 3 ⋅ ⋅ +
 2 2 4 ⋅ 2 2 ⋅ = ⋅ 1 + = ⋅ ⋅ = .
3 3 4  4  3 4 4 8
r dθ dr
Example 12: Evaluate ∫ ∫ over one loop of the lemniscate r2 = a2 cos 2θ .
√ (a2 + r2 )
Solution: In the equation of the lemniscate r2 = a2 cos 2θ , putting r = 0 , we get

cos 2θ = 0 i.e., 2θ = ± π / 2 i.e., θ = ± π / 4 . Therefore for one loop of the given lemniscate
θ varies from − π / 4 to π / 4 and r varies from 0 to a √ (cos 2θ) .
Therefore the required integral
π/4 a √(cos 2 θ) r dθ dr
= ∫θ = − π /4 ∫r = 0 √ (a2 + r2 )
π /4 a √(cos 2 θ) 1 2
= ∫ − π / 4 ∫0 (a + r2 )− 1 /2 (2 r) dθ dr
2
π /4 a √(cos 2 θ)
= ∫ − π /4 [(a2 + r2 )1 /2 ]0 dθ
π /4
= ∫ − π /4 [a (1 + cos 2θ)1 /2 − a] dθ
π /4 π /4
=2a∫ [(2 cos2 θ)1 /2 − 1] dθ = 2 a ∫ (√ 2 cos θ − 1) dθ
0 0
 1 π  π a
= 2 a [√ 2 sin θ − θ]0π /4 = 2 a √ 2 . − = 2 a 1 −  = (4 − π) .
 √ 2 4   4 2
I-116
Example 13: Find by double integration the area lying inside the circle r = a sin θ and outside
the cardioid r = a (1 − cos θ) .
Solution: The given circle is r = a sin θ and the cardioid is r = a (1 − cos θ) . Note that
the given circle passes through the pole and the diameter through the pole makes an
angle π / 2 with the initial line.
Eliminating r between the two equations, we have
a sin θ = a (1 − cos θ)
1 1
sin θ 2 sin θ cos θ
or 1= = 2 2 = tan θ
1 − cos θ 2 1 2
2 cos θ
2
1 1
or θ = π i.e., θ = π / 2 .
2 4
Thus the two curves meet at the point where
θ = π / 2 . Also for both the curves r = 0 when θ = 0
and so the two curves also meet at the pole O where
θ = 0 . To cover the required area the limits of
integration for r are a (1 − cos θ) to a sin θ and for θ are
0 to π / 2 . Therefore the required area
π /2 a sin θ
= ∫0 ∫ a (1 − cos θ) r dθ dr
a sin θ
π /2  r2 
= ∫0  
 2  a (1 − cos θ)
dθ
1 π /2
2 ∫0
= [a2 sin2 θ − a2 (1 − cos θ)2 ] dθ
a2 π /2
2 ∫0
= [sin2 θ − 1 + 2 cos θ − cos2 θ] dθ
a2 1 π π 1 π  a2  π  a2
= ⋅ −
2 2 2 + 21
. − ⋅ = 2 − = (4 − π) .
2 2 2  2  2  4
2 √(2 x − x2 ) x dx dy
Example 14: Transform the integral ∫0 ∫0 √ ( x2 + y2 )
by changing to polar
coordinates and hence evaluate it. (Kumaun 2008)
Solution: From the limits of integration it is obvious that the region of integration is
bounded by y = 0 , y = √ (2 x − x2 ) and x = 0 , x = 2 i. e., the region of integration is the
area of the circle x2 + y2 − 2 x = 0 between the lines x = 0 , x = 2 and lying above the axis
of x i. e., the line y = 0 .
Putting x = r cos θ , y = r sin θ the corresponding polar equation of the circle is
r2 (cos2 θ + sin2 θ) − 2 r cos θ = 0 , or r = 2 cos θ .
I-117
From the figure it is obvious that r varies from

0 to 2 cos θ and θ varies from 0 to π / 2 . Note
that at the point A of the circle, θ = 0 and at
the point O , r = 0 and so from r = 2 cos θ , we
get θ = π / 2 at O .
The polar equivalent of elementary area dx dy
is r dθ dr .
∴ ∫ ∫A f ( x, y ) dx dy = ∫ ∫A f ( r cos θ, r sin θ) r dθ dr ,
where A is the region of integration.

Hence transforming to polar coordinates, the given double integral
2 cos θ
π /2 2 cos θ r cos θ π2  r2 
= ∫θ = 0 ∫r = 0 r
r dθ dr = ∫
0
cos θ  
 2 
dθ
0
π /2 1 π /2 2 4
= ∫0 2
cos θ .4 cos2 θ dθ = 2 ∫
0
cos3 θ dθ = 2 . = ⋅
3 3
π a sin θ
1. (i) Evaluate ∫0 ∫0 r dθ dr.
(Kashi 2013)
π /2 a cos θ
(ii) Evaluate ∫0 ∫0 r sin θ dθ dr.
π a (1 + cos θ)
(iii) Evaluate ∫0 ∫0 r 3 sin θ cos θ dθ dr.
(Agra 2003; Kumaun 09)
∫∫
2
2. Evaluate r dθ dr over the area of the circle r = a cos θ.
(Kanpur 2010)
3. Integrate r sin θ over the area of the cardioid r = a (1 + cos θ), lying above the
initial line. (Kanpur 2010)
2 2 2
4. Find the mass of a loop of the lemniscate r = a sin 2 θ if density ρ = kr .
5. Find by double integration the area lying inside the cardioid r = a (1 + cos θ) and
outside the circle r = a.
6. Find by double integration the area lying inside the cardioid r = 1 + cos θ and
outside the parabola r (1 + cos θ) = 1.
Transform the following double integrals to polar coordinates and hence
evaluate them :
a √(a2 − y2 )
7. (i) ∫ y =0 ∫x =0 (a2 − x2 − y2 ) dx dy.
1 √(2 x − x2 )
(ii) ∫0 ∫ x ( x2 + y2 ) dx dy.
a √(a2 − x2 )
(iii) ∫0 ∫0 y2 √ ( x2 + y2 ) dx dy.
I-118
A nswers 2
1 2 a2 16 4
1. (i) πa (ii) (iii) a
4 6 15
4 a3 4 a3 π ka4
2. 3. 4.
9 3 16
1 2 9 π + 16
5. a (π + 8) 6.
4 12
4
π /2 a πa
7. (i) ∫0 ∫0 (a2 − r2 ) r dθ dr ;
8
π /2 2 cos θ  3π 
(ii) ∫ π /4 ∫0 r3 dθ dr ;   − 1
 8
π /2 a 4 πa5
(iii) ∫0 ∫0 r sin2 θ dθ dr ;
20
6 Triple Integrals
Let the function f ( x, y, z ) of the point P ( x, y, z ) be continuous for all points within a
finite region V and on its boundary. Divide the region V into n parts; let
δ V1, δ V2 , … , δ Vn be their volumes. Take a point in each part and from the sum
Sn = f ( x1, y1, z1) δV1 + f ( x2 , y2 , z2 ) δV2 + … + f ( xn , yn , z n) δVn
n
= Σ f ( xr , yr , z r ) δVr . ...(1)
r =1
Then the limit to which the sum (1) tends when n tends to infinity and the dimensions
of each sub-division tend to zero, is called the triple integral of the function f ( x, y, z )
over the region V . This is denoted by
∫ ∫ ∫V f ( x, y, z ) dV or ∫ ∫ ∫V f ( x, y, z ) dx dy dz .
7 Evaluation of Triple Integrals

(a) If the region V be specified by the inequalities
a≤ x ≤ b ,c ≤ y ≤ d,e≤ z ≤ f ,
b d f
∫ ∫ ∫V f ( x, y, z ) dx dy dz = ∫a ∫c ∫e f ( x, y, z ) dx dy dz
b d f
= ∫a dx ∫c dy ∫e f ( x, y, z ) dz .
I-119
Here the order of integration is immaterial and the integration with respect to any of
x, y and z can be performed first.
(b) If the limits of z are given as functions of x and y , the limits of y as functions of x
while x takes the constant values say from x = a to x = b , then
b y2 ( x) z2 ( x, y)
∫ ∫ ∫V f ( x, y, z ) dx dy dz = ∫a dx ∫ y1( x) dy ∫ z1( x, y)
f ( x, y, z ) dz .
The integration with respect to z is performed first regarding x and y as constants, then
the integration w.r.t. y is performed regarding x as a constant and in the last we perform
the integration w.r.t. x .
3 2 1
Example 15: Evaluate ∫ ∫x = 0 ∫z = 0 ( x + y + z ) dz dx dy .
y =0

3 2  1 
= ∫ y = 0 ∫x = 0  ∫0 ( x + y + z ) dz  dx dy

1
3 2 z 2  3  2 1 
= ∫ y =0 ∫ x =0 


xz + yz +
2


0
dx dy = ∫  ∫ ( x + y + ) dx dy
0  0 2 
2 3
 x
2
3 x  3  2 y2 
=∫  + xy +  dy = ∫ (3 + 2 y ) dy = 3 y +  = 18 .
0  2 2  0  2 
 0 0
Example 16: Evaluate the following integrals.

1 1− x 1− x − y
(i) ∫0 ∫0 ∫0 xy z dx dy dz ;
c b a
(ii) ∫ − c ∫ −b ∫ − a ( x2 + y2 + z 2 ) dx dy dz .

1− x − y
1 1− x 1− x − y 1 1− x  z2 
∫0 ∫0 ∫0 x y z dx dy dz = ∫0 ∫0 xy  
 2  0
dx dy ,
integrating w.r.t. z regarding x and y as constants

1 1 1− x
=
2 ∫0 ∫0 xy {(1 − x) − y}2 dx dy
1 1 1− x
=
2 ∫0 ∫0 x [ y (1 − x)2 − 2 (1 − x) y2 + y3 ] dx dy
1− x
1 1 (1 − x)2 y2 2 (1 − x) y3 y4 
2 ∫0 
= x  − +  dx ,
2 3 4 
0
integrating w.r.t. y regarding x as constant
I-120
1 1
=
24 ∫0 x [6 (1 − x)4 − 8 (1 − x)4 + 3 (1 − x)4 ] dx
1 1 1 π /2
=
24 ∫0 x (1 − x)4 dx =
24 ∫0
sin2 θ cos8 θ. 2 sin θ cos θ dθ ,
putting x = sin2 θ so that dx = 2 sin θ cos θ dθ

1 π /2 1 2.8.6.4.2 1
12 ∫0
= sin3 θ cos9 θ dθ = ⋅ = ⋅
12 12.10.8.6.4.2 720
(ii) Here the integrand x2 + y2 + z 2 is a symmetrical expression in x, y and z and
therefore the limits of integration can be assigned at pleasure. We have the given
integral
c b a
= ∫z = − c ∫ y = − b ∫ x = − a ( x2 + y2 + z 2 ) dx dy dz
c b a
=2∫ ∫ y = − b ∫x =0 ( x2 + y2 + z 2 ) dx dy dz ,
z=−c
because x2 + y2 + z 2 is an even function of x

a
c b  x3 
=2 ∫z = − c ∫ 
y=−b 3

+ ( y2 + z 2 ) x dy dz ,
 0
integrating w.r.t. x regarding y and z as constants
c b  a3 
=2∫ ∫  + ay2 + az 2  dy dz
z=−c y=−b 3 

c  a3 b 
=4∫
z = − c ∫0  3
 + az 2 + ay2  dy dz ,
 
a3
because + az 2 + ay2 is an even function of y
3
c  a3 ay3 
=4∫  y + az 2 y +  dz ,
z=−c 3 3 

integrating w.r.t. y regarding z as constant
c a b 3
ab3  c  a3 b ab3 
=4∫  + abz 2 +  dz = 8 ∫0  + abz 2 +  dz
z=−c  3 3   3 3 

c
 a3 b z 3 ab3 
=8 z + ab + z
 3 3 3  0
8 3 8
= (a bc + abc 3 + ab3 c ) = abc (a2 + b2 + c 2 ) .
3 3
4 2 √z √(4 z − x2 )
Example 17: Evaluate ∫ ∫0 ∫0 dz dx dy .
0
Solution: The given triple integral is

I-121
4 2 √z  √(4 z − x2 )  4 2 √z √(4 z − x2 )
= ∫0 ∫0 ∫0

dy dz dx = ∫ ∫
 0 0
[ y]
0
dz dx
4 2 √z
= ∫0 [√ (4 z − x2 ) dx]
0
dz
2 √z
4 x 4z −1 x 
∫0 2 √ (4z − x ) + 2 sin 2 √ z 
2
= dz
0
4  4z 2 √ z 4 π 4
= ∫0 0 + sin− 1  dz = ∫0 2 z . dz = ∫0 πz dz
 2 2 √ z 2
4
 z2  π
= π   = [16] = 8 π .
 2  0 2
Example 18: Find the volume of the tetrahedron bounded by the coordinate planes and the plane
x + y + z = 1. (Rohilkhand 2013B
Solution: Here the region of integration V to cover the volume of the tetrahedron can
be expressed as 0 ≤ x ≤ 1, 0 ≤ y ≤ 1 − x, 0 ≤ z ≤ 1 − x − y .
Therefore the required volume of the tetrahedron
1 1− x 1− x − y
= ∫ ∫ ∫V dx dy dz = ∫0 ∫0 ∫0 dx dy dz (Note)
1 1− x 1− x − y 1 1− x
= ∫0 ∫0 [z ]
0
dx dy = ∫0 ∫0 (1 − x − y ) dx dy
1− x
1  y2  1  (1 − x )2 
∫0 (1 − x ) y − 2  ∫0
2
= dx = (1 − x ) −  dx
 0  2 
1
1 1 1 (1 − x )3  1 1
∫0 2 (1 − x ) dx = 2  3 .(− 1)  = − 6 [0 − 1] = 6 ⋅
2
=
 0
Example 19: Evaluate ∫ ∫ ∫ ( x + y + z ) dx dy dz over the tetrahedron x = 0, y = 0, z = 0
and x + y + z = 1.
Solution: The region of integration V for the given tetrahedron can be expressed as
0 ≤ x ≤ 1, 0 ≤ y ≤ 1 − x , 0 ≤ z ≤ 1 − x − y .
Hence the required triple integral = ∫ ∫ ∫V ( x + y + z ) dx dy dz
1 1− x 1− x − y
= ∫0 ∫0 ∫0 ( x + y + z ) dx dy dz
1− x − y
1 1− x  z2 
= ∫0 ∫0 ( x + y ) z +


2 
dx dy
0
1 1− x  (1 − x − y )2 
= ∫0 ∫0 ( x + y ) (1 − x − y ) +
 2
 dx dy

I-122
1 1− x  1 − x − y
= ∫0 ∫0 (1 − x − y )  x + y +
 2
 dx dy

1 1− x 1
= ∫0 ∫0 2
(1 − x − y ) (1 + x + y ) dx dy
1− x
1 1 1− x 1 1  ( x + y )3 
= ∫ ∫ [1 − ( x + y )2 ] dx dy = ∫  y −  dx
2 0 0 2 0  3  0
(Note)
1 1  1 x3  1 1 2 x3 
= ∫ 1 − x − +  dx = ∫  − x +  dx
2 0  3 3 2 0 3 3 
1
1 2 x2 x4  1 2 1 1  1 1 1
=  x− +  = 3 − 2 + 12  = 2 ⋅ 4 = 8 ⋅
2 3 2 3 × 4  2
0
Example 20: Evaluate ∫ ∫ ∫ z 2 dx dy dz over the sphere x2 + y2 + z 2 = 1 .
Solution: Here the region of integration can be expressed as

− 1≤ x ≤ 1, − √ (1 − x2 ) ≤ y ≤ √ (1 − x2 ) , − √ (1 − x2 − y2 ) ≤ z ≤ √ (1 − x2 − y2 ) .
∴ the required triple integral
1 √(1 − x2 ) √(1 − x2 − y2 )
= ∫ − 1 ∫ − √(1 − x2 ) ∫ − √ (1 − x2 − y2 )
z 2 dx dy dz
√(1 − x2 − y2 )
1  z3 
√(1 − x2 )
=∫ ∫ 2   dx dy
−1 − √(1 − x )  3 
  − √(1 − x2 − y2 )
1 1  √(1 − x2 ) 
= ∫  ∫ 2
3 −1  − √(1 − x )
2 (1 − x2 − y2 )3 /2 dy dx

2 1  π /2 
=
3 ∫− 1 

∫− π / 2
[(1 − x2 ) cos2 θ]3 /2 . √ (1 − x2 ). cos θ dθ dx

[putting y = √ (1 − x2 ) sin θ so that dy = √ (1 − x2 ) cos θ dθ ;
also when y = 0 , θ = 0 and when y = √ (1 − x2 ) , θ = π / 2]
2 1  π /2 
=
3 ∫− 1 

2 .∫
0
(1 − x2 )2 cos4 θ dθ dx

4 1 3.1 π π 1
3 ∫− 1
= (1 − x2 )2 ⋅ ⋅ dx = ∫ (1 − x2 )2 dx
4.2 2 4 −1
π 1 π  2 3 1 5 1
= . 2 ∫ (1 − 2 x2 + x4 ) dx =  x − 3 x + 5 x 
4 0 2 0
π  2 1 π 8 4π
= 1 − 3 + 5  = 2 ⋅ 15 = 15 ⋅
2
I-123
Evaluate the following integrals :

1 2 2
1. (i) ∫ x = 0 ∫ y = 0 ∫z = 1 x2 yz dz dy dx.
1 1 1
(ii) ∫0 ∫0 ∫0 e x + y + z dx dy dz .
1 z x+z
(iii) ∫ −1 ∫0 ∫ x − z ( x + y + z ) dy dx dz .
log 2 x x + log y
(iv) ∫0 ∫0 ∫0 e x + y + z dx dy dz .
1 1 1− x
2. (i) ∫0 ∫ y2 ∫0 x dy dx dz.
1− x
1 1− x − y dx dy dz
(ii) ∫0 ∫0 ∫0 (1 + x + y + z )3
⋅
(Kanpur 2008; Avadh 13)
3 1 √( xy)
(iii) ∫1 ∫1 / x ∫0 xyz dx dy dz .
π /2 a sin θ (a2 − r2 )/ a
(iv) ∫0 dθ ∫
0
dr ∫
0
r dz .
a x x+ y
3. (i) ∫0 ∫0 ∫0 e x + y + z dx dy dz .
a a− x a− x− y
(ii) ∫0 ∫0 ∫0 x2 dx dy dz .
4. Evaluate the triple integral of the function f ( x, y, z ) = x2 over the region V

enclosed by the planes x = 0 , y = 0 , z = 0 and x + y + z = a.
(Avadh 2012; Rohilkhand 12)
5. Find the volume of the tetrahedron bounded by the plane x / a + y / b + z / c = 1
and the coordinate planes.
dx dy dz
6. (i) Evaluate ∫∫∫ ( x + y + z + 1)3
over the region x ≥ 0 , y ≥ 0 , z ≥ 0 ,
x + y + z ≤ 1. (Avadh 2013)
x2 y2 z2
(ii) Evaluate ∫∫∫ xyz dx dy dz over the ellipsoid 2 + 2 + 2 = 1.
a b c
(Kanpur 2011)
(iii) Evaluate ∫∫∫ (z 5 + z ) dx dy dz over the sphere x2 + y2 + z 2 = 1.
∫ ∫ ∫R u
2 2
(iv) Evaluate v w du dv dw, where R is the region u2 + v2 ≤ 1,
0 ≤ w ≤ 1.
I-124
A nswers 3
1. (i) 1 (ii) (e − 1)3 (iii) 0
8 19
(iv) log 2 −
3 9
4 1 5 1  26 
2. (i) (ii)  log 2 −  (iii)  − log 3
35 2 8 63 
5 a3 π
(iv)
64
1 4a a5
3. (i) (e − 6 e2 a + 8 e a − 3) (ii)
8 60
a5 abc
4. 5.
60 6
1 5 π
6. (i)  log 2 −  (ii) 0 (iii) 0 (iv)
2 8 48
8 Change of Order of Integration

If in a double integral the limits of integration of both x and y are constant, we can
generally integrate ∫ ∫ f ( x, y ) dx dy in either order. But if the limits of y are functions
of x , we must first integrate w.r.t. y regarding x as constant and then integrate w.r.t. x .
In this case the order of integration can be changed only if we find the new limits of x as
functions of y and the new constant limits of y . This is usually best obtained from
geometrical considerations as will be clear from the examples that follow.
Example 21: Change the order of integration in the double integral

a x
∫0 ∫0 f ( x, y ) dx dy . (Lucknow 2006, 08; Kashi 13)
Solution: In the given integral the limits of

integration are given by the straight lines y = 0 , y = x ,
x = 0 and x = a . Draw these lines bounding the region
of integration in the same figure. We observe that the
region of integration is the area ONM .
In the given integral, the limits of integration of y being
variable, we are required to integrate first w.r.t. y
regarding x as constant and then w.r.t. x .
I-125
To reverse the order of integration, we have to integrate first w.r.t. x regarding y as

constant and then w.r.t. y . This is done by dividing the area ONM into strips parallel to
the x-axis. Let us take strips parallel to the x-axis starting from the line ON (i. e., y = x )
and terminating on the line MN (i. e., x = a) . Thus for this region ONM , x varies from y
to a and y varies from 0 to a .
Hence by changing the order of integration, we have
a x a a
∫0 ∫0 f ( x, y ) dx dy = ∫0 ∫ y f ( x, y ) dy dx .
b x b b
Example 22: Prove that ∫a dx ∫
a
f ( x, y ) dy = ∫a dy ∫y f ( x, y ) dx .
(Lucknow 2007)
b x
Solution: Let I = ∫a dx ∫a f ( x, y ) dy .
We are required to change the order of

integration in the integral I . In the integral I the
limits of integration of y are given by the
straight lines y = a and y = x . Also the limits of
integration of x are given by the straight lines
x = a and x = b. Draw the straight lines
y = a , y = x , x = a and x = b, bounding the
region of integration, in the same figure. We
observe that the region of integration is the area
of the triangle ABC .
In the integral I we are required to integrate first w.r.t. y and then w.r.t. x . To reverse
the order of integration we have to integrate first w.r.t. x and then w.r.t. y . This is done
by dividing the area ABC into strips parallel to the x-axis. Let us take strips parallel to
the x-axis starting from the line AC (i. e., y = x ) and terminating on the line
BC (i. e., x = b) . Thus for the region ABC , x varies from y to b and y varies from a to b.
b x b b
∫a dx ∫a f ( x, y ) dy = ∫a dy ∫y f ( x, y ) dx .
2a √(2 ax − x2 )
Example 23: Change the order of integration in ∫0 ∫0 f ( x, y ) dx dy .
(Meerut 2013B)
Solution: In the given integral the limits of
integration of y are given by y = 0 (i. e., the x-axis)
and y = √ (2 ax − x2 ) i. e., y2 = 2 ax − x2
i. e., ( x − a)2 + y2 = a2 which is a circle with centre
(a, 0 ) and radius a . Again the limits of integration of x

are given by the straight lines x = 0 ( i. e., the y-axis)
and x = 2 a .
I-126
Draw the curves ( x − a)2 + y2 = a2 , y = 0 , x = 0 and x = 2 a , bounding the region of

integration, in the same figure. From figure we observe that the area of integration is
OMNO .
In the given integral we are required to integrate first w.r.t. y regarding x as a constant
and then w.r.t. x .
To reverse the order of integration, divide the area OMNO into strips parallel to the
x-axis. These strips will have their extremities on the portions ON and NM of the circle.
Solving the equation of circle ( x − a)2 + y2 = a2 for x , we get
( x − a)2 = a2 − y2 i. e., x − a = ± √ (a2 − y2 ) i. e., x = a ± √ (a2 − y2 ) .

So for the region OMNO , x varies from a − √ (a2 − y2 ) to a + √ (a2 − y2 ) and y varies
from 0 to a .
Therefore, changing the order of integration, the given double integral transforms
a a + √(a2 − y2 )
to ∫0 ∫ a − √(a2 − y2 )
f ( x, y ) dy dx .
Example 24: Change the order of integration in the double integral

∞ ∞ e− y
∫0 ∫ x y
dx dy
and hence find its value. (Agra 2002; Kumaun 01; Avadh 07; Kashi 14; Purvanchal 14)
Solution: In the given integral the limits of integration are given by the lines y = x ,
y = ∞ , x = 0 and x = ∞ . Therefore the region of integration is
bounded by x = 0 , y = x and, an infinite boundary. In the given
integral the limits of integration of y are variable while those of x
are constant. Thus we have to first integrate with respect to y
regarding x as constant and then we integrate w.r.t. x . This is done
by first integrating w.r.t. y along a strip drawn parallel to the y-axis
and then integrating w.r.t. x along all such strips so drawn as to
cover the whole region of integration.
If we want to reverse the order of integration, we have to first integrate w.r.t. x regarding
y as constant and then we integrate w.r.t. y . This is done by dividing this area into
strips parallel to the x-axis. So we take strips parallel to the x-axis starting from the line
x = 0 and terminating on the line y = x . Now the limits for x are 0 to y and the limits for
y are 0 to ∞ .
∞ ∞ e− y ∞ y e− y ∞ e− y y
∫0 ∫ x y
dx dy = ∫
0 ∫0 y
dy dx = ∫
0 y
[ x]0 dy
∞
∞ e− y ∞  e− y 
= ∫0 ⋅ y dy = ∫ e − y dy =   = 1.
 − 1 0
y 0
I-127
a √(a2 − x2 )
Example 25: Change the order of integration in the integral ∫ ∫0 f ( x, y ) dx dy .
0
Solution: In the given integral the limits of integration of y are given by the straight
line y = 0 (i. e., the x-axis) and the curve
y = √ (a2 − x2 ) i. e., y2 = a2 − x2 i. e., x2 + y2 = a2
which is a circle with centre at the origin and radius a .
Again the limits of integration of x are given by the lines
x = 0 and x = a .
We draw the curves y = 0 , x2 + y2 = a2 , x = 0 and
x = a , giving the limits of integration, in the same very
figure and we observe that the region of integration is the
area OAB of the quadrant of the circle x2 + y2 = a2 .
To change the order of integration in the given integral, we have to first integrate w.r.t. x
regarding y as a constant and then we integrate w.r.t. y . This is done by covering the
area OAB by strips drawn parallel to the x-axis. These strips start from the line OB
(i. e., x = 0 ) and terminate on the arc AB of the circle x2 + y2 = a2 . So on these strips x
varies from 0 to √ (a2 − y2 ) . Also to cover the area OAB , y varies from 0 to a . Hence by
changing the order of integration, we have the given integral
a √(a2 − y2 )
= ∫0 ∫0 f ( x, y ) dy dx .
Example 26: Change the order of integration in

a x + 2a
∫0 ∫ √(a2 − x2 ) f ( x, y ) dx dy .
(Kumaun 2009, 15)
Solution: Here the area of integration is bounded by the curves

y = √ (a2 − x2 ) i. e., x2 + y2 = a2
which is a circle with centre (0 , 0 ) and
radius a , y = x + 2 a which is a straight line
passing through (0 , 2a) , x = 0 i. e., the
y-axis and the line x = a which is a line
parallel to the y-axis at a distance a from
the origin.
We draw the curves x2 + y2 = a2 ,
y = x + 2 a , x = 0 and x = a ,
giving the limits of integration, in the same
figure. We observe that the region of
integration is the area MLANM .
I-128
To reverse the order of integration, cover this area of integration ML ANM by strips
parallel to the x-axis. Draw the lines MC and NB parallel to the x-axis so that the region
of integration ML ANM is divided into three portions MLC , NMCB and NAB .
For the region MLC, x varies from the arc ML of the circle x2 + y2 = a2 to the line x = a
i. e., x varies from √ (a2 − y2 ) to a and y varies from 0 to a .
For the region NMCB , x varies from 0 to a and y varies from a to 2a.
For the region NBA, x varies from y − 2 a to a and y varies from 2a to 3a.
Therefore, changing the order of integration, the given integral transforms to
a a 2a a
∫0 ∫ √(a2 − 2
y )
f ( x, y ) dy dx + ∫ a ∫0 f ( x, y ) dy dx
3a a
+ ∫2 a ∫ y − 2 a f ( x, y ) dy dx .
Change the order of integration in the following integrals.

1 x (2 − x)
1. ∫0 ∫ x f ( x, y) dx dy.
3 √(4 − y)
2. ∫0 ∫1 ( x + y) dy dx.
a cos α √(a2 − x2 )
3. ∫0 ∫ x tan α f ( x, y) dx dy.
(Kanpur 2005; Avadh 11; Kumaun 02, 10)
a lx
4. ∫0 ∫ mx f ( x, y) dx dy. (Lucknow 2010)
2a 3a − x
5. ∫0 ∫ x2 /4 a f ( x, y) dx dy.
a b /(b + x)
6. ∫0 ∫0 f ( x, y) dx dy.
a a2 / x
7. ∫0 ∫ x f ( x, y) dx dy.
(Lucknow 2009; Kanpur 10; Kumaun 12)
a b
8. ∫ c ∫(b / a) √(a2 − x2 ) f ( x, y) dx dy, where c < a.
a /2 x − ( x2 / a)
9. ∫0 ∫ x2 / a f ( x, y) dx dy.
2a √(2 ax)
10. ∫0 ∫ √(2 ax − x2 ) f ( x, y) dx dy.
(Kumaun 2013)
2 2 2 2
ab /(a + b ) (a / b) √(b − y )
11. ∫0 ∫0 f ( x, y) dy dx.
I-129
π /2 2 a cos θ
12. ∫0 ∫0 f (r, θ) dθ dr.
(Kanpur 2009; Kumaun 11)
13. Change the order of integration in the double integral

a x φ ′ ( y) dx dy
∫0 ∫0 √ {(a − x) ( x − y)}
and hence find its value.
[Hint: Put x = a cos2 θ + y sin2 θ]
A nswers 4
1 y
1. ∫0 ∫1 − √(1 − y)
f ( x, y) dy dx
2 4 − x2
2. ∫1 ∫0 ( x + y) dx dy
a sin α y cot α a √(a2 − y2 )

3. ∫0 ∫0 f ( x, y) dy dx + ∫ a sin α ∫0 f ( x, y) dy dx
am y/m al a
4. ∫0 ∫ y / l f ( x, y) dy dx + ∫ am ∫ y / l f ( x, y) dy dx
a √(4 ay) 3a 3a − y
5. ∫0 ∫0 f ( x, y) dy dx + ∫a ∫a f ( x, y) dy dx
b /(a +b) a 1 b (1 − y)/ y

6. ∫0 ∫0 f ( x, y) dy dx + ∫ b /(a + b) ∫0 f ( x, y) dy dx
a y ∞ a2 / y
7. ∫0 ∫0 f ( x, y) dy dx + ∫ a ∫0 f ( x, y) dy dx
b √{1−(c 2 / a2 )} a
8. ∫0 ∫ a √{1 − ( y2 / b2 )} f ( x, y) dy dx
a a
+ ∫ b √{1 − (c2 / a2 )} ∫ c f ( x, y) dy dx
a /4 √(ay)
9. ∫0 ∫ 1 [a − √(a2 − 4 ay)] f ( x, y) dy dx
2
a a − √(a2 − y2 ) a 2a
10. ∫0 ∫ y2 /2 a f ( x, y) dy dx + ∫0 ∫ a + √(a2 − y2 )
f ( x, y) dy dx
2a 2a
+ ∫0 ∫ y2 /2 a f ( x, y) dy dx
ab / √(a2 + b2 ) ab / √(a2 + b2 )
11. ∫0 ∫0 f ( x, y) dx dy
a (b / a) √(a2 − x2 )
+ ∫ ab / √(a 2 2
+b ) ∫0 f ( x, y) dx dy
I-130
2a cos −1 (r /2 a)
12. ∫0 ∫0 f (r, θ) dr dθ
a a φ ′ ( y) dy dx
13. ∫0 ∫ y √ {(a − x) ( x − y)}
= π [φ (a) − φ (0 )]
9 Change of Variables in a Double Integral

Sometimes, the evaluation of a double integral becomes more convenient by a suitable
change of variables from one system to another system.
Let the variables in the double integral ∫ ∫ f ( x, y ) dx dy be changed from x, y to u, v
A
where x = φ (u, v ) and y = ψ (u, v ) .
Then on substituting for x and y , the double integral is transformed to
∫ ∫ A ′ F (u, v ) J du dv , where J (u, v ) is the Jacobian of x, y w.r.t. u, v i. e.,
∂x ∂y
∂ ( x, y) ∂ ∂u ,
J= = u
∂ (u, v) ∂x ∂y
∂v ∂v
and A ′ is the region in the uv-plane corresponding to the region A in the xy-plane. Thus
remember that dx dy = J du dv .
Special case: Change to polar coordinates from the cartesian co-ordinates.
To change the variables from cartesian to polar coordinates we put x = r cos θ ,
y = r sin θ . In this case
∂x ∂x
∂ ( x, y) cos θ − r sin θ
J= == ∂r ∂θ = = r,
∂ (r, θ) ∂ y ∂ y sin θ r cos θ
∂r ∂θ
and therefore dx dy = J dθ dr = r dθ dr .
This change is specially useful when the region of integration is a circle or a part of a
circle.
Example 27: Transform ∫ ∫ f ( x, y ) dx dy by the substitution x + y = u , y = uv .
Solution: We have x + y = u and y = uv . ...(1)

From these, we have
x = u − y = u − uv and y = uv . ...(2)
I-131
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y
∴ = 1− v , = − u, =v and = u.
∂u ∂v ∂u ∂v
∂x ∂x
∂ ( x, y) ∂ ∂v 1− v − u
∴ J= = u = = u.
∂ (u, v) ∂y ∂y v u
∂u ∂v
∴ dx dy = J du dv = u du dv .
Hence the given integral transforms to
∫∫ F (u, v ) u du dv .
Example 28: Transform ∫ ∫ f ( x, y ) dx dy to polar coordinates.
Solution: We have x = r cos θ , y = r sin θ .

∂x ∂x
Now J=
∂ ( x, y)
== ∂r ∂θ = cos θ − r sin θ = r .
∂ (r, θ) ∂y ∂y sin θ r cos θ
∂r ∂θ
∴ dx dy = J dθ dr = r dθ dr .
Hence the given integral transforms to ∫∫ F (r, θ) r dθ dr .
Example 29: Evaluate ∫ ∫ √ (a2 − x2 − y2 ) dx dy over the semi-circle x2 + y2 = ax in the
positive quadrant.
Solution: Here the region of integration is a semi-circle. Therefore, for the sake of
convenience, changing to polar coordinates by putting x = r cos θ and y = r sin θ in
x2 + y2 = ax , we have
r2 cos2 θ + r2 sin2 θ = a r cos θ or r2 (sin2 θ + cos2 θ) = ar cos θ

or r = a cos θ .
The equation r = a cos θ represents a circle passing through the pole and diameter
through the pole along the initial line.
For the given region r varies from 0 to a cos θ and θ varies from 0 to π / 2 .
π /2 a cos θ
∴ ∫∫ √ (a2 − x2 − y2 ) dx dy = ∫
0 ∫0 √ (a2 − r2 ) . r dθ dr ,
[∵ x2 + y2 = r2 and dx dy = r dθ dr ]
π /2  a cos θ 1 
= ∫0 ∫0 − (a2 − r2 )1 /2 . (− 2 r) dr dθ
2 
(Note)
π /2 a cos θ
 1 2 2 2 3 /2 
= ∫0 − 2 ⋅ 3 (a − r ) 
0
dθ
1 π /2 3 a3  2 π 1 3 1 2
=− ∫
3 0
(a sin3 θ − a3 ) dθ = − − = a ( π − ).
3 3.1 2  3 2 3
I-132
a a− x
1. Transform ∫0 ∫0 f ( x, y) dx dy, by the substitution x + y = u, y = uv.
2. By using the transformation x + y = u, y = uv, show that

1 1− x 1
∫0 ∫0 e y /( x + y) dx dy = (e − 1).
2
3. By using the transformation x + y = u, y = uv, prove that
∫∫ { xy (1 − x − y)}1 /2 dx dy
taken over the area of the triangle bounded by the lines
x = 0 , y = 0 , x + y = 1 is 2 π / 105.
∫ ∫ ( x + y ) dx dy over the circle x + y

2 2 7 /2 2 2
4. Evaluate = 1.
5. Evaluate ∫ ∫ xy ( x2 + y2 )3 /2 dx dy over the positive quadrant of the circle
x2 + y2 = 1.
2 2
6. Evaluate ∫∫ e −( x + y ) dx dy over the circle x2 + y2 = a2 .
A nswers 5
a 1 2
1. ∫0 ∫0 F (u, v) u du dv 4. 2 π / 9 5. 1 / 14 6. π (1 − e −a )

(b), (c) and (d).
2π a
1. The value of the double integral ∫θ = 0 ∫r = 0 r dθ dr is
πa2
(a) πa2 (b) (c) πa (d) 2 πa2
2
1 1 1
2. The value of the triple integral ∫0 ∫0 ∫0 xyz dx dy dz is
1 1 1
(a) (b) (c) (d) 1
2 8 4
(Kumaun 2009, 11)
I-133
a √(a2 − y2 )
3. The value of the double integral ∫0 ∫0 dy dx is
πa2 πa2
(a) πa2 (b) 2 πa2 (c) (d)
2 4
(Kumaun 2013)
4. The value of the triple integral

π /2 π /2 π /2
∫0 ∫0 ∫0 cos2 x cos2 y cos2 z dx dy dz is
π2 π π3 π3
(a) (b) (c) (d)
16 64 8 64
1 1 1
5. The value of the triple integral ∫ ∫0 ∫0 e x + y + z dx dy dz is
0
e3
(a) e3 (b) (c) (e − 1)3 (d) (e + 1)3
4
(Kumaun 2012)
6. The value of the triple integral
π /2 π /2 π /2
∫0 ∫0 ∫0 cos x cos y cos z dx dy dz is
π 3π
(a) 1 (b) (c) π (d)
2 2
(Rohilkhand 2005)
π /2 sin θ
7. The value of ∫ ∫0 r dθ dr is equal to
0
π /2 sin θ π
(a) ∫0 sin θ dθ (b) ∫0 2
r dr
π /2 sin2 θ
(c) ∫0 2
dθ (d) none of these
(Garhwal 2003)
2 2
8. Value of ∫0 ∫0 ( x2 + y2 ) dx dy is
3 32 34
(a) (b) (c) (d) 1
13 3 4
(Kumaun 2014)
a b dx dy
9. Value of ∫0 ∫0 xy
is
(a) ab (b) (log b) ⋅ (log a)

(c) 0 (d) a/b (Kumaun 2015)
π /2 a
10. Value of ∫0 ∫0 cos θ r sin θ dθ dr is
(a) a2 (b) 6 / a2 (c) a2 / 6 (d) 0

(Kumaun 2015)
π x
11. Value of ∫0 ∫0 sin y dy dx is
(a) π (b) 0 (c) 1 (d) π

(Kumaun 2015)
I-134

3 2
1. The value of the double integral ∫ ∫1 dx dy is …… .
0 (Agra 2002)
1 1
2. The value of the double integral ∫ ∫0 xy dx dy is …… .
0
1 x
3. The value of the double integral ∫ ∫0 xy dx dy is …… .
0
π /2 2 a cos θ
4. The value of the double integral ∫ ∫0 r dθ dr is …… .
0
2 2 2
5. The value of the triple integral ∫ ∫0 ∫0 xyz dx dy dz is …… .
0
2 2 3
6. The value of the triple integral ∫ ∫1 ∫1 dx dy dz is …… .
1
a √(a2 − x2 )
7. The value of the double integral ∫ ∫0 dx dy is …… .
−a
True or False
π /2 a πa2
1. The value of the double integral ∫ θ = − π /2 ∫ r = 0 r dθ dr is
2
⋅
a √(a2 − x2 )
2. The value of the double integral ∫ − a ∫ − √(a2 − x2 ) dx dy is πa2 .
a √(a2 − x2 )
3. The value of the double integral ∫ − a ∫0 x dx dy is 0.
A nswers

1. (a) 2. (b) 3. (d) 4. (d) 5. (c)
6. (a) 7. (c) 8. (b) 9. (b) 10. (c)
11. (d)
1 1 πa2
1. 3 2. 3. 4.
4 8 2
πa2
5. 8 6. 2 7.
2
True or False
1. T 2. T 3. T
¨
I-135
7
A reas of C urves
1 Quadrature
he process of finding the area of any bounded portion of a curve is called quadrature.
T
2 Areas of Curves Given by Cartesian Equations
If f ( x ) is a continuous and single valued Y y = f(x)
function of x , then the area bounded by the D
curve y = f ( x ) , the axis of x and the
ordinates x = a and x = b is
b b
∫a ∫a S Q
x=b
y dx, or f ( x) dx.
P R
Proof: Let CD be the arc of the curve C
y = f ( x ) and AC and BD be the two
x=a
δx
ordinates x = a and x = b .
Consider O A M N B X
P ( x, y ) and Q ( x + δx, y + δy ) ,
the two neighbouring points on the curve. Draw PM and QN perpendiculars to the
axis of x , then
I-136
PM = y , QN = y + δy and MN = δx .
Draw PR and QS perpendiculars to NQ and MP produced respectively. The area
AMPC depends upon the position of P on the curve. Let A denote the area AMPC and
A + δA be the area ANQC . Then the area
MNQP = area ANQC − area AMPC
= A + δA − A = δA .
But clearly this area δA (i. e., the area MNQP) lies in magnitude between the areas of
the rectangles MNRP and MNQS .
Thus, we have
area of the rectangle MNQS > δA > area of the rectangle MNRP
i. e., ( y + δy ) δx > δA > y δx
δA
or y + δy > > y.
δx
Now as Q → P, δx → 0 and δy → 0. Therefore we have
dA
= y = f ( x)
dx
or dA = y dx .
Integrating both sides between the limits x = a and x = b , we have
x=b b
∫x = a dA =
∫a y dx
b
x=b
or [ A] x = a =
∫a y dx
b
or (Area A when x = b ) − (Area A when x = a) =
∫a y dx
b
or Area ABDC − 0 =
∫a y dx
b b
or Area ABDC =
∫a y dx =
∫a f ( x) dx.
Similarly, it can be shown that the area bounded by the curve x = f ( y), the axis of y and the
abscissae y = a and y = b is
b b
∫a x dy, or
∫a f ( y) dy.
Note 1: In choosing the limits of integration, the lower limit of integration should be
taken as the smaller value of the independent variable while the greater value gives us
the upper limit of integration.
Note 2: If the curve is symmetrical about x-axis or y-axis or both, then we shall find
the area of one symmetrical part and multiply it by the number of symmetrical parts to
get the whole area.
I-137
x2 y2
Example 1: Find the area bounded by the ellipse + = 1, the ordinates x = c , x = d and
a2 b2
the x-axis. (Meerut 2000)
Solution: Equation of the ellipse is Y

(0, b) C P
x2 y2 Q
2
+ 2
=1
a b D
x=c
2 2
y x
or = 1−
x=d
2
b a2
b
giving y= √ (a2 − x2 ). ...(1) M N
a X
O A δx B (a, 0)
∴ the required area = the area ABDC
d
=
∫c y dx
d b
=
∫c a
√ (a2 − x2 ) dx , from (1)
d
b 1 1  x 
=  x √ (a2 − x2 ) + a2 sin− 1  
a 2 2  a  c
b  2 2 2 2 2  −1 d −1 c  
= d √ (a − d ) − c √ (a − c ) + a sin a − sin a   ⋅
2a  
Example 2: Find the area bounded by the parabola y2 = 4 ax and its latus rectum.
(Garhwal 2003; Agra 05; Avadh 05; Bundelkhand 08)
Solution: Latus rectum is a line through the focus S (a, 0 ) and perpendicular to x-axis
i. e., its equation is x = a . Also the curve is symmetrical about x-axis.
Y
∴ the required area LOL′ L
Q
a
= 2 × area OSL = 2 .
∫0 y dx
y
a
=2
∫0 √ (4 ax ) dx,
O
M
δx
N S (a, 0)
X
[ ∵ y2 = 4 ax , i. e., y = √ (4 ax )]
a
2  8 8
= 2 √ (4 a)  x3 / 2  = (a) ⋅ a3 / 2 = a2 .
3 0 3 3 L′
Y′
Example 3: Find the area of a loop of the curve xy2 + ( x + a)2 ( x + 2 a) = 0 .
Solution: The curve is symmetrical about x-axis. Putting y = 0 , we get x = − a and

x = − 2a .
I-138
The loop is formed between x = − 2 a and x = − a.

Y
P
C
X′ X
(–2a, 0) A (–a, 0) O
Y′
To find the area of the loop, we first shift the origin to the point (− a, 0 ) . The equation
of the curve then becomes
( x − a) y2 + {( x − a) + a }2 ( x − a + 2 a) = 0
or y2 ( x − a) + x2 ( x + a) = 0
x2 (a + x )
or y2 = ⋅ ...(1)
a− x
Note that the shifting of the origin only changes the equation of the curve and has no
effect on its shape. Now the origin being at the point A , the new limits for the loop are
x = − a to x = 0 .
∴ required area of the loop
0
= 2 × area CPA = 2
∫−a y dx, [the value of y to be put from (1)]
0   a + x  

=2
∫−a − x 

  dx,
 a − x 

[Note that in the equation (1), for the
portion CPA , y = − x √ {(a + x ) /(a − x )}]
0 − x (a + x )
=2
∫−a √ (a2 − x2 )
dx,
multiplying the numerator and the denominator by √ (a + x )

0 − (− a sin θ) (a − a sin θ)
=2
∫π /2 a cos θ
⋅ (− a cos θ) dθ,
putting x = − a sin θ and dx = − a cos θ dθ

0 π /2
= − 2 a2
∫π /2 (sin θ − sin ∫0
2
θ) dθ = 2 a2 (sin θ − sin2 θ) dθ
1 1 1
= 2 a2 [1 − ⋅ π] , by Walli’s formula = 2 a2 (1 − π) .
2 2 4
Example 4: Find the whole area of the curve a2 y2 = x3 (2 a − x ).
(Meerut 2006B; Bundelkhand 12; Avadh 13; Kumaun 13; Rohilkhand 14)
I-139
Solution: The given curve is a2 y2 = x3 (2 a − x ). ...(1)

Y
It is symmetrical about x-axis and it cuts the x-axis at the (x, y)P Q B
points (0 , 0 ) and (2 a, 0 ) . The curve does not exist for
y
x > 2 a and x < 0 . Thus the curve consists of a loop lying M N (2a, 0)
X
between x = 0 and x = 2 a . O δx A
x = 2a
∴ the required area = 2 × area OBA
2a
=2
∫0 y dx
2a x3 / 2 √ (2 a − x )
=2
∫0 a
dx , from (1).
Now put x = 2 a sin2 θ so that dx = 4 a sin θ cos θ dθ .

1
When x = 0 , θ = 0 and when x = 2 a, θ = π.
2
2 π /2
=
a ∫0 (2 a)3 / 2 sin3 θ . √ (2 a) .cos θ . 4 a sin θ cos θ dθ
π /2 3.1.1 π
= 32 a2
∫0 sin4 θ cos2 θ dθ = 32 a2 . ⋅ , by Walli’s formula.
6.4.2 2
= πa2 .
Example 5: Find the whole area between the curve x2 y2 = a2 ( y2 − x2 ) and its asymptotes.
Solution: The given curve is symmetrical about Y

x = –a
both the axes and passes through the origin. The

x=a
tangents at (0 , 0 ) are given by y2 − x2 = 0 i. e., Q

P
y = ± x are the tangents at the origin. y
=
–x
Equating to zero the coefficient of the highest A′ M N A
X′ X
power of y (i. e., of y2 ) the asymptotes parallel to (–a, 0) x δx (a, 0
y= O
y-axis are given by x2 − a2 = 0 i. e., x = ± a .
The asymptotes parallel to x-axis are given by

y2 + a2 = 0 which gives two imaginary
Y′
asymptotes.
∴ the required area = 4 × area lying in the first quadrant
a a  a2 x2 
=4
∫0 y dx = 4
∫0 √  2  dx,
2
a − x 
[∵ from the equation of the given curve, y2 = a2 x2 /(a2 − x2 )]

I-140
a
a ax dx a − 2 x dx (a2 − x2 )1 /2 
=4
∫0 √ (a2 − x2 )
= − 2a
∫0 √ (a2 − x2 )
= − 2 a 
 1/ 2

0
= − 4 a [0 − a] = 4 a2 .
1. Find the area bounded by the axis of x , and the following curves and the given
ordinates :
(i) y = log x ; x = a , x = b, (b > a > 1).
(ii) xy = c 2 ; x = a , x = b , (a > b > 0 ) . (Kashi 2012)
3
2. (i) Find the area bounded by the curve y = x , the y-axis and the lines y = 1
and y = 8 .
(ii) Show that the area cut off a parabola by any double ordinate is two thirds of
the corresponding rectangle contained by that double ordinate and its
distance from the vertex.
3. (i) Find the area of the quadrant of an ellipse ( x2 / a2 ) + ( y2 / b2 ) = 1.
(Bundelkhand 2010; Kanpur 11)
(ii) Find the whole area of the ellipse ( x / a ) + ( y2 / b2 ) = 1.
2 2
(Avadh 2010; Rohilkhand 10B; Kumaun 12)

4. (i) Trace the curve ay2 = x2 (a − x ) and show that the area of its loop is
8 a2 /15 . (Avadh 2008)
2 2
(ii) Find the area of the loop of the curve 3 ay = x ( x − a) .
(iii) Find the area of the loop of the curve y2 = x ( x − 1)2 .
5. Find the area
(i) of the loop of the curve x ( x2 + y2 ) = a ( x2 − y2 )
or y2 (a + x ) = x2 (a − x ) .
(ii) of the portion bounded by the curve and its asymptotes. (Meerut 2004)
2 3
6. (i) Trace the curve y (2 a − x) = x and find the entire area between the curve
and its asymptotes. (Avadh 2011)
2 2
(ii) Find the area between the curve y (4 − x ) = x and its asymptote.
(Avadh 2012; Kanpur 14; Bundelkhand 14)
(iii) Find the whole area of the curve a2 x2 = y3 (2 a − y ) .

7. (i) Find the area bounded by the curve xy2 = 4 a2 (2 a − x ) and its asymptote.
(Rohilkhand 2009 B)
2 2
(ii) Find the area enclosed by the curve xy = a (a − x ) and y-axis.
I-141
(iii) Trace the curve a2 y2 = a2 x2 − x4 and find the whole area within it.
(Rohilkhand 2012; Avadh 12, Bundelkhand 14)
8. (i) Prove that the area of a loop of the curve a4 y2 = x4 (a2 − x2 ) is πa2 / 8 .
(ii) Show that the whole area of the curve a4 y2 = x5 (2 a − x ) is to that of
the circle whose radius is a, as 5 to 4. (Kanpur 2010)
2 3
9. (i) Find the area between the curve y (a − x ) = x (cissoid) and its asymptotes.
Also find the ratio in which the ordinate x = a / 2 divides the area.
(ii) Find the area of the loop of the curve y2 (a − x ) = x2 (a + x ) .
(Purvanchal 2011)
2 3
10. Trace the curve y (a + x ) = (a − x ) . Find the area between the curve and its
asymptote. (Purvanchal 2007)
A nswers 1
1. (i) b log (b / e) − a log (a / e) (ii) c 2 log (a / b)
2. (i) (45) / 4.
3. (i) πab / 4. (ii) πab
2
4. (ii) 8 a /(15 √ 3). (iii) 8 /(15)
1 2 1 2
5. (i) a (4 − π). (ii) a (4 + π)
2 2
6. (i) 3 πa2 . (ii) (64) / 3. (iii) πa2
7. (i) 4 πa2 (ii) πa2 (iii) 4 a2 / 3
1 2
9. (i) 3 πa2 / 4 ; (3 π − 8) : (3 π + 8) (ii) a (4 − π)
2
10. 3 πa2 .
3 Area between Two Curves

It is clear from the adjacent figure that the area lying Y
between the curves y = f ( x), y = g( x) and the ordinates B y = f(x)

A
x = a, x = b is y = g(x)
= area ABNM − area CDNM D
b b C
=
∫a f ( x) dx −
∫a g( x) dx
M N
X
O x=a x=b
b
=
∫a { f ( x) dx − g( x)} dx.
I-142
Example 6: Find the area included between the curves y2 = 4 ax and x2 = 4 by .
(Bundelkhand 2011; Rohilkhand 10; Kumaun 09, 10))
Solution: Solving the equations of the two given Y
x 2 = 4by
4 2 2
curves, we have y = 16 a (4 by ) = 64 a by .
P A
∴ y ( y3 − 64 a2 b) = 0 ,
giving y = 0, 4 a2 / 3 b1 / 3 . Q
O L X
When y = 0 , x = 0 and when
y2 = 4ax
y = 4 a2 / 3 b1 / 3 , x = 4 a1 / 3 b2 / 3 .
Hence, the points of intersection of the given curves

are O (0 , 0 ) and A (4 a1 / 3 b2 / 3 , 4 b1 / 3 a2 / 3 ) .
∴ the required area (i. e., the shaded area)

= area OPAL − area OQAL
 4 a1 /3 b2 /3 
=
 ∫0 y dx, from the curve y2 = 4 ax 

 4 a1 /3 b2 /3 
−
 ∫0 y dx, from the curve y2 = 4 by 

(Note that for the required area x varies from 0 to 4 a1 / 3 b2 / 3 )
4 a1 /3 b2 /3 4 a1 /3 b2 /3  x2 
=
∫0 √ (4 ax ) dx −
∫0  
 4 b  dx
 
4 a1 /3 b2 /3 4 a1 /3 b2 /3
2 x3 / 2  1  x3 
=2√a  −  
 3  0 4b  3  0
4√a 1 32 16 16
= [8 √ (a) . b] − (64 ab2 ) = ab − ab = ab .
3 12 b 3 3 3
Example 7: Find the area of the segment cut off from the parabola y2 = 2 x by the straight line
y = 4 x − 1.
Solution: The given curves are y2 = 2 x , ...(1)
and y = 4 x − 1. ...(2)
The two curves have been shown in the figure.
I-143
Solving (1) and (2) for y, we have

1 Y
y2 = 2 . ( y + 1) or 2 y2 − y − 1 = 0
4
P
or ( y − 1) (2 y + 1) = 0 . S
y=1
1
∴ y = − ,1.
2
O
X
Thus the curves (1) and (2) intersect at the points where
R y=–1
–
1 2
y=− and y = 1. Q
2
Now the required area of the segment POQ (i. e., the Y′
dotted area)
1
= the area bounded by the st. line y = 4 x − 1 and the y-axis from y = − to y = 1
2
1
− the area bounded by the parabola y2 = 2 x and the y-axis from y = − to y = 1
2
 1   1 
=

∫−1 /2 x dy, from (2) − 
 
∫−1 /2 x dy, from (1)
1 1 1 1 2
=
∫−1 /2 4
( y + 1) dy −
∫−1 /2 2
y dy
1
1 1 2  1 1
= y + y − [ y3 ] − 1 / 2
4 2  −1 /2 6
1 3  1 1  1  1
= 2 −  8 − 2   − 6 1 + 8 
4  
1  3 3  1 9 1 15 1 9
=  +  − ⋅ = ⋅ − ⋅
4  2 8 6 8 4 8 6 8
15 3 9
= − = ⋅
32 16 32
Example 8: If P ( x, y ) be any point on the ellipse x2 / a2 + y2 / b2 = 1and S be the sectorial

area bounded by the curve, the x-axis and the line joining the origin to P, show that
x = a cos (2 S / ab) , y = b sin (2 S / ab) .
Solution: The given ellipse is shown in the figure. Y
B
P(x, y)
We have
b
S = the sectorial area OAP M (a, 0)
a X
O A
(i. e., the dotted area)
= the area of the ∆ OMP + the area PMA
1 a
=
2
OM . MP +
∫x y dx, for the ellipse
I-144
1 a b
=
2
xy +
∫x a
√ (a2 − x2 ) dx
[∵ from the equation of the ellipse, y = (b / a) √ (a2 − x2 )]

a
1 b b x 1 x
= x . √ (a2 − x2 ) +  √ (a2 − x2 ) + a2 sin− 1 
2 a a 2 2 a x
bx b 1 π x 1 x
= √ (a2 − x2 ) + 0 + a2 . − √ (a2 − x2 ) − a2 sin− 1
2a a 2 2 2 2 a 
bx b 1 π x  bx
= √ (a2 − x2 ) + ⋅ a2  − sin− 1  − √ (a2 − x2 )
2a a 2 2 a 2a
ab π −1 x  ab x
=  − sin  = cos − 1 ⋅
2 2 a  2 a
ab x
Thus S= cos − 1 ⋅
2 a
x 2S x 2S 2S
∴ cos − 1 = or = cos or x = a cos ⋅
a ab a ab ab
b b 2S
Also y= √ (a2 − x2 ) = √ { a2 − a2 cos2 (2 S / ab)} = b sin ⋅
a a ab
Example 9: Show that the larger of the two areas into which the circle x2 + y2 = 64 a2 is
16 2
divided by the parabola y2 = 12 ax is a [8 π − √ 3] .
3
Solution: x2 + y2 = 64 a2 is a circle with centre Y
(0, 8a)
(0 , 0 ) and radius 8a and y2 = 12 ax is a parabola R
P
M (4a, 4a√3)
whose vertex is at (0 , 0 ) and latus rectum 12a .
Both the curves are symmetrical about x-axis.
S
Solving the two equations, the co-ordinates of X
O A
the common point P are (4 a, 4 a √ 3). Draw PM
perpendicular from P to the y-axis.
Q
Now the area of the larger portion of the circle T
(i. e., the shaded area)= the area PRSTQOP
= the area of the semi-circle RST + 2 area OPR
1
= . π (8 a)2 + 2 [area OPM + area MPR]
2
1 4a 3 8a
=
2
π (8 a)2 + 2
∫0 x dy , for y2 = 12 ax + 2
∫4 a 3 x dy ,
for x2 + y2 = 64 a2
4a 3 y2 8a
= 32 π a2 + 2
∫0 12 a
dy + 2
∫4 a 3 √ (64 a2 − y2 ) dy
I-145
4 a √3 8a
1  y3  1 64 a2 y
= 32 πa2 +   + 2  y √ (64 a2 − y2 ) + sin− 1 
6 a  3  2 2 8 a 
0 4 a √3
1 64 × 3 √ 3 a3 
= 32 πa2 +  
6 a  3 
+ 2 [{0 − 8 a2 √ 3 } + 32 a2 {sin− 1 1 − sin− 1 (√ 3 / 2)}]
32 √ 3 a2 32 2
= 32 πa2 + − 16 a2 √ 3 + a π
3 3
128 2 16 2 16 2
= a π− a √3 = a (8 π − √ 3) .
3 3 3
Example 10: Find by double integration the area of the region enclosed by the curves
x2 + y2 = a2 , x + y = a (in the first quadrant).
Solution: The given equations of Y

2 2 2
the circle x + y = a
B (0, a)
[centre (0 , 0 ) and radius a] and of the
straight line x + y = a (with equal δx δy
P
intercepts a on both the axes) can be (x, y)
easily traced as shown in the figure. (a, 0)
a
X′ X
The required area is the area O
A
bounded by the arc AB and the line x+y=a
AB . To find it with the help of
double integration take any point
P ( x, y ) in this portion and consider
an elementary area δx δy at P . The Y′
required area can now be covered by
first moving y from the straight line x + y = a to the arc of the circle x2 + y2 = a2 and
then moving x from 0 to a .
a √(a2 − x2 )
∴ the required area =
∫ x = 0 ∫ y = ( a − x) dx dy , the first integration to be performed
w.r.t. y whose limits are variable
a a
√(a2 − x2 )
=
∫0 [ y](a − x ) dx =
∫0 [√ (a2 − x2 ) − (a − x)] dx
a
 1 1  1 
=  x √ (a2 − x2 ) + a2 sin− 1 ( x / a) − ax + x2 
 2 2  2 0
1 2 1 1 1 1
= a . ( π) − a2 + a2 = a2 ( π − 1)
2 2 2 2 2
1
= a2 (π − 2) .
4
I-146
Note: The required area can also be covered by first moving x from the straight line
x + y = a to the arc of the circle x2 + y2 = a2 and then moving y from 0 to a .
1. Find the common area between the curves y2 = 4 ax and x2 = 4 ay .

(Meerut 2004B, 08; Agra 14)
2
2. (i) Find the area included between y = 4 ax and y = mx .
(ii) Find the area of the segment cut off from the parabola y2 = 4 x by the line
y = 8 x − 1.
3. (i) Find the area common to the two curves y2 = ax , x2 + y2 = 4 ax .
(Meerut 2005B, 06, 09B)
(ii) Find the area lying above x-axis and included between the circle
x2 + y2 = 2 ax and the parabola y2 = ax . (Bundelkhand 2007)
4. (i) Show that the area included between the parabolas

8
y2 = 4 a ( x + a) , y2 = 4 b (b − x ) is (a + b) √ (ab) .
3 (Rohilkhand 2013)
(ii) Show that the area common to the ellipses a x2 + b2 y2 = 1 ,

2
b2 x2 + a2 y2 = 1, where 0 < a < b , is 4 (ab)− 1 tan− 1 (a / b) .
5. If A is the vertex, O the centre and P any point ( x, y) on the hyperbola

x2 / a2 − y2 / b2 = 1 , show that x = a cosh (2 S / ab) , y = b sinh (2 S / ab), where S is
the sectorial area OPA .
6. Prove that the area of a sector of the ellipse of semi-axes a and b between the major
1
axis and a radius vector from the focus is ab (θ − e sin θ) , where θ is the eccentric
2
angle of the point to which the radius vector is drawn.
7. Find the area common to the circle x2 + y2 = 4 and the ellipse x2 + 4 y2 = 9.
(Purvanchal 2009)
8. Find the area included between the parabola x2 = 4 ay and the curve
y = 8 a3 /( x2 + 4 a2 ) . (Rohilkhand 2008B)
9. Find by double integration the area bounded by the curves y ( x2 + 2) = 3 x and

4 y = x2 .
10. Find by double integration the area lying between the parabola y = 4 x − x2 and
the straight line y = x.
I-147
A nswers 2
1. 16 a2 / 3 2. (i) 8 a2 / 3 m3 (ii) 9/(64)
 4  1 2
3. (i) a2 3 √ 3 + π (ii) a2  π − 
 3   4 3
 1   1 
7. 4 π + 9 sin−1  √ (7 / 3) − 8 sin−1  ⋅ √ (7 / 3)
3  2 
 4 2
8. 2π −  a 9. (3 / 2) log 3 − (2 / 3)
 3
4 Areas of Curves given by Parametric Equations

To find the area of a curve given by parametric equations is explained by the following
examples.
Example 11: Find the area included between the cycloid x = a (θ − sin θ) , y = a (1 − cos θ) and
its base. (Kumaun 2001, 11; Meerut 07B; Purvanchal 07; Kashi 13)
Solution: The parametric equations of the given

cycloid are x = a (θ − sin θ) , y = a (1 − cos θ) .
We have dx / dθ = a (1 − cos θ), dy / dθ = a sin θ . Y
dy dy / dθ a sin θ θ=π
∴ = =
dx dx / dθ a (1 − cos θ)
2a
aπ
1 1
2 sin θ cos θ O θ=0 θ = 2π
X
2 2 1
= = cot θ .
2 1 2
2 sin θ
2
In this curve y = 0 when a (1 − cos θ) = 0
i. e., cos θ = 1 i. e., θ = 0 .
When θ = 0 , x = a (0 − sin 0 ) = 0 , y = 0 and dy / dx = cot 0 = ∞ . Thus the curve passes
through the point (0 , 0 ) and the axis of y is tangent at this point.
In this curve y is maximum when cos θ = − 1 i. e., θ = π . When θ = π ,
x = a (π − sin π) = aπ , y = 2 a ,
dy 1
= cot π = 0 . Thus at the point θ = π , whose cartesian co-ordinates are (aπ, 2 a) , the
dx 2
tangent to the curve is parallel to x-axis. This curve does not exist in the region y > 2 a .
In this curve y cannot be −ive because cos θ cannot be greater than 1. Thus one
complete arch of the given cycloid is as shown in the figure.
Now this cycloid is symmetrical with respect to the line x = aπ (axis of the cycloid) and
its base is the x-axis. Therefore the required area
I-148
aπ π dx π
=2
∫x = 0 y dx = 2
∫θ = 0 y
dθ
⋅ dθ = 2
∫0 a (1 − cos θ) . a (1 − cos θ) dθ
π π 1 π 1
= 2 a2
∫0 (1 − cos θ) dθ = 2a ∫0 (2 sin 2 θ) dθ = 8a ∫0 sin
2 2 2 2 2 4
θ dθ
2
π /2 1 1
= 8 a2
∫0 sin φ 2 dφ , putting 2 θ = φ so that 2 dθ = dφ
4
π /2
2 3.1 π
= 16 a2
∫0 sin φ dφ = 16a ⋅ 4.2 ⋅ 2 , by Walli’s formula
4
= 3 π a2 .
Example 12: Find the whole area of the curve (hypocycloid) given by the equations
x = a cos3 t , y = b sin3 t . (Gorakhpur 2005; Rohilkhand 09; Kashi 11)
Solution: Eliminating t from the given equations Y

B ( 0, b)
the cartesian equation of the curve is obtained as
P (x, y )
( x / a)2 / 3 + ( y / b)2 / 3 = 1 y
Q
i. e., {( x / a)2 }1 / 3 + {( y / b)2}1 / 3 = 1 . A′ OM N A

(– a, 0) (0, 0) dx (a, 0) X
Since the powers of x and y are all even, the curve is
symmetrical about both the axes. It does not pass
through the origin. It cuts the axis of x at the points B′(0, –b)
(± a, 0 ) and the axis of y at the points (0 , ± b) . The
tangent at the point (a, 0 ) is x-axis. At the point B ,
1
x = 0 and t = π . At the point A , x = a and t = 0 .
2
∴ the required area = 4 × area OAB
a 0 dx
=4
x =0 ∫
y dx = 4
t = θ /2
y⋅
dt ∫
⋅ dt
0
=4
∫π /2 b sin3 t .(− 3 a cos2 t sin t) dt, (putting for y and dx / dt)
π /2
= 12 ab
∫0 sin4 t cos2 t dt (Note)
3.1.1 π 3
= 12 ab ⋅ ⋅ = π ab .
6.4.2 2 8
1. Find the area included between the curve x = a (t + sin t) , y = a (1 − cos t) and its
base. (Agra 2005)
2. Find the area of a loop of the curve x = a sin 2 t , y = a sin t

or a2 x2 = 4 y2 (a2 − y2 ) .
I-149
3. Show that the area bounded by the cissoid x = a sin2 t , y = (a sin3 t) /cos t
and its asymptote is 3 πa2 / 4 .
4. Find the area of the loop of the curve

x = a (1 − t2 ) , y = at (1 − t2 ) , where − 1 ≤ t ≤ 1 .
A nswers 3
1. 3 πa2 2. 4 a2 / 3 3. 3 πa2 / 4 4. 8 a2 /(15)
5 Areas of Curves given by Polar Equations

If r = f (θ) be the equation of a curve in polar coordinates where f (θ) is a single valued
continuous function of θ , then the area of the sector enclosed by the curve and the two radii vectors
1 θ2
θ = θ1 and θ = θ2 (θ1 < θ2 ) , is equal to
∫
2 θ = θ1
r 2 dθ.
B
Proof: Let OAB be the area of the curve
r = f (θ) between the radii vectors θ = θ1 Q(r+ δr, θ + δr)
Q′
and θ = θ2 . P′
P(r, θ)
Let P (r, θ) be any point on the curve between
A
A and B . Take a point Q (r + δr, θ + δθ) on the
curve very near to P and draw the radius vector
θ2 θ θ1
OQ . Let the sectorial areas AOP and AOQ be O X
denoted by A and A + δA respectively.
Then the curvilinear area OPQO
= A + δA − A = δA .
Also we have OP = r ; OQ = r + δr and ∠ POQ = δθ .
The area of the circular sector POQ′
1 1 1
= (radius × arc) = r . r δθ = r2 δθ ,
2 2 2
and the area of the circular sector P ′ OQ
1 1
= (r + δr) .(r + δr) δθ = (r + δr)2 δθ .
2 2
Now, area POQ ′ < area OPQ < area P ′ OQ ,
1 2 1 1 1
i. e., r δθ < δA < (r + δr)2 δθ , i. e., r 2 < δA / δθ < (r + δr)2 .
2 2 2 2
Proceeding to limits as δθ → 0 , we get
I-150
dA 1 2 1 2
= r or dA = r dθ .
dθ 2 2
θ θ2 1 2
∴ [ A] θ2 =
1 ∫θ 1 2
r dθ.
Now the L.H.S. = the value of A for θ equal to θ2 − the value of A for θ equal to θ1
= (the area AOB) − 0 = area AOB .
1 θ2
∫θ
2
Hence the required area AOB = r dθ.
2 1
Note: In some cases it is more convenient to find the required area by using double
θ2 f (θ)
integration. In that case the area is given by
∫ θ = θ ∫r = 0
1
r dθ dr, (θ1 < θ2 ) .
Remember: The number of loops in r = a cos nθ or r = a sin nθ is n or 2n according as

n is odd or even.
2
Example 13: Find the area of the curve r = a2 cos 2θ .
(Agra 2006, 07; Rohilkhand 07; Meerut 10B; Kumaun 11)
Solution: The given curve is symmetrical about the initial line θ = 0 and about the
pole. Putting r = 0 in the given equation of the curve, we get
1 1
cos 2θ = 0 or 2θ = ± π or θ = ± π .
2 4
Thus two consecutive values of θ for which r is zero Y
1 1 θ = π/4
are − π and π . Therefore for one loop of the
4 4
a a θ=0
curve θ varies from − π / 4 to π / 4 . X
1 3 1 3 O
When π < 2θ < π i. e., π < θ < π , r 2 is
2 2 4 4 θ = – π/4
negative i. e., r is imaginary. Therefore this curve
1 3
does not exist in the region π<θ< π.
4 4
Hence this curve has only two loops as shown in the figure.
∴ whole area of the curve = 2 × area of one loop
π /4 1 π /4
∫ r 2 dθ =
∫
a2 cos 2θ dθ, 2
=2 [∵ r = a2 cos 2θ]
− π /4 2 − π /4
π /4
= 2 a2
∫0 cos 2θ dθ, [by a property of definite integrals]
π /4
sin 2θ  2 a2
= 2 a2  = = a2 .
 2  0 2
I-151
Example 14: Find the area of the cardioid r = a (1 + cos θ) .

(Agra 2002; Garhwal 02; Meerut 03, 04B, 10B; Kashi 12)
Solution: The given curve is symmetrical about B

the initial line since its equation remains Q
unaltered when θ is changed into − θ . δθ P (r, θ)
We have r = 0 , when cos θ = − 1 i. e., θ = π .
θ
Therefore the line θ = π is tangent at the pole to O 2a A X
the curve. Also r is maximum when cos θ = 1 i. e.,
θ = 0 and then r = 2 a .
When θ increases from 0 to π , r decreases from 2a
to 0. Thus the curve is as shown in the figure.
Now the required area = 2 × area of the upper half of the curve
π 1 π 1 2
∫0 ∫0
2
=2 r dθ = 2 a (1 + cos θ)2 dθ, [∵ r = a (1 + cos θ)]
2 2
π 1 2 π 1
= a2
∫0 (2 cos2
2
θ) dθ = 4 a2
∫0 cos4
2
θ dθ.
1 1
Now put θ = φ so that dθ = dφ .
2 2
Also when θ = 0 , φ = 0 and when θ = π , φ = π / 2.
π /2 3.1 π
∴ the required area = 8 a2
∫0 cos4 φ dφ = 8 a2 ⋅ ⋅ , by Walli’s formula
4.2 2
= 3 π a2 / 2.
Example 15: Find the area of a loop of the curve r = a cos 3θ + b sin 3θ . (Meerut 2000)
Solution: In the given equation of the curve put a = k cos α , b = k sin α so that
k = √ (a + b2 ) and α = tan− 1 (b / a).
2
Thus the given equation reduces to r = k cos 3θ cos α + k sin 3θ sin α

1
or r = k cos (3θ − α) = k cos 3 (θ − α) . (Note)
3
Now rotating the initial line through an angle α / 3, the given equation of the curve
becomes
1 1
r = k cos 3 (θ + α − α) = k cos 3θ . (Note)
3 3
It should be noted that the rotation of the initial line changes only the equation of the
curve and has no effect on its shape. Therefore the area of a loop of the given curve is
the same as the area of a loop of the curve r = k cos 3θ .
The curve r = k cos 3θ is symmetrical about the initial line.
Putting r = 0 in it, we have
cos 3θ = 0 i. e., 3θ = ± π / 2 i. e., θ = ± π / 6.
I-152
∴ one loop of this curve lies between θ = − π / 6 and θ = + π / 6 and it is symmetrical

about the initial line.
π /6 1
∫0
2
∴ the required area = 2 . r dθ, (By symmetry)
2
π /6
=
∫0 k 2 cos2 3θ dθ .
Now put 3θ = t, so that 3 dθ = dt. Also when θ = 0, t = 0 and when θ = π / 6, t = π / 2.

k2 π /2 k2 1 1 k2
∴ the required area =
3 ∫0 cos2 t dt = ⋅ ⋅ π=
3 2 2 12
π
= (a2 + b2 ) π / 12. [∵ k 2 = a2 + b2 ]
1. Find the area between the following curves and the given radii vectors :
(i) The spiral r θ1 /2 = a; θ = α , θ = β .
(ii) The parabola l / r = 1 + cos θ; θ = 0 , θ = α .
2. Find the area of the loop of the curve r = a θ cos θ between θ = 0 and θ = π / 2.
(Kanpur 2009)
3. (i) Find the area of one loop of r = a cos 4θ .

(ii) Find the area of a loop of the curve r = a sin 3θ .
4. (i) Find the whole area of the curve r = a sin 2θ . (Bundelkhand 2009)
(ii) Find the whole area of the curve r = a cos 2θ .

5. (i) Find the whole area of the curve r2 = a2 cos2 θ + b2 sin2 θ .
(ii) Find the area of the cardioid r = a (1 − cos θ) . (Kumaun 2014)
6. (i) Show that the area of the limacon r = a + b cos θ , (b < a) is equal to
 1 
π  a2 + b2  .
 2 
(ii) Prove that the sum of the areas of the two loops of the limacon r = a + b cos θ ,
(b > a) is equal to π (2 a2 + b2 ) / 2.
7. Calculate the ratio of the area of the larger to the area of the smaller loop of the
1
curve r = + cos 2θ .
2
8. Show that the area of a loop of r = a cos nθ is π a2 / 4 n, n being integral. Also prove
that the whole area is π a2 / 4 or π a2 / 2 according as n is odd or even.
9. Trace the curve r = √ 3 cos 3θ + sin 3θ, and find the area of a loop.
I-153
A nswers 4
1 2 1 2 1 1 1  πa2 2
1. (i) a log ( β / α) (ii) l tan α + tan3 α 2. (π − 6)
2 4  2 3 2  96
3. (i) πa2 / (16) (ii) πa2 / (12)
4. (i) πa2 / 2 (ii) πa2 / 2
1
5. (i) π (a2 + b 2 ) (ii) 3 πa2 / 2
2
4π + 3 √ 3
7. 9. π / 3
2 π − 3 √3
6 Area Bounded by Two Curves (Polar equations).

To find the area bounded by two curves given in polar form is explained by the
following examples.
Example 16: Find the area common to the circles r = a √ 2 and r = 2 a cos θ.
(Agra 2000; Kumaun 08; Meerut 05, 11, 12; Rohilkhand 11B;
Kanpur 14; Purvanchal 14)
Solution: The given equations of circles are r = a √ 2 and r = 2 a cos θ . The first
equation represents a circle with centre at pole and radius a √ 2. The second equation
represents a circle passing through the pole and the diameter through the pole as the
initial line. Both these circles are symmetrical about the initial line. Eliminating r
between the two equations, we have at the points of intersection
a √ 2 = 2 a cos θ, i. e., cos θ = 1 / √ 2, i. e., θ = ± π / 4.
Y π
θ=—
2
P π
√2 θ=—
a B 4
r=
π /4 θ=0
X
O A
sθ
co
2a
Q
r=
I-154
Thus at P , θ = π / 4. For the circle r = 2 a cos θ , at O , r = 0 and so cos θ = 0

1
i. e., θ = π.
2
Now the required area = Area OQAPBO
= 2 (area OAPBO) , (by symmetry)
= 2 [Area OAP + Area OPBO]
1 π /4
∫0
2
=2 r dθ, for the circle r = a √ 2
2
1 π /2 
∫ π /4
2
+ r dθ, for the circle r = 2 a cos θ
2 
π /4 π /2
=
∫0 (a √ 2)2 dθ +
∫ π /4 (2 a cos θ)2 dθ
π /2
= 2 a2 [θ]0π /4 + 2 a2
∫ π /4 (1 + cos 2θ) dθ
π /2
 π  sin 2θ 
= 2 a2   + 2 a2 θ + 2 
 4 π /4
πa2  π π 1
= + 2 a2  − − 
2  2 4 2
1 1
= π a2 + π a2 − a2 = π a2 − a2 = a2 (π − 1) .
2 2
Example 17: Find the ratio of the two parts into which the parabola 2 a = r (1 + cos θ) divides
the area of the cardioid r = 2 a (1 + cos θ).
Solution: Eliminating r between the given equations of the curves, we get
2 a (1 + cos θ) = 2 a / (1 + cos θ) or (1 + cos θ)2 = 1
Y π
or cos θ (cos θ + 2) = 0 θ = — , r = 2a
2
P
or cos θ = 0 , [∵ cos θ ≠ − 2 ]
or θ = ± π / 2. B
C
Thus at the point of intersection P of the θ=π θ = 0, r = a

two curves, θ = π / 2. θ=π O A
θ=0
Now area of the whole cardioid r=0 r = 4a
1 π
∫0
2
=2× r dθ ,
2 Q
(by symmetry)
π
=
∫0 4 a2 (1 + cos θ)2 dθ
I-155
π 1 2 π 1
= 4 a2
∫0 (2 cos2
2
θ) dθ = 16 a2
∫0 cos4
2
θ dθ
π/2 1 1
= 16 a2
∫0 cos4 φ .2 dφ ,
2
θ = φ so that dθ = dφ ;
(putting
2
1
also when θ = 0 , φ = 0 and when θ = π , φ = π )
2
3.1 π
= 32 a2 ⋅ ⋅ = 6 π a2 . ...(1)
4.2 2
1 π/2 2a
∫0
2
Area OACPO = r dθ, for the parabola r =
2 1 + cos θ
1 π/2 dθ a2 π/2 1
=
2
⋅ 4 a2
∫0 (1 + cos θ) 2
=
2 ∫0 sec4
2
θ dθ
1 2 π/2 1 1
=
2
a
∫0 (1 + tan2
2
θ) sec 2 θ dθ
2
π /2
 1 1 1   1 4 a2
= a2 tan θ + tan3 θ = a2 1 +  = ⋅ ...(2)
 2 3 2 0  3 3
1 π
∫π / 2
2
Also area OPBO = r dθ, for the cardioid r = 2 a (1 + cos θ)
2
1 π π
=
2 ∫π / 2 4 a2 (1 + cos θ)2 dθ = 2 a2
∫π / 2 [1 + 2 cos θ + cos2 θ] dθ
π 1 1
= 2 a2
∫π / 2 (1 + 2 cos θ + + cos 2θ) dθ
2 2
π
3 1  3
= 2 a2  θ + 2 sin θ + sin 2θ = π a2 − 4 a2 . ...(3)
2 4  π /2 2
Adding (2) and (3) and multiplying by 2, we get the whole area included between the
two curves i. e., the area of the smaller portion of the cardioid
4 3    16 
= 2 ×  a2 +  πa2 − 4 a2   = a2 3 π − 
3  2    3
1 2
= a [9 π − 16] . ...(4)
3
Also the shaded area (i. e., the area of the larger portion of the cardioid)
= (Area of the whole cardioid ) − (unshaded area) i. e., = (1) − (4)
1 2 1
= 6 π a2 − a (9 π − 16) = a2 (9 π + 16) . ...(5)
3 3
1 2
Larger area a (9 π + 16) 9 π + 16
∴ Ratio of the two parts = =3 = ⋅
Smaller area 1 a2 (9 π − 16) 9 π − 16
3
I-156
Example 18: Find the area lying between the cardioid r = a (1 − cos θ) and its double tangent.
Solution: Let PQ be the double π
θ=— Y
2
tangent of the cardioid. Clearly it a π
r = —, θ = —
is perpendicular toOX i. e., it must 2 3
π
be inclined at an angle of 90 o to the θ=— P
o
3 ψ = 90 o
initial line i. e., ψ = 90 at P . A
X
θ=π O M θ=0
Also we know that at any point of a Q
curve,
ψ =θ + φ. ...(1)
Now
tan φ = r (dθ / dr) = r / (dr / dθ)
= a (1 − cos θ) / (a sin θ) , [∵ r = a (1 − cos θ)]
1
2 sin2 θ
2 1
= = tan θ .
1 1 2
2 sin θ cos θ
2 2
1
∴ φ = θ.
2
Putting the value of φ in (1), we get
1 3
ψ =θ + θ = θ.
2 2
1 1 3 π
Since at P , ψ = π , therefore at P, π= θ or θ= .
2 2 2 3
∴ the vectorial angle of the point of contact P of the double tangent is π / 3 i. e., 60 o .
Substituting this value of θ in the equation of the curve, we get the radius vector
OP = a (1 − cos 60 o ) = a / 2.
Thus in the triangle OPM ,

1
OP = a , ∠ POM = 60 o , ∠ PMO = 90 o .
2
1 1 1 1
∴ OM = a cos 60 o = a ⋅ = a
2 2 2 4
1 1
and PM = a sin 60 o = a (√ 3 / 2).
2 2
1 1 1  2
∴ area of the triangle OPM = OM . PM =  a (√ 3 a / 4) = (1 / 32) a √ 3.
2 2 4 
Also the sectorial area OPO of the cardioid r = a (1 − cos θ) i. e., the dotted area
1 π /3 1 π /3
∫0 ∫0
2
= r dθ = a2 (1 − cos θ)2 dθ
2 2
I-157
1 2 π /3 1 1
=
2
a
∫0 (1 − 2 cos θ + + cos 2θ) dθ
2 2
π /3
1 2 3 1 
= a  θ − 2 sin θ + sin 2θ
2 2 4 0
1 2 1 1  1 2
= a  π − √ 3 + √ 3 = a (4 π − 7 √ 3).
2 2 8  16
Hence the required area (i. e., the area shaded by vertical lines)
= 2 [area of ∆ OPM − area of sector OPO]
1 1 2  1 2
= 2  a2 √ 3 − a (4 π − 7 √ 3) = a (15 √ 3 − 8 π).
32 16  16
Example 19: Find the area of a loop of the curve r = a sin 3θ outside the circle r = a /2 and
hence find the whole area of the curve outside the circle r = a / 2.
Solution: Eliminating r between the two π
Y θ=— π
2 θ=—
given equations, we get (a / 2) = a sin 3θ 3
1
i.e., sin 3θ = π
θ=—
2 B′
6
A π
i.e., 3θ = π / 6 or 5π / 6 C θ=—
18
i. e., θ = π / 18 or 5 π / 18 B
X
O θ=0
i. e., θ = 10 o or 50 o .
Thus the loop of the curve r = a sin 3θ lying

1
between θ = 0 and θ = π / 3 intersects the r = —a
2
circle r = a / 2 at the points B and B′ where
θ = 10 o at B and θ = 50 o at B′ . This loop is
symmetrical about OA and θ = π / 6 at A.
Now the required area of a loop of the curve r = a sin 3θ lying outside the circle r = a / 2
= the area BAB′ CB (i. e., the shaded area)
= 2 × area BACB , (by symmetry)
= 2 × [(area of the curve r = a sin 3θ between the radii vectors OB
and OA i. e., θ = π / 18 and θ = π / 6) − (area of the circle r = a / 2
between the radii vectors OB and OC i. e., θ = π / 18 and θ = π / 6 )]
1 π /6
=2
2
∫π /18 r 2 dθ, for the curve r = a sin 3θ
1 π /6 a
−
2 ∫π /18 r 2 dθ, for the circle r =
2 
π /6 π /6 a2
=
∫π /18 a2 sin2 3θ dθ −
∫π /18 4
dθ
I-158
a2 π /6 a2
∫π /18 [θ] ππ //18
6
= (1 − cos 6θ) dθ −
2 4
π /6
a2  sin 6θ  a2  π π
= θ − 6  −  6 − 18 
2 π /18 4
a2  π sin π   π 1 π   a2 π
=  6 − 6  − 18 − 6 sin  − ⋅
2    3   4 9
a2 π  π 1 √ 3   a2 π
=  − − ⋅  −
2  6 18 6 2   36
a2  π √ 3  a2 π a2
=  + − = [2 π + 3 √ 3] .
2  9 12  36 72
Again the curve r = a sin 3θ has 3 equal loops. [∵ n = 3 which is odd.]

∴ whole area of the curve r = a sin 3θ outside the circle r = a /2
= 3 × area BAB′ CB i. e., 3 times the shaded area
1 2 1 2
=3× a [2 π + 3 √ 3] = a [2 π + 3 √ 3].
72 24
1. Find the area outside the circle r = 2 a cos θ and inside the cardioid
r = a (1 + cos θ) .
2. Find the total area inside r = sin θ and outside r = 1 − cos θ.
3. Find by double integration the area lying inside the circle r = a sin θ and outside
the cardioid r = a (1 − cos θ).
4. Find the area common to the circle r = a and the cardioid r = a (1 + cos θ).
(Meerut 2007)
5. Find the area of the portion included between the cardioids r = a (1 + cos θ) and
r = a (1 − cos θ).
6. Show that the area contained between the circle r = a and the curve r = a cos 5θ is
equal to three-fourth of the area of the circle.
7. Find the area between the curve r = a (sec θ + cos θ) and its asymptote.
(Purvanchal 2010)
2 2
8. O is the pole of the lemniscate r = a cos 2θ and PQ is a common tangent to its
two loops. Find the area bounded by the line PQ and the arcs OP and OQ of the
curve.
I-159
A nswers 5
1. πa2 / 2 2. 1 − (π / 4) 3. a2 {1 − (π / 4)}
5  3 
4. a2  π − 2 5. 2 a2  π − 2 7. 5 πa2 / 4
4  4 
1 2
8. a (3 √ 3 − 4)
8
7 Cartesian Equations Changed to Polar Form

Sometimes it is convenient to find the required area if the given cartesian equation of
the curve is changed to polar form by putting x = r cos θ and y = r sin θ .
Example 20: Find the area of a loop of the folium x3 + y3 = 3 axy . (Meerut 2001)
π
Solution: Changing the equation of the curve Y θ=—
π 2
3θ = —
x3 + y3 = 3 axy into polar form by putting 4
x A
x = r cos θ and y = r sin θ , we have P θ=
θ =
θ y
(r cos θ)3 + (r sin θ)3 = 3 a (r cos θ) .(r sin θ)
X′ B O θ=0 X
or r = 3 a cos θ sin θ / (cos3 θ + sin3 θ) . ...(1)
From (1), r = 0 when θ = 0 and when θ = π / 2.

∴ the loop lies between θ = 0 and θ = π / 2. C
x+
Hence the required area of the loop

y
π /2
+
1 Y′
=
∫0 r 2 dθ
a
=
2
0
2
1 π /2  3 a cos θ sin θ 
=
2 ∫0  
 cos3 θ + sin3 θ  dθ,
 
putting for r from (1)
9 a2 π /2 cos2 θ sin2 θ
=
2 ∫0 (cos3 θ + sin3 θ)2
dθ
9 a2 π /2 tan2 θ sec 2 θ
=
2 ∫0 (1 + tan3 θ)2
dθ ,
dividing the numerator and the denominator by cos6 θ .

Now put 1 + tan3 θ = t so that 3 tan2 θ sec2 θ dθ = dt .
Also when θ = 0 , t = 1 and when θ → π / 2, t → ∞.
∴ area of the loop
∞
9 a2 ∞ 1 dt 3 a2  1 3 a2
=
2 1 t2 3
⋅
∫ = −
2  t 1
=
2
⋅
I-160
1. Find the area of a loop of the curve x4 + y4 = 4 a2 xy .
2. Find the area of a loop of the curve ( x2 + y2 )2 = 4 axy2 .
3. Prove that the area of a loop of the curve x6 + y6 = a2 y2 x2 is π a2 / 12.
4. Find the area of a loop of the curve x4 + 3 x2 y2 + 2 y4 = a2 xy .
5. Prove that the area of a loop of the curve x5 + y5 = 5 ax2 y2 is five times the area
of one loop of the curve r2 = a2 cos 2θ . (Purvanchal 2014)
A nswers 6
1 2
1. a2 (π / 2) 2. πa2 / 4 3. a log 2
4

Indicate the correct answer for each question by writing the corresponding letter from
(a), (b), (c) and (d).
1. The area bounded by the axis of x, and the curve y = sin2 x and the given
π
ordinates x = 0 , x = is
2
π π2 π
(a) (b) (c) (d) π
4 4 2
2. The loop of the curve 3 a y2 = x ( x − a)2 will lie between

(a) x = 0, x = a (b) x = − a, x = a
(c) x = 0, x = − a (d) y = 0, y = a
3. The area of one loop of the curve r 2 = a2 cos 2 θ is

a2 3 a2 a2
(a) a2 (b) (c) (d)
2 2 4
I-161
x2 y2
4. The whole area of the ellipse + = 1 is
a2 b2
π 2π
(a) ab (b) π ab (c) π2 ab (d) ab
2 3
(Agra 2006; Bundelkhand 06, 08; Kumaun 09)
5. The area of the curve r = a is
(a) πa2 (b) 2πa (c) 2 πa2 (d) 4 πa2
(Rohilkhand 2006)
2
6. The whole area of the curve r = a cos nθ is πa / 4 if n is:
(a) odd (b) even
(c) odd and even both (d) none of these (Kumaun 2008)
7. Quadrature is the process of evaluating the

(a) length of plane curves (b) area under plane curves
(c) volume formed by revolution of curve about the axis
(d) none of these (Kumaun 2010)

Fill in the blanks “……”, so that the following statements are complete and correct.
1. The process of finding the area of any bounded portion of a curve is called …… .
2. If f ( x) is a continuous and single valued function of x, then the area bounded by
the curve y = f ( x) the axis of x and the ordinates x = a and x = b is …… .
3. The area between the curve r = a e m θ and the given radii vectors θ = α, θ = β is
…… .
4. The curve r = a sin 3 θ has …… loops.
 x
5. The area bounded by the axis of x, and the curve y = c cosh   and the ordinates
c
x = 0, x = a is …… .
True or False
1. If r = f (θ) be the equation of a curve in polar co-ordinates where f (θ) is a
single-valued continuous function of θ, then the area of the sector enclosed by the
curve and the two radii vectors θ = θ1 and θ = θ2 (θ1 < θ2 ), is equal to
1 θ = θ2 2
∫
2 θ = θ1
r dθ.
2. The number of loops in r = a cos n θ is n or 2n according as n is even or odd.

3
3. The area of the astroid x 2 /3 + y 2 /3 = a2 /3 is π a2 .
8 (Agra 2003)
4. The area of ellipse x2 / a2 + y2 / b2 = 1 is 2 a2 b. (Agra 2002)

I-162
A nswers
1. (a) 2. (a) 3. (b) 4. (b) 5. (a)
6. (a) 7. (b)

b
1. quadrature 2.
∫a f ( x) dx
a2 2 m β a
3. (e − e 2 m α) 4. three 5. c 2 sinh
4m c
True or False
1. T 2. F 3. T 4. F
¨
I-163
8
R ectification
(Lengths of Arcs and Intrinsic Equations
of Plane Curves)
1 Rectification
he process of finding the length of an arc of a curve between two given points is called
T rectification.
2 Lengths of Curves (Meerut 2009B)
If s denotes the arc length of a curve measured from a fixed point to any point on it, then
as proved in Differential Calculus, we have
 2

ds
dx
=± √ 1 +  dydx  ,


where +ive or –ive sign is to be taken before the radical sign according as x increases or
decreases as s increases. Hence if s increases as x increases, we have
 2   2 
ds
dx
= √ 1 +  dydx  

or ds = √ 1 +  dydx   dx .

 
I-164
x   dy  2 
Integrating, we have s =
∫a √ 1 +  

 dx 
 dx,

where a is the abscissa of the fixed point from which s is measured.
Hence the arc length of the curve y = f ( x) included between two points for which
  dy 
2
∫ √
b
x = a and x = b is equal to 1 +    dx, ( b > a).
 dx  
a
 
Sometimes it is more convenient to take y as the independent variable. Then the
length of the arc of the curve x = f ( y) between y = a and y = b is equal to
  dx 
2
∫a √
b  
1 +    dy, (b > a).
  dy  
Remark: Suppose we have to find the length of the arc of a curve (whose cartesian
equation is given) lying between the points ( x1, y1) and ( x2 , y2 ) . We can use either of
the two formulae
x2 y2
s=
∫x 1
√ {1 + (dy / dx)2} dx and s=
∫y
1
√ {1 + (dx / dy)2} dy .
If we feel any difficulty in integration while using one of these two formulae, we must
try the other formula also.
Example 1: Show that the length of the curve y = log sec x between the points where x = 0 and
1
x = π is log (2 + √ 3) .
3 (Kanpur 2005; Rohilkhand 14)
Solution: The given curve is y = log sec x . ...(1)

dy 1
Differentiating (1) w.r.t. x , we get = sec x tan x = tan x .
dx sec x
2 2
 ds   dy  2 2
Now   = 1+   = 1 + tan x = sec x . ...(2)
 dx   dx 
If the arc length s of the given curve is measured from x = 0 in the direction of x
ds
increasing, we have = sec x or ds = sec x dx .
dx
1
Therefore if s1 denotes the arc length from x = 0 to x = π , then
3
s1 π /3
π /3
∫0 ds =
∫0 sec x dx = [log (sec x + tan x)]
0
  1 1  
or s1 = log  sec π + tan π − log 1 = log (2 + √ 3) .
  3 3  
I-165
Example 2: Find the length of the arc of the parabola y2 = 4 ax extending from the vertex to an
extremity of the latus rectum. (Lucknow 2005; Meerut 09)
Solution: The given equation of parabola is Y
y2 = 4 ax . ...(1) (x, y)
P L (a, 2a)
The point O (0 , 0 ) is the vertex of the parabola and the
point L (a , 2 a) is an extremity of the latus rectum LSL′. (0, 0) (a, 0)
We have to find the length of arc OL . Differentiating (1) O S X
w.r.t. x , we get 2 y (dy / dx) = 4 a.
∴ dy / dx = 2 a / y or dx / dy = y / 2 a.
L'
2 2
 ds   dx  y2 Y'
Now   = 1+   = 1+ 2
 dy   dy  4a
1
= (4 a2 + y2 ) . ...(2)
4 a2
If ‘s’ denotes the arc length of the parabola measured from the vertex O to any point
P ( x, y) towards the point L , then s increases as y increases. Therefore ds / dy will be
positive. So extracting the square root of (2) and keeping the positive sign, we have
ds 1 1
= √ (4 a2 + y2 ) or ds = √ (4 a2 + y2 ) dy .
dy 2 a 2a
Let s1 denote the arc length OL . Then

s1 2a 1
∫0 ds =
∫0 2a
√ (4 a2 + y2 ) dy
2a
1 y 2 2 4 a2 
or s1 =  √ (4 a + y ) + log { y + √ (4 a2 + y2 )}
2a  2 2  0
1
= [a √ (4 a2 + 4 a2 ) + 2 a2 log {2 a + √ (8 a2 )} − 0 − 2 a2 log (2 a)]
2a
1
= [2 √ 2 a2 + 2 a2 log {(2 a + 2 √ 2 a) / 2 a }]
2a
2 a2
= [√ 2 + log (1 + √ 2)] = a [ √ 2 + log (1 + √ 2)] .
2a
Example 3: Find the perimeter of the loop of the curve 3 ay2 = x2 (a − x) .
(Meerut 2000, 04, 06B, 07B, 11B; Purvanchal 10; Kashi 14)
Solution: The given curve is 3 ay2 = x2 (a − x) . ...(1)
Here the curve is symmetrical about the x-axis. Putting y = 0, we get x = 0, x = a . So the
loop lies between x = 0 and x = a . Differentiating (1) w.r.t. x, we get
dy dy x (2 a − 3 x)
6 ay = 2 ax − 3 x2 or = ⋅
dx dx 6 ay
I-166
2
 dy  x2 (2 a − 3 x)2 x2 (2 a − 3 x)2
∴ 1+   = 1+ = 1 +
 dx  36 a2 y2 12 a x2 (a − x)
[Substituting for 3 ay2 from (1)]
(2 a − 3 x)2 12 a2 − 12 ax + (2 a − 3 x)2 (4 a − 3 x)2

= 1+ = = ⋅
12 a (a − x) 12 a (a − x) 12 a (a − x)
∴ the required length of the loop

= twice the length of the half loop lying above the x-axis
[By symmetry]
 2   2
 (4 a − 3 x)  
∫0 √ 1 +  dx 
a
∫0 √ 12a (a − x) dx
  dy  a
=2  dx = 2

1 a (4 a − 3 x) 1 a 3 (a − x) + a
=
√ (3 a) ∫0 √ (a − x)
dx =
√ (3 a) ∫0 √ (a − x)
dx
1 a 3 (a − x) a 
=
√ (3 a) ∫0  +  dx
 √ (a − x) √ (a − x)
1 a
=
√ (3 a) ∫0 [3 √ (a − x) + a (a − x)− 1 /2 ] dx
a
1  2 3 /2 
= − 3 ⋅ 3 (a − x) − a . 2 (a − x)1 /2 
√ (3 a) 0
1 4a
= [2 a3 /2 + 2 a3 /2 ] = ⋅
√ (3 a) √3
Example 4: Find the length of the astroid x 2 /3 + y 2 /3 = a 2 /3 .
(Meerut 2002, 03, 13B; Kumaun 02, 10; Agra 05; Purvanchal 08; Kashi 12)
Solution: The given astroid is x 2 /3 + y 2 /3 = a 2 /3 . ...(1)
The curve is symmetrical in all the four quadrants. For the arc of the curve in the first
quadrant x varies from 0 to a. Differentiating (1), w.r.t. x, we get
2 − 1 /3 2 − 1 /3 dy
x + y =0 Y π
3 3 dx t=—
2
1 /3
dy  y
so that =−  ⋅
dx  x a
a t=0
∴ the required whole length of the curve
O X
= 4 × length of the curve lying in the Ist quadrant
 2  y2 / 3 
∫0 √ 1 +  dx  ∫0 √ 1 +
a   dy   a
=4  dx = 4  dx
 x2 / 3 
I-167
a √ ( x2 /3 + y 2 /3 ) a √ (a2 /3 )
=4
∫0 x 1 /3
dx = 4
∫0 x1 /3
dx
a a
3 
∫0
− 1 /3
= 4 a1 /3 x dx = 4 a1 /3  x2 /3  = 6 a.
2 0
1 2 1
1. (i) Find the arc length of the curve y = x − log x from x = 1 to x = 2.
2 4
(Meerut 2012B)
x
e −1
(ii) Find the length of the curve y = log x
from x = 1 to x = 2 .
e +1
(Meerut 2004B; Agra 06; Avadh 08; Kanpur 11; Rohilkhand 13; Kashi 13)
2. (i) Show that in the catenary y = c cosh ( x / c ) , the length of arc from the vertex
to any point is given by s = c sinh ( x / c ).
(ii) If s be the length of the arc of the catenary y = c cosh ( x / c ) from the vertex
(0 , c ) to the point ( x, y) , show that s2 = y2 − c 2 .
3. (i) Find the length of an arc of the parabola y2 = 4 ax measured from the vertex.
(ii) Find the length of the arc of the parabola y2 = 4 ax cut off by its latus rectum.
4. (i) Find the length of the arc of the parabola x2 = 4 ay from the vertex to an
extremity of the latus rectum. (Kanpur 2008; Purvanchal 09)
2
(ii) Find the length of the arc of the parabola x = 8 y from the vertex to an
extremity of the latus rectum.
5. (i) Find the length of the arc of the parabola y2 = 4 ax cut off by the line y = 3 x .
(ii) Show that the length of the arc of the parabola y2 = 4 ax which is intercepted
between the points of intersection of the parabola and the straight line
 15 
3 y = 8 x is a  log 2 +  .
 16  (Gorakhpur 2006; Purvanchal 06)
6. (i) Find the perimeter of the curve x2 + y2 = a2 .

(Avadh 2010; Rohilkhand 12B)
(ii) Find the length of the arc of the semi-cubical parabola ay2 = x3 from the
vertex to the point (a, a). (Bundelkhand 2010)
2 2 y/a
7. (i) Show that the length of the arc of the curve x = a (1 − e ) measured from
the origin to the point ( x, y) is a log {(a + x) / (a − x)} − x .
(Rohilkhand 2010B)
(ii) Prove that the length of the loop of the curve 3 ay = x ( x − a)2 is 4 a / √ 3. 2
(Meerut 2005B, 08, 09B)

I-168
8. (i) Find the perimeter of the loop of the curve 9 ay2 = ( x − 2 a) ( x − 5 a)2 .
(ii) Show that the whole length of the curve x2 (a2 − x2 ) = 8 a2 y2 is π a √ 2 .
(Bundelkhand 2006; Purvanchal 11)
A nswers 1
3 1  1
1. (i) + log 2 (ii) log  e + 
2 4  e
1   y + √ ( y + 4 a ) 
2 2
3. (i)  y √ ( y2 + 4 a2 ) + 4 a2 log  
4a   2a  
(ii) 2 a [√ 2 + log (1 + √ 2)]
4. (i) a [√ 2 + log (1 + 2 )] (ii) 2 [√ 2 + log (1 + √ 2)]
2 √ (13)  2 + √ (13) 
5. (i) a  + log  
 9  3  
1
6. (i) 2 aπ (ii) a [13 √ (13) − 8]
27
8. (i) 4 a √ 3
3 Equations of the Curve in Parametric Form (Meerut 2009B)
If the equations of the curve be given in the parametric form x = f (t ), y = φ (t ) , then s

is obviously a function of t . In this case if we measure the arc length s in the direction of
t increasing , we have
 2 2   2 2
ds
dt
= √   dxdt   dy 
+ 
 dt 


or ds = √   dxdt   dy 
+ 
 dt 

 dt.

 
On integrating between proper limits, the required length
 2 2 
∫t √   dt 
t2   dx   dy 
s= +   dt.
 dt  (Meerut 2003)
1 
Example 5: Show that 8a is the length of an arch of the cycloid whose equations are
x = a (t − sin t ), y = a (1 − cos t ) .
(Agra 2002; Meerut 06; Rohilkhand 08; Kashi 11; Avadh 12; Purvanchal 14)
I-169
Solution: The given equations of the cycloid are x = a (t − sin t ), y = a (1 − cos t ) .

We have dx / dt = a (1 − cos t), and dy / dt = a sin t.
1 1
dy dy / dt a sin t 2 sin t cos t
∴ = = = 2 2 = cot 1 t.
dx dx / dt a (1 − cos t ) 2 1 2
2 sin t
2
Y t=π
B ( aπ, 2 a)
P
(0, 0)
X
O t=0 M A
t =2π
Now y = 0 when cos t = 1i. e., t = 0. At t = 0 , x = 0 , y = 0 and dy / dx = ∞. Thus the curve

passes through the point (0 , 0 ) and the tangent there is perpendicular to the x-axis.
Again y is maximum when cos t = − 1i. e., t = π . When t = π , x = aπ , y = 2 a , dy / dx = 0 .
Thus at the point (aπ, 2 a) the tangent to the curve is parallel to the x-axis.
Also in this curve y cannot be negative. Thus an arch OBA of the given cycloid is as
shown in the figure. It is symmetrical about the line BM which is the axis of the
cycloid.
2 2 2
 ds   dx   dy  2 2
We have   =   +   = { a (1 − cos t )} + (a sin t )
 dt   dt   dt 
1 2 1 1
= a2 {(2 sin2 t ) + (2 sin t cos t)2 }
2 2 2
1 1 1 1
= 4 a2 sin2 t (sin2 t + cos2 t ) = 4 a2 sin2 t . ...(1)
2 2 2 2
If s denotes the arc length of the cycloid measured from the cusp O to any point P
towards the vertex B, then s increases as t increases. Therefore ds / dt will be taken with
positive sign. So taking square root of both sides of (1), we have
1 1
ds / dt = 2 a sin t or ds = 2 a sin t dt .
2 2
At the cusp O, t = 0, and at the vertex B, t = π .
Now the length of the arch OBA = 2 × length of the arc OB
π π π
1  1   1 
=2
∫0 2 a sin
2
t dt = 4 a − 2 cos t = − 8 a cos t
 2 0  2 0
= − 8 a [0 − 1] = 8 a .
1 3
Example 6: Find the length of the loop of the curve x = t2 , y = t − t .
3 (Kanpur 2010)
1 3
Solution: Eliminating the parameter t from x = t2 and y = t − t ,
3
I-170
1 2
we get y2 = x (1 − x) as the cartesian equation of the curve and hence we observe
3
that the curve is symmetrical about the x-axis. The loop of the curve extends from the
1
point (0 , 0 ) to the point (3, 0 ). Putting y = 0 in y = t − t3 , we get t = 0 and t = √ 3.
3
Therefore the arc of the upper half of the loop extends from t = 0 to t = √ 3.
Now the required length of the loop
= 2 × length of the half of the loop which lies above x-axis
√3   dx  2 2 
∫0 √
 dy 
=2    +   dt
 dt  dt  
√3 1
=2
∫0 √ {(2 t )2 + (1 −
3
⋅ 3 t2 )2} dt
√3 √3
=2
∫0 √ (1 + 2 t2 + t4 ) dt = 2
∫0 (1 + t2 ) dt
√3
 t3 
= 2 t +  = 2 [√ 3 + √ 3] = 4 √ 3.
 3 
0
Example 7: Show that the length of an arc of the curve

x sin t + y cos t = f ′ (t ), x cos t − y sin t = f ′ ′ (t ) is given by
s = f (t ) + f ′ ′ (t ), where c is the constant of integration. (Agra 2003)
Solution: The given equations of the curve are x sin t + y cos t = f ′ (t ) ...(1)
and x cos t − y sin t = f ′ ′ (t ) . ...(2)
Multiplying (1) by sin t and (2) by cos t and adding, we get
x (sin2 t + cos2 t ) = sin t . f ′ (t ) + cos t . f ′ ′ (t )
or x = sin t f ′ (t ) + cos t f ′ ′ (t ) . ...(3)

Again, multiplying (1) by cos t and (2) by sin t and subtracting, we get
y = cos t f ′ (t) − sin t f ′ ′ (t ) . ...(4)
Now differentiating (3) and (4) w.r.t. t , we get
dx / dt = cos t f ′ (t ) + sin t f ′ ′ (t ) + cos t f ′ ′ ′ (t ) − sin t f ′ ′ (t )
= [ f ′ (t ) + f ′ ′ ′ (t )] cos t
and dy / dt = − [ f ′ (t ) + f ′ ′ ′ (t )] sin t.
Now if s be the arc length in the direction of t increasing, then
  dx  2
 dy 
2 
ds
dt
= √   
 dt
+ 
 dt 


= √ [cos2 t { f ′ (t ) + f ′ ′ ′ (t )}2 + sin2 t { f ′ (t ) + f ′ ′ ′ (t )}2 ]
= [ f ′ (t ) + f ′ ′ ′ (t )] √ (cos2 t + sin2 t ) = f ′ (t ) + f ′ ′ ′ (t ).
I-171
Integrating both sides, we have s =

∫ [ f ′ (t ) + f ′ ′ ′ (t )] dt + c
= f (t ) + f ′ ′ (t ) + c , where c is the constant of integration.
1. (i) Find the whole length of the curve (astroid) x = a cos3 t , y = a sin3 t .
(Rohilkhand 2011)
(ii) Find the whole length of the curve (Hypocycloid)

x = a cos3 t , y = b sin3 t .
2. Rectify the curve or find the length of an arch of the curve

x = a (t + sin t ), y = a (1 − cos t ). (Rohilkhand 2009B)
3. Prove that the length of an arc of the cycloid x = a (t + sin t ), y = a (1 − cos t )

from the vertex to the point ( x, y) is √ (8ay) . (Bundelkhand 2007; Meerut 12)
4. Find the length of the arc of the curve

1
x = e t sin t , y = e t cos t , from t = 0 to t = π.
2
(Kumaun 2008; Kanpur 09)
5. Show that in the epi-cycloid for which
x = (a + b) cos θ − b cos {(a + b) / b } θ,
y = (a + b) sin θ − b sin {(a + b) / b } θ,
the length of the arc measured from the point θ = πb / a is
{4 b (a + b) / a } cos {(a / 2 b) θ }.
6. In the ellipse x = a cos φ, y = b sin φ, show that ds = a √ (1 − e2 cos2 φ) dφ, and
hence show that the whole length of the ellipse is
 2
e2  1 . 3 
2
e4  1 . 3 . 5 
2
e6 
 1
2 πa 1 −   ⋅ −  ⋅ −  ⋅ − … ,
  2 1  2 . 4 3  2 . 4 . 6 5 
 
where e is the eccentricity of the ellipse. (Meerut 2005)
A nswers 2
1. (i) 6a (ii) 4 (b2 + ab + a2 ) / (b + a)

2. 8a 4. √ 2 [e π /2 − 1]
I-172
4 Equation of the Curve in Polar Form

For the curve r = f (θ), if we measure the arc length s in the direction of θ increasing, we
have
 2  dr    2  dr  
2 2
ds
dθ
= √ r +    or ds =
dθ 
√
 r +    dθ.
dθ 
 
 2
θ2  2  dr  
s=
∫θ √  r +    dq.
  dq   (Meerut 2003)
1

If the equation of the curve be θ = f (r) , then the required length is given by
r2   dq  
2
s=
∫r √
1
1 +  r   dr.
  dr  

Example 8: Find the perimeter of the cardioid r = a (1 − cos θ) .

(Meerut 2007; Bundelkhand 11)
Solution: The given curve is r = a (1 − cos θ). ...(1)

It is symmetrical about the initial line.
P (r, θ) Y
We have r = 0 when cos θ = 1 i. e., θ = 0. Also r is .
maximum when cos θ = − 1 i. e., θ = π and then r = 2 a.
As θ increases from 0 to π , r increases from 0 to 2a .
So the curve is as shown in the figure. θ= π 2a θ =0
A O X
By symmetry, the perimeter of the cardioid
= 2 × the arc length of the upper
half of the cardioid.
Now differentiating (1) w.r.t. θ, we have
dr / dθ = a sin θ.
2 2
 ds  2  dr  2 2 2 2
We have   = r +   = a (1 − cos θ) + a sin θ
 dθ   dθ 
1 2 1 1
= a2 (2 sin2 θ) + a2 (2 sin θ cos θ)2
2 2 2
1 1 1
= 4 a2 sin2 θ (sin2 θ + cos2 θ)
2 2 2
1
= 4 a2 sin2 θ. ...(2)
2
I-173
If s denotes the arc length of the cardioid measured from the cusp O (i. e., the point
θ = 0) to any point P (r, θ) in the direction of θ increasing, then s increases as θ increases.
Therefore ds / dθ will be positive.
Hence from (2), we have
1 1
ds / dθ = 2 a sin θ, or ds = 2 a sin θ dθ. ...(3)
2 2
At the cusp O, θ = 0 and at the vertex A, θ = π .
π 1
∴ the length of the arc OPA =
∫0 2 a sin
2
θ dθ
π π
 θ  θ
= 4 a − cos = − 4 a cos = − 4 a (0 − 1) = 4 a .
 2 0  2 0
∴ the perimeter of the cardioid = 2 × 4 a = 8 a .
Example 9: Find the length of the arc of the equiangular spiral r = a e θ cot α , between the
points for which radii vectors are r1 and r2 . (Kanpur 2007; Kumaun 09)
Solution: The given equiangular spiral is r = ae θ cot α . ...(1)
Differentiating (1) w.r.t. θ, we get dr / dθ = ae θ cot α . cot α = r cot α, from (1),
∴ dθ / dr = 1 / (r cot θ), i. e., (r dθ / dr) = tan θ …(2)

If s denotes the arc length of the given curve measured in the direction of r increasing,
we have
 2
2  dθ  
ds
dr
= √ 1 + r   
 dr 
(Note)
= √ (1 + tan2 α) = √ (sec2 α) = sec α, from (2)
or ds = sec α dr. (Meerut 2001B)
Let s1 denote the required arc length, i. e., from r = r1 to r = r2 .

s1 r2
∫0 ∫r
r
Then ds = sec α dr = (sec α)[r]r2 or s1 = (sec α)(r2 − r1).
1
1
Example 10: Prove that the perimeter of the limacon r = a + b cos θ, if b / a be small, is
 1 
approximately 2 πa 1 + b2 / a2  .
 4 
Solution: The given curve is

r = a + b cos θ, (a > b) . ...(1)
Note that b / a is given to be small so we must have b < a. The curve (1) is symmetrical
about the initial line and for the portion of the curve lying above the initial line θ varies
from θ = 0 to θ = π .
I-174
By symmetry, the perimeter of the limacon

= 2 × the arc length of the upper half of the limacon.
Now differentiating (1) w.r.t. θ, we have dr / dθ = − b sin θ.
π
θ=—
2
(a – b, π) (a + b, 0)
X
θ=π O
2 2
 ds  2  dr  2 2
We have   = r +   = (a + b cos θ) + (− b sin θ)
 dθ   dθ 
= a2 + b2 cos2 θ + 2 ab cos θ + b2 sin2 θ
= a2 + b2 + 2 ab cos θ.
If we measure the arc length s in the direction of θ increasing, we have

ds / dθ = √ (a2 + b2 + 2 ab cos θ)
or ds = √ (a2 + b2 + 2 ab cos θ) dθ .
The arc length of the upper half of the limacon

1 /2
π π  2b b2 
∫0 ∫0
2 2
= √ (a + b + 2 ab cos θ) dθ = a 1 + cos θ + 2  dθ
 a a 
 1 1  
π   − 1  b2  
b 1 b2 2  2 
=a
∫0 1 + cos θ + ⋅ 2 +
 a 2 a 2!
4 2 cos2
 a
θ  dθ
 
 
[Expanding by binomial theorem and neglecting powers of b / a

higher than two because b / a is small]
π  b 1 b2 
=a
∫0 1 + cos θ +
 a 2 a2
(1 − cos2 θ) dθ

π  b 1 b2 
=a
∫0 1 + cos θ +
 a 2 a2
sin2 θ dθ

 π π /2 
b  1 b2
∫
2
= a θ + sin θ + 2 sin θ dθ
 a 0 2 a2 0 
 1b 2
1 π  b 
2
= a π + 2
⋅ 2 ⋅ ⋅  = aπ 1 + 2  ⋅
 2 a 2 2   4 a 
∴ the perimeter of the limacon = 2 × aπ [1 + (b2 / 4 a2 )] = 2 aπ [1 + (b2 / 4 a2 )] .

I-175
1
Example 11: If s be the length of the curve r = a tanh
θ between the origin and θ = 2 π, and ∆
2
be the area under the curve between the same two points, prove that ∆ = a (s − aπ) .
1 ...(1)
Solution: The given curve is r = a tanh θ.
2
1 1
Differentiating (1) w.r.t. θ, we get dr / dθ = a ⋅ sech 2 θ.
2 2
2 2
 ds  2  dr  2 2 1 a2 1
We have   = r +   = a tanh θ+ sech 4 θ
 dθ   dθ  2 4 2
1 2 1 1
= a [4 tanh2 θ + sech 4 θ]
4 2 2
1 2 1 1 1 1
= a [4 (1 − sech 2 θ) + sech 4 θ] = a2 [2 − sech 2 θ] 2 . ...(2)
4 2 2 4 2
If we measure the arc length s in the direction of θ increasing, we have
1  1 
ds / dθ = a 2 − sech 2 θ
2  2 
[Retaining +ive sign while taking the square root of (2)]
1 1
or ds = a (2 − sech 2 θ) dθ .
2 2
Now at the origin r = 0 and putting r = 0 in (1), we get θ = 0.
∴ the arc length of the given curve between the origin (θ = 0 ) and θ = 2 π is given by
1 2π 1
s=
2
a
∫0 (2 − sech 2
2
θ) dθ
1 2π 1 2π 1
=
2
a
∫0 2 dθ −
2
a
∫0 sech 2
2
θ dθ
2π
1 1  1 
= a ⋅ 2 [θ]20 π − a 2 tan θ
2 2  2 0
= 2aπ − a tanh π . ...(3)

Also the area between the radii vectors θ = 0 , θ = 2 π and the curve is
1 2π 1 2 2π 1
∆=
2 ∫0 r 2 dθ =
2
a
∫0 tanh2
2
θ dθ
2π 2π
1 2 1 1  1 
=
2
a
∫0 (1 − sech 2
2
θ) dθ = a2 θ − 2 tanh θ
2  2 0
1 2
= a [2 π − 2 tanh π] = a2 [π − tanh π]
2
= a [aπ − a tanh π] = a [(2 aπ − a tanh π) − aπ]
= a (s − aπ). [From (3)]
I-176
5 Equation of the Curve in Pedal Form

Let p = f (r ) be the equation of the curve and r1 and r2 be the values of r at two given
points of the curve. Then by differential calculus we know that
ds r
=
dr √ (r 2 − p2 )
r
or ds = 2
dr , where s increases as r increases.
√ (r − p2 )

r2 r
s=
∫r 1 √ (r 2 − p2 )
dr.
The value of p should be put in terms of r from the equation of the curve.
Remark: If the curve is symmetrical about one or more lines, then find out the length
of one symmetrical part and then multiply it by the number of symmetrical parts.
r dr
Example 12: Prove the formula s =
∫ √ (r 2 − p2 )
⋅
Show that the arc of the curve p2 (a4 + r4 ) = a4 r 2 between the limits r = b, r = c is equal in
length to the arc of the hyperbola xy = a2 between the limits x = b, x = c .
Solution: From differential calculus, we know that

dθ  2 
tan φ = r
dr
and
ds
dr
= √ 1 +  r ddrθ ⋅

ds
∴ = √ (1 + tan2 φ) = √ (sec2 φ) = sec φ
dr
1 1 1
= = = [∵ p = r sin φ ]
cos φ √ (1 − sin2 φ) √ {1 − ( p2 / r 2 )}
r
= 2
⋅
√ (r − p2 )
r
Thus ds = dr .
√ (r 2 − p2 )
r
Integrating between the given limits, we get s =
∫ √ (r 2 − p2 )
dr. ...(1)
Now the given curve is p2 (a4 + r4 ) = a4 r 2

I-177
or p2 = a4 r 2 / (a4 + r4 ) .
a4 r 2 r6
We have r 2 − p2 = r 2 − = ⋅ ...(2)
(a4 + r4 ) (a4 + r4 )
Therefore from (1), the arc of the given curve between the limits r = b, r = c is
c r dr c r dr
=
∫b √ (r 2
−p ) 2
=
∫b √ { r / (a4 + r4 )}
6
[From (2)]
c r √ (a4 + r4 ) c √ (a4 + r4 )
=
∫b r 3
dr =
∫b r2
dr. ...(3)
Also, for the hyperbola xy = a2 i. e., y = a2 / x, dy / dx = − a2 / x2 .
∴ the arc length of the hyperbola xy = a2 between the limits x = b, x = c
c  2
 c  a4 
∫b √ ∫b √
 dy 
= 1 +    dx = 1 + 4  dx
  dx    x 
c √ ( x4 + a4 ) c √ (r4 + a4 )
=
∫b x2
dx =
∫b r2
dr [Changing the variable
from x to r by a property of definite integrals]

c √ (a4 + r4 )
=
∫b r2
dr. ...(4)
From (3) and (4) we observe that the two lengths are equal.
1. Find the entire length of the cardioid r = a (1 + cos θ).

(Purvanchal 2007; Rohilkhand 09, 11B)
2. Find the perimeter of the curve r = a (1 + cos θ) and show that arc of the upper half
is bisected by θ = π / 3. (Gorakhpur 2005; Purvanchal 07)
3. Prove that the line 4 r cos θ = 3 a divides the cardioid r = a (1 + cos θ) into two
parts such that lengths of the arc on either side of the line are equal.
4. Show that the arc of the upper half of the curve r = a (1 − cos θ) is bisected by
θ = 2 π / 3.
5. Find the length of the cardioid r = a (1 − cos θ) lying outside the circle r = a cos θ.
6. Find the length of the arc of the equiangular spiral r = a e θ cot α , taking s = 0
when θ = 0.
7. Find the length of any arc of the cissoid r = a (sin2 θ / cos θ) .
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8. Show that the whole length of the limacon r = a + b cos θ, (a > b) is equal to that of
an ellipse whose semi-axes are equal in length to the maximum and minimum
radii vectors of the limacon.
A nswers 3
1. 8a 5. 4 a √ 3 6. a sec α [e θ cot α − 1]
  1 
7. f (θ2 ) − f (θ1), where f (θ) = a √ (sec2 θ + 3) − a √ 3 log cos θ + √ cos2 θ +  
  3 
6 Intrinsic Equations
Definition: By the intrinsic equation of a curve we mean a relation between s and ψ,
where s is the length of the arc AP of the curve measured from a fixed point A on it to a
variable point P, and ψ is the angle which the tangent to the curve at P makes with a
fixed straight line usually taken as the positive direction of the axis of x .
The co-ordinates s and ψ are known as Intrinsic Co-ordinates.
(a) To find the intrinsic equation from the cartesian equation:
Let the equation of the given curve be Y
y = f ( x) . Take A as the fixed point on the
curve from which s is measured and take the
axis of x as the fixed straight line with reference P (x, y)
to which ψ is measured. Let P ( x, y) be any A s
point on the curve and PT be the tangent at
the point P to the curve. ψ
Let arc AP = s and ∠ PTX = ψ . O T X
Now, we have tan ψ = dy / dx = f ′ ( x). ...(1)

Let a be the abscissa of the point A from which s is measured. Then
  2
∫a √ 1 +  dx 
x  dy x
s=  dx =
 a ∫
√ [1 + { f ′ ( x)}2 ] dx. ...(2)
Eliminating x between (1) and (2), we obtain the required intrinsic equation.
Note: To find the intrinsic equation from the parametric equations
dy dy / dt
we use = and then proceed as in case (a).
dx dx / dt
(b) Intrinsic equation from Polar equation:
Let the equation of the given curve be r = f (θ) .
Take A as the fixed point on the curve from which s is measured.
I-179
Let P be any point (r, θ) on the curve. φ
Let arc AP = s and ∠ PTX = ψ , where OX is the P (r, θ )

initial line. (s, ψ )
r s
If φ is the angle between the radius vector and the
tangent at P, then A
dθ r θ ψ
tan φ = r =
dr dr / dθ O T X
f (θ)
= , ...(1)
f ′ (θ)
and ψ = θ + φ. ...(2)
Let α be the vectorial angle of the point A . Then we have
θ  2  θ
∫α √  r +  dθ
 2  dr 
s=  dθ =
 ∫α √ [{ f (θ)}2 + { f ′ (θ)}2 ] dθ ...(3)
Eliminating θ and φ between (1), (2) and (3), we get a relation between s and ψ, which
is the intrinsic equation of the curve.
(c) Intrinsic equation from Pedal Equation:
Let the pedal equation of the curve be p = f (r) . ...(1)
r r dr
Then s=
∫a √ (r 2 − p2 )
, ...(2)
the arc length s being measured from the point r = a .

ds dr …(3)
Also the radius of curvature ρ = =r ⋅
dψ dp
Eliminating p and r between (1), (2) and (3), we obtain the required intrinsic
equation.
Example 13: Show that the intrinsic equation of the parabola y2 = 4 ax is

s = a cot ψ cosec ψ + a log (cot ψ + cosec ψ ),
ψ being the angle between the x-axis and the tangent at the point whose arcual distance from the
vertex is s.
Solution: The given parabola is y2 = 4 ax . ...(1)
Differentiating (1) w.r.t. x , we get 2 y (dy / dx) = 4 a.

∴ tan ψ = dy / dx = 4 a / 2 y = 2 a / y. ...(2)
If s denotes the arc length of the parabola measured from the vertex (0 , 0 ) in the
direction of y increasing, then
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  dx  2   2   dx y
ds
dy
= √ 
1 +  
 dy 

= √ 1 + 4ya2  ∵ = 
 dy 2 a 
   
 2 2
= √  4a 4a+2 y 
=
 2
1
a
√ (4 a2 + y2 ) .

1
∴ ds = √ (4 a2 + y2 ) dy .
2a
s 1 y
Integrating,
∫0
ds =
2a 0 ∫√ (4 a2 + y2 ) dy
y
1 1 1 
or s= y √ (4 a2 + y2 ) + ⋅ 4 a2 log { y + √ (4 a2 + y2 )}
2 a 2 2 0
 1 1 1 1
=   [ y √ (4 a2 + y2 ) + ⋅ 4 a2 log { y + √ (4 a2 + y2 )} − ⋅ 4 a2 log 2 a]
 2a 2 2 2
1  2 2 2 y + √ (4 a2 + y2 )
=  y √ (4 a + y ) + 4 a log ⋅ ...(3)
4a  2a 
Now to obtain the intrinsic equation of the given parabola we eliminate y between (2)
and (3). From (2), we have y = 2 a cot ψ . Putting this value of y in (3), we get
1  2 2 2 2 2 a cot ψ + √ (4 a2 + 4 a2 cot2 ψ)
s= 2 a cot ψ √ (4 a + 4 a cot ψ) + 4 a log 
4a  2a 
1
= [(2 a cot ψ) . 2 a √ (1 + cot2 ψ) + 4 a2 log {cot ψ + √ (1 + cot2 ψ)}]
4a
= a cot ψ cosec ψ + a log (cot ψ + cosec ψ),
which is the required intrinsic equation.
Example 14: Show that the intrinsic equation of the cycloid

x = a (t + sin t ), y = a (1 − cos t ) is s = 4 a sin ψ .
Hence or otherwise find the length of the complete cycloid.
(Meerut 2001, 06B, 07, 10; Agra 01; Kanpur 04; Avadh 04, 09, 10;
Rohilkhand 07 B)
Solution: The given equations of the cycloid are
x = a (t + sin t ), y = a (1 − cos t ) . ...(1)
We have dx / dt = a (1 + cos t ), and dy / dt = a sin t .
1 1
dy dy / dt a sin t 2 sin t cos t
∴ = = = 2 2 = tan 1 t .
dx dx / dt a (1 + cos t ) 2 1 2
2 cos t
2
1 1
Hence tan ψ = dy / dx = tan t or ψ = t . ...(2)
2 2
If s denotes the arc length of the cycloid measured from the vertex (i. e., the point t = 0)
to any point P (i. e., the point ‘t’) in the direction of t increasing, then
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  dx  2 2 
∫0 √
t  dy  t
s=   
 dt
+ 
 dt 
 dt =

∫0 √ {a2 (1 + cos t )2 + a2 sin2 t } dt
t
=
∫0 √ {2 a2 (1 + cos t )} dt
t t
1  1  1
= 2a
∫0 cos
2
t dt = 2 a 2 sin
 2
t = 4 a sin t
0 2
...(3)
Eliminating t from (2) and (3), we get s = 4 a sin ψ , ...(4)

which is the required intrinsic equation of the cycloid.
Second Part: In the intrinsic equation (4) of the cycloid the arc length s has been
measured from the vertex i. e., the point ψ = 0. At a cusp, we have t = π and ψ = π / 2. If s1
denotes the length of the arc extending from the vertex to a cusp, then from (4), we
1
have s1 = 4 a sin π = 4 a .
2
∴ the whole length of an arch of the cycloid = 2 × 4 a = 8 a .
Example 15: Find the intrinsic equation of the cardioid r = a (1 + cos θ), (Garhwal 2003)
and hence, or otherwise, prove that s2 + 9ρ2 = 16 a2 , where ρ is the radius of curvature at any
point, and s is the length of the arc intercepted between the vertex and the point.
(Meerut 2005B)
Solution: The given curve is r = a (1 + cos θ) . ...(1)
Differentiating (1) w.r.t. θ, we have dr / dθ = − a sin θ.
1
a (1 + cos θ) 2 cos2 θ
dθ r 2
∴ tan φ = r = = =
dr dr / dθ − a sin θ 1 1
− 2 sin θ cos θ
2 2
1 1 1
= − cot θ = tan ( π + θ) .
2 2 2
1 1
Therefore φ = π + θ,
2 2
1 1 1 3
so that ψ =θ+ φ=θ+ π + θ= π + θ
2 2 2 2
1 1 1
or θ = (ψ − π) . ...(2)
2 3 2
If s denotes the arc length of the cardioid measured from the vertex (i. e., θ = 0 ) to any
point P (i. e., θ = θ) in the direction of θ increasing, then
θ  2  dr  2  θ
s=
∫ √
0
 r +    dθ = 2 a
 dθ  0 ∫
√ {(1 + cos θ)2 + sin2 θ } dθ
θ
= 2a
∫0 √ {1 + 2 cos θ + cos2 θ + sin2 θ} dθ
θ θ 1
= 2a
∫0 √ {2 (1 + cos θ)} dθ = 2 a
∫0 cos
2
θ dθ
θ
 1  1
= 2 a 2 sin θ = 4 a sin θ. ...(3)
 2 0 2
I-182
1  1 
Eliminating θ between (2) and (3), we get s = 4 a sin   ψ − π  , ...(4)
 3  2 
which is the required intrinsic equation.

ds 4 a 1 1
Also ρ= = cos (ψ − π), from (4)
dψ 3 3 2
1 1
or 3ρ = 4 a cos (ψ − π) . ...(5)
3 2
Squaring and adding (4) and (5), we get
1 1 1 1
s2 + 9ρ2 = (4 a)2 {sin2 (ψ − π) + cos2 (ψ − π)}
3 2 3 2
= 16 a2 . 1 = 16 a2 .
Example 16: Find the intrinsic equation of the equiangular spiral p = r sin α .
(Meerut 2000, 01, 04, 06, 09, 10B)
Solution: The given pedal equation of the curve is

p = r sin α . ...(1)
Differentiating (1) w.r.t. r, we have
dp / dr = sin α .
ds dr r r
∴ ρ= =r = = = r cosec α . ...(2)
dψ dp dp / dr sin α
If we measure the arc length s from the point r = 0 in the direction of r increasing, we
have
r r dr r r dr r
s=
∫
0 √ (r 2 − p2 )
=
∫
0 √ (r 2 − r 2 sin2 α)
=
0 ∫
sec α dr
r
∫0 dr = sec α [r]0 = r sec α.
r
= sec α ...(3)
Eliminating r between (2) and (3), we have

(ds / dψ) cosec α
= = cot α [Dividing (2) by (3)]
s sec α
or ds / s = cot α dψ.
Integrating, log s = ψ cot α + log a, where a is constant of integration
or log (s / a) = ψ cot α
or s = a e ψ cot α ,
which is the required intrinsic equation of the curve.
Example 17: Find the intrinsic equation of the curve for which the length of the arc measured
from the origin varies as the square root of the ordinate. Find also parametric equations of the
curve in terms of any parameter.
I-183
Solution: Let s denote the arc length of the curve measured from the origin to any
point P ( x, y) such that s increases as y increases. As given s ∝ √ y so that s = λ √ y,
where λ is some constant.
Choosing this constant λ = √ (8a), we have (Note)
2
s = √ (8 ay) or s = 8 ay. ...(1)
Now differentiating (1) w.r.t. y, we have 2 s (ds / dy) = 8 a

or ds / dy = 4 a / s. ...(2)
Now we know that dy / ds = sin ψ.
∴ sin ψ = dy / ds = s / 4 a [From (2)]
or s = 4 a sin ψ, which is the required intrinsic equation.
Again from (1), we have
s2 16 a2 sin2 ψ
y= = [∵ s = 4 a sin ψ]
8a 8a
= a (1 − cos 2ψ). ...(3)
ds ds dψ dψ  ds 
Also = ⋅ = 4 a cos ψ ∵ = 4 a cos ψ
dx dψ dx dx  dψ 
1 dψ  dx 
or = 4 a cos ψ ∵ ds = cos ψ
cos ψ dx
or dx = 4 a cos2 ψ dψ = 2 a (1 + cos 2 ψ) dψ. ...(4)
If x = 0 when ψ = 0, then integrating (4), we get

x ψ
∫0 dx = 2 a
∫0 (1 + cos 2 ψ) dψ
ψ
 1 
or x = 2 a ψ + sin 2 ψ
 2 0
or x = a [2 ψ + sin 2 ψ] . ...(5)
So from (3) and (5), the required parametric equations of the curve are
x = a (2 ψ + sin 2 ψ) and y = a (1 − cos 2ψ),
which are the parametric equations of a cycloid.
1. Prove that the intrinsic equation of the parabola x2 = 4 ay is
s = a tan ψ sec ψ + a log (tan ψ + sec ψ).

I-184
2. Find the intrinsic equation of the parabola y2 = 4 ax . Hence deduce the length of
the arc measured from the vertex to an extremity of the latus rectum.
3. Show that the intrinsic equation of the semi-cubical parabola
3 ay2 = 2 x3 is 9 s = 4 a (sec3 ψ − 1) .
(Meerut 2005, 09B; Rohilkhand 08B)
4. Find the intrinsic equation of the catenary y = c cosh ( x / c ) .

(Rohilkhand 2007; Kumaun 08; Kanpur 14)
2 2
Hence show that cρ = c + s , where ρ is the radius of curvature.
5. Prove that the intrinsic equation of the curve

x = a (1 + sin t), y = a (1 + cos t) is s + aψ = 0.
6. Find the intrinsic equation of the cardioid r = a (1 − cos θ) .
(Meerut 2007B; Avadh 05, 12; Rohilkhand 12)
7. Find the intrinsic equation of r = a e θ cot α , where s is measured from the point
(a, 0 ).
8. Find the intrinsic equation of the spiral r = aθ, the arc being measured from the
pole.
9. Find the intrinsic equation of the curve p2 = r2 − a2 .
10. In the four-cusped astroid x2 /3 + y2 /3 = a2 /3 , show that

3
(i) s= a cos 2 ψ, s being measured from the vertex;
4
3
(ii) s = a sin2 ψ , s being measured from the cusp on x-axis;
2 (Purvanchal 2014)
(iii) whole length of the curve is 6a .

11. Find the cartesian equation of the curve whose intrinsic equation is s = c tan ψ
when it is given that at ψ = 0, x = 0 and y = c .
A nswers 4
2. s = a cot ψ cosec ψ + a log (cot ψ + cosec ψ), a { √ 2 + log (1 + √ 2)}
4. s = c tan ψ
1
6. s = 8 a sin2 ψ
6
7. s = a sec α [e (ψ − α ) cot α − 1]
1
8. s = a [θ √ (1 + θ2 ) + log { θ + √ (1 + θ2 ) }], where ψ = θ + tan−1 θ
2
1
9. s = aψ2
2
11. y = c cosh ( x / c )
I-185

(b), (c) and (d).
1. If the equations of the curve be given in the parametric form x = f (t), y = φ (t ),
and the arc length s is measured in the direction of t increasing, then on
integrating between the proper limits, the required length s is given as
t2   dx  2  dy  2  t2  dx
    dy 
(a)
∫t √
1
   +    dt
 dt  dt  

(b)
∫t √   dt  +  dt   dt
1
t2   dx 
3
 dy 
3
 t2   dx 1 / 2  dy 1 / 2 
(c)
∫t √
1
   +  
 dt  dt 
 dt

(d)
∫t √
1
  
 dt
+    dt
 dt  

(Meerut 2003)
2. For the curve r = a (1 + cos θ), ds / dθ is

1 1
(a) 2 cos θ (b) 2 a cos θ
2 2
1 3 1
(c) a cos θ (d) a cos θ
2 2 2 (Kumaun 2011)
2
 ds 
3. If x = a cos3 t, y = a sin3 t, then   is
 dt 
(a) (a sin t cos t)2 (b) (sin t cos t)2
(c) (3 a sin t cos t)2 (d) 3a sin t cos t
4. The entire length of the cardioid r = a (1 + cos θ) is

(a) 8 a (b) 4 a
(c) 6 a (d) 2 a
5. Rectification is the process of evaluating the:
(a) double integrals (b) multiple integrals
(c) the length of arcs of plane curve
(d) the area under plane curve (Kumaun 2007, 08, 09)

1. The process of finding the length of an arc of a curve between two given points is
called …….
2. The arc length of the curve y = f ( x) included between two points for which x = a
and x = b (b > a) is …… .
I-186
1 2 1
3. The arc length of the curve y = x − log x from x = 1 to x = 2 is …… .
2 4
θ cot α
4. If r = a e , then ds = …… . (Meerut 2001, 03)
ds
5. = √…… . . (Meerut 2001)
dr
6. The length of an arch of the cycloid whose equations are
x = a (t − sin t ), y = a (1 − cos t ) is ……
True or False
1. The length of the arc of the curve x = f ( y) between y = a and y = b, (b > a) is
b   dx 
2
 
equal to
∫a √ 1 +

 
 dy 
 dy.

2. The relation between s and ψ for any curve is called its polar equation.
3. If the equation of the curve be θ = f (r ), then the arc length from r = r1 to r = r2 is
r2   d θ  2 
given by
∫ √
r1
1 +  r

  dr.
 dr  

4. If the equation of the curve be r = f (θ), then the arc length from θ = θ1 to θ = θ2 is
θ2  2  dr  2 
given by
∫ √
θ1
r +    dr .
  dθ  

(Meerut 2003)
5. The whole length of curve x2 /3 + y2 /3 = a2 /3 is 8a. (Agra 2002)
A nswers
1. (a) 2. (b) 3. (c) 4. (a) 5. (c)

b 
   dy
2

∫a √ 1 +  dx 
3 1
1. rectification 2.  dx 3. + log 2
 2 4
  d θ 2 
 
4. r cosec α d θ 5. 1 +  r   6. 8a
  d r  

True or False
1. T 2. F 3. T 4. F 5. F
¨
I-187
9
V olumes and S urfaces of
S olids of R evolution
1 Revolution
olid of revolution: If a plane area is revolved about a fixed line lying in its own
S plane, then the body so generated by the revolution of the plane area is called a
solid of revolution.
Surface of revolution: If a plane curve is revolved about a fixed line lying in its own
plane, then the surface generated by the perimeter of the curve is called a surface of
revolution.
Axis of revolution: The fixed straight line, say AB, about which the area revolves is
called the axis of revolution or axis of rotation.
2 Volumes of Solids of Revolution

(a) The axis of rotation being x-axis.
If a plane area bounded by the curve y = f ( x) , the ordinates x = a, x = b and the x-axis revolves
about the x-axis then the volume of the solid thus generated is
b b
∫a πy 2 dx =
∫a π [ f ( x)]
2
dx,
I-188
where y = f ( x) is a finite, continuous and single valued function of x in the interval a ≤ x ≤ b .

Or
The volume of the solid generated by the revolution of the area bounded by the curve y = f ( x) ,
b
x-axis and the ordinates x = a, x = b about the x-axis is
∫a πy 2 dx.
Proof: Let AB be the arc of the curve y = f ( x) included between the ordinates x = a
and x = b. It is being assumed that the curve does not cut the x-axis and f ( x) is a
continuous function of x in the interval (a, b) .
Let P ( x, y) and Q ( x + δx, y + δy) be any two Y B
Q′ Q
neighbouring points on the curve y = f ( x). Draw A P′
the ordinates PM and QN . Also draw PP′ and QQ′ P
x=b
perpendiculars to these ordinates.
x=a
y
Let V denote the volume of the solid generated by
the revolution of the area ACMP about the x-axis
and let the volume of revolution obtained by δx
revolving the area ACNQ about x-axis be V + δV , O C M N D
so that volume of the solid generated by the
revolution of the strip PMNQ about the x-axis is δV.
Now PM = y, QN = y + δy and MN = ( x + δx) − x = δx .
Then the volume of the solid generated by revolving the area PMNP ′ = πy 2δx
and the volume of the solid generated by revolving the area Q ′ MNQ = π ( y + δy)2 δx .
Also the volume of the solid generated by the revolution of the area PMNQP (i. e., the
volume δV ) lies between the volumes of the right circular cylinders generated by the
revolution of the areas PMNP ′ P and MNQQ′ i. e.,
δV lies between π y 2 δx and π ( y + δy)2 δx
or (δV / δx) lies between π y 2 and π ( y + δy)2
i. e., π y 2 < (δV / δx) < π ( y + δy)2 .
In the limiting position as Q → P, δx → 0 (and therefore δy → 0), we have

dV / dx = πy 2
or dV = πy 2 dx.
b b
x=b
Hence
∫a πy 2 dx =
∫a dV = [V ] x = a
= (value of V for x = b) − (value of V for x = a)

= volume generated by the area ACDB − 0
= volume of the solid generated by the revolution of the given area
ACDB about the axis of x .
I-189
b
∴ the required volume = π
∫a y 2 dx.
(Meerut 2003)
(b) The axis of rotation being y-axis:

Similarly, it can be shown that the volume of the solid generated by the revolution about y-axis
of the area between the curve x = f ( y), the y-axis and the two abscissae y = a and y = b is given
by
b
∫a πx 2 dy.
Remarks:
(i) If the given curve is symmetrical about x-axis and we have to find the volume
generated by the revolution of the area about x-axis, then in such case we shall
revolve only one of the two symmetrical areas and shall not double it as in the
case of area or length. Obviously each of the two symmetrical parts will generate
the same volume.
(ii) If the curve is symmetrical about x-axis and it is required to find the volume
generated by the revolution of the area about y-axis, then the volume generated
will be twice the volume generated by half of the symmetrical portion of the
curve.
4 3
Example 1: Show that the volume of a sphere of radius a is πa .
3
(Bundelkhand 2010; Avadh 10)
Solution:The sphere is generated by the revolution of a semi-circular area about its

bounding diameter. The equation of the generating circle of radius a and centre as
origin is x2 + y 2 = a2 .
Y
(0, a)
B
P (x, y)
Q (x + δ x, y + δ y)
(–a, 0) O
A' (0, 0) C M N A (a, 0) X
δx
Let AA′ be the bounding diameter about which the semi-circle revolves.
Take an elementary strip PMNQ where P is the point ( x, y) and Q is the point
( x + δx, y + δy).
I-190
We have PM = y
and MN = δx .
Now volume of the elementary disc formed by revolving the strip PMNQ about the
diameter AA′ is
= π . PM 2 . MN = π y 2 δx = π (a2 − x 2 ) δx .
Also the semi-circle is symmetrical about the y-axis and for the portion of the curve
lying in the first quadrant x varies from 0 to a .
∴ the required volume of the sphere
a a
 1 
=2
∫0 π (a2 − x 2 ) dx = 2 π a2 x − x3 
 3 0
1 3 4
= 2 π [a3 − a ] = πa3 .
3 3
Example 2: The curve y 2 (a + x) = x2 (3 a − x) revolves about the axis of x . Find the volume
generated by the loop. (Meerut 2004; Bundelkhand 05)
2 2
Solution: The given curve is y (a + x) = x (3 a − x) . ...(1)
It is symmetrical about x-axis. Putting y = 0 in (1), we get x = 0 and x = 3 a i. e., a loop is

formed between (0 , 0 ) and (3 a, 0 ) .
Y
PQ
y (3a, 0)
X
O M N
δx
The volume generated by the revolution of the whole loop about x-axis is the same as
the volume generated by the revolution of the upper half of the loop about x-axis.
( x + δx, y + δy) . We have PM = y and MN = δx .
axis of x is = πPM 2 . MN = π y 2 δx .
∴ the required volume generated by the loop

3a 3a x 2 (3 a − x)
=
∫0 πy2 dx = π
∫0 a+ x
dx [From (1)]

3 a 4 a3 
∫0
2 2
=π  − x + 4 ax − 4 a +  dx, dividing the Nr. by the Dr.
 x + a 
I-191
3a
 x3 4 ax 2 
= π − + − 4 a2 x + 4 a3 log ( x + a)
 3 2 0
= π [− 9 a3 + 18 a3 − 12 a3 + 4 a3 (log 4 a − log a)]
= π [− 3 a3 + 4 a3 log 4] = πa3 [8 log 2 − 3] .
Example 3: Find the volume of the solid generated by the revolution of the cissoid
2
y (2 a − x) = x 3 about its asymptote. (Meerut 2007; Kanpur 14)
2 3
Solution: The given curve is y (2 a − x) = x . Its shape is as shown in the figure.
Equating to zero the coefficient of highest power of y, the asymptote parallel to the
axis of y is x = 2 a . Take an elementary strip PMNQ perpendicular to the asymptote
x = 2 a where P is the point ( x, y) and Q is the point ( x + δx, y + δy) .
Y
(x + δ x, y + δ y)
Q N
(x, y) P δy
M
x 2a – x
X
X' O A (2a, 0)
2a
Y'
We have PM = 2 a − x and MN = δy .
line x = 2 a is
= π . PM 2 . MN = π (2 a − x)2 δy.
The given curve is symmetrical about x-axis and for the portion of the curve above
x-axis y varies from 0 to ∞.
∞
∫ y = 0 π (2a − x)
2
∴ the required volume = 2 dy. ...(1)
From the given equation of the curve y 2 (2 a − x) = x 3 we observe that the value of x
cannot be easily found in terms of y. Hence for the sake of integration we change the
independent variable from y to x . (Note)
x3
The curve is y 2 = ;
2a − x
dy (2 a − x) . 3 x2 − x 3 (− 1) 2 (3 a − x) x 2
∴ 2y = =
dx (2 a − x)2 (2 a − x)2
I-192
(3 a − x) x 2 √ (2 a − x) (3 a − x) √ x √ (2 a − x)
or dy = 2
⋅ dx = dx.
(2 a − x) x√x (2 a − x)2
Also when y = 0 , x = 0 and when y → ∞, x → 2 a .

Hence from (1), the required volume
2a (3 a − x) √ x √ (2 a − x)
= 2π
∫ x =0
(2 a − x)2 
 (2 a − x)2
 dx

2a
= 2π
∫0 (3a − x) √ x √ (2a − x) dx.
Now put x = 2 a sin2 θ so that dx = 4 a sin θ cos θ dθ. When x = 0 , θ = 0 and when x = 2 a,
θ = π / 2. Therefore the required volume
π /2
= 2π
∫0 (3 a − 2 a sin2 θ) √ (2 a) sin θ √ [2 a (1 − sin2 θ)]
× 4a sin θ cos θ dθ
π /2
= 16 πa3
∫0 (3 sin2 θ cos2 θ − 2 sin4 θ cos2 θ) dθ
 3 3 5 3 
3Γ (2 ) Γ (2 ) 2 Γ (2 ) Γ (2 )
3
= 16 πa  − 
 2 Γ (3) 2 Γ (4) 
 
 1 1 3 1 1 
3 ⋅ 2 ⋅ √ π ⋅ 2 ⋅ √ π 2 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 2 ⋅ √ π ⋅ 2 ⋅ √ π 
3
= 16 πa  − 
 2 . 2 .1 2 . 3 . 2 .1 
 
3 π π
= 16 πa3  −  = 2 π2 a3 .
16 16 
Note: If the given curve is y 2 (a − x) = x3 , then the required volume can be obtained
1 2 3
by putting a for 2a in the above Exercise. The volume so obtained is π a .
4
Remark: When we are to revolve an area about a line which is neither the x-axis nor the y-axis
we must take an elementary strip which is perpendicular to the line of revolution as explained in
the above example.
Example 4: The area between a parabola and its latus rectum revolves about the directrix. Find
the ratio of the volume of the ring thus obtained to the volume of the sphere whose diameter is the
latus rectum.
Solution: Let the parabola be y 2 = 4 ax . Then the directrix is the line x = − a . Let LL′
be the latus rectum. The area LOL′ SL is revolved about the directrix. The volume of
the ring thus obtained = (the volume V1 of the cylinder formed by the revolution of the
I-193
rectangle LL′ R′ R about the directrix) − (the volume V2 of the reel formed by the
revolution of the arc LOL′ about the directrix). Y
Now the volume V1 of the cylinder R L (a, 2a)
2 2
=πr h = π ( LR) . LL′ N Q
δy
M P
= π (2 a)2 . 4 a = 16 πa3 . a
To find the volume V2 of the reel consider an S ( a, 0 )
X
elementary strip PMNQ where P ( x, y) and O
Q ( x + δx, y + δy) are two neighbouring points on the
x=–a
arc OL and PM , QN are perpendiculars from P and Q
on the directrix.
We have PM = a + x and MN = δy. R' L'
∴ the volume V2 of the reel

2a
∫0 π (a + x)
2
=2 dy [By symmetry about x-axis]
2a 2a y2 y4 
=2
∫0 π (a2 + 2 ax + x 2 ) dy = 2 π
∫0  a2 + 2 a ⋅


+  dy
4 a 16 a2 
[∵ x = y 2 / 4 a]
2a
 1 y3 1 y 5
= 2 π a2 y + + ⋅ 
 2 3 16 a2 5 0
 4 2  56 112 πa3
= 2 π 2 a3 + a3 + a3  = 2 πa3 ⋅ = ⋅
 3 5  15 15
∴ Volume of the ring
= volume of the cylinder − volume of the reel
112 3 128 3
= V1 − V2 = 16 πa3 − πa = πa .
15 15
Volume of the sphere whose diameter is the latus rectum 4a i. e., the radius is 2 a
4 4 32 3
= π r 3 = π (2 a)3 = πa .
3 3 3
128 πa3 / 15 4
∴ the required ratio = 3
= ⋅
32 πa / 3 5
1. (i) Find the volume of a hemisphere.

(ii) Find the volume of a spherical cap of height h cut off from a sphere of radius a.
(Kanpur 2010)
I-194
1
2. (i) A segment is cut off from a sphere of radius a by a plane at a distance
a from
2
the centre. Show that the volume of the segment is 5/32 of the volume of the
sphere.
(ii) The part of the parabola y2 = 4 ax cut off by the latus rectum revolves about
the tangent at the vertex. Find the volume of the reel thus generated.
3. Prove that the volume of the solid generated by the revolution of an ellipse round
its minor axis is a mean proportional between those generated by the revolution of
the ellipse and of the auxiliary circle about the major axis. (Rohilkhand 2010)
4. (i) Find the volume of the solid generated by the revolution of an arc of the
catenary y = c cosh ( x / c ) about the x-axis. (Meerut 2009B; Purvanchal 11)
(ii) Find the volume of the solid generated by the revolution of the curve
y = a3 / (a2 + x2 ) about its asymptote. (Meerut 2009)
2 2 2 2
5. If the hyperbola x / a − y / b = 1 revolves about the x-axis, show that the
volume included between the surface thus generated, the cone generated by the
asymptotes and two planes perpendicular to the axis of x, at a distance h apart, is
equal to that of a circular cylinder of height h and radius b.
6. (i) Find the volume formed by the revolution of the loop of the curve
y2 (a + x) = x2 (a − x) about the axis of x. (Kanpur 2008)
(ii) Find the volume of the solid generated by the revolution of the loop of the
curve y2 = x2 (a − x) about the axis of x. (Kanpur 2011)
7. Show that the volume of the solid generated by the revolution of the upper half of
4
the loop of the curve y2 = x2 (2 − x) about x-axis is π.
3 (Meerut 2005)
8. The area of the curve x2 /3 + y2 /3 = a2 /3 lying in the first quadrant revolves about
x-axis. Find the volume of the solid generated. (Agra 2014)
9. Find the volume of the solid obtained by revolving the loop of the curve
a2 y2 = x2 (2 a − x)( x − a) about x-axis.
10. A basin is formed by the revolution of the curve x3 = 64 y, ( y > 0 ) about the axis of
y. If the depth of the basin is 8 inches, how many cubic inches of water it will hold?
11. Show that the volume of the solid generated by the revolution of the curve
1
(a − x) y2 = a2 x, about its asymptote is π2 a3 .
2
(Meerut 2004B, 06B; Kumaun 07, 08, 12; Rohilkhand 12)
12. The figure bounded by a quadrant of a circle of radius a and tangents at its
extremities revolves about one of the tangents. Prove that the volume of the solid
5 1 
generated is  − π πa3 .
3 2 
I-195
13. The area cut off from the parabola y2 = 4 ax by the chord joining the vertex to an
end of the latus rectum is rotated through four right angles about the chord. Find
the volume of the solid generated. (Rohilkhand 2008; Bundelkhand 09)
A nswers 1
2 3  1 
1. (i) πa (ii) πh2 a − h
3  3 
4 3 πc 2  c 2 x π2 a3
2. (ii) πa 4. (i) x + sinh  (ii)
5 2  2 c  2
 2 1 16
6. (i) 2 a3 π log 2 − (ii) πa4 8. πa3
 3  12 105
23 3 1536 2
9. πa 10. π cubic inches 13. √ 5 πa3
60 5 75
3 Volume of a Solid Revolution when the Equations of

the Generating Curve are given in Parametric Form
(i) If the curve is given by the parametric equations, say x = φ (t), y = ψ(t), then the
volume of the solid generated by the revolution about x-axis of the area bounded by the
curve, the axis of x and the ordinates at the points when t = a and t = b is
b dx b
∫a π y ∫a { ψ (t)} φ′(t) dt.
2 2
= dt = π
dt
(ii) The volume of the solid generated by the revolution about y-axis of the area
between the curve x = φ (t), y = ψ(t), the y-axis and the absissae at the points where
t = a, t = b is
b dy b
∫a πx2
∫a { φ (t)} ψ ′(t) dt.
2
= dt = π
dt
Example 5: Find the volume of the solid formed by revolving the cycloid
x = a (θ − sin θ), y = a (1 − cos θ)
(i) about its base (ii) about the y-axis.
Solution: The given equations of the cycloid are
x = a (θ − sin θ), y = a (1 − cos θ) . ...(1)
I-196
(i) The arc OBA is revolved about the base i. e., the x-axis. For the arc OBA, θ varies from
0 to 2π and at B, θ = π .
( x + δx, y + δy) .
Y
θ=π
B
D
P Q
2a
M N
X
O θ = 0 δx H A
θ = 2π
We have PM = y and MN = δx .
Now the volume of the elementary disc formed by revolving the strip PMNQ about
the base (i. e., the x-axis) is
= π PM 2 . MN = π y 2 δx .
Now the cycloid is symmetrical about the line BH .
∴ the required volume = 2

∫ πy 2 dx,the limits of integration being extended from O
to B
π dx π
= 2π
∫θ = 0 y2
dθ
dθ = 2 π
∫0 a2 (1 − cos θ)2 a (1 − cos θ) dθ [From (1)]
π
= 2π
∫0 a3 (1 − cos θ)3 dθ
π 3 π
 2 θ θ
= 2 π a3
∫0 ∫0
3
2 sin  dθ = 16 π a sin6 dθ
 2 2
π /2 θ
= 32 πa3
∫0 sin6 φ dφ, putting
2
= φ so that dθ = 2 dφ
5 3 1 1
= 32 π a3 ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ π = 5 π2 a3 .
6 4 2 2
(ii) When the curve revolves about y-axis, the required volume of the solid
generated
= the volume generated by the revolution of the area OABDO about y-axis
− the volume generated by the revolution of the area OBDO
about the y-axis. ...(2)
Also at A, θ = 2 π ; at B, θ = π and at O, θ = 0 .
I-197
Now the area OABD is bounded by the arc AB of the cycloid and the axis of y .
Therefore volume of the solid generated by the revolution of the area OABDO about
y-axis
π π dy
=
∫θ = 2 π π x 2 dy =
∫θ = 2 π π x2
dθ
dθ
π
=π
∫θ = 2 π a2 (θ − sin θ)2 a sin θ dθ [From (1)]
π
=π
∫θ = 2 π a2 (θ2 − 2θ sin θ + sin2 θ) a sin θ dθ
π
= πa3
∫θ = 2 π (θ2 sin θ − 2θ sin2 θ + sin3 θ) dθ
π 1
= πa3
∫θ = 2 π [θ2 sin θ − θ (1 − cos 2θ) +
4
(3 sin θ − sin 3θ)] dθ (Note)
 1 1
= πa3 θ2 . (− cos θ) − 2θ (− sin θ) + 2 cos θ − θ2 + θ ( sin 2θ)
 2 2
π
1 3 1 
− 1 (− cos 2θ) − cos θ + cos 3θ ,
4 4 12  2π
∫θ ∫ θ cos 2θ dθ
2
the values of the integrals sin θ dθ and
have been written after applying integration by parts

 1 1 3 1  1 3 1 
= πa3  π2 − 2 − π2 + + −  −  − 4 π2 + 2 − 2 π2 + − +  
 2 4 4 12   4 4 12  
13 8
= πa3  π2 −  ⋅ ...(3)
2 3
Again volume of the solid generated by the revolution of the area OBDO about y-axis
π π dy
=
∫θ = 0 π x 2 dy =
∫θ = 0 πx 2
dθ
dθ
π
=π
∫0 a2 (θ − sin θ)2 . a sin θ dθ
π
= πa3
∫0 (θ2 − 2θ sin θ + sin2 θ) sin θ dθ
π
= πa3
∫0 (θ2 sin θ − 2θ sin2 θ + sin3 θ) dθ
π
 2 1 
= πa3
∫0 θ sin θ − θ (1 − cos 2θ) + 4 (3 sin θ − sin 3θ) dθ
 1 1
= πa3 θ2 (− cos θ) − 2θ (− sin θ) + 2 cos θ − θ2 + θ ( sin 2θ)
 2 2
π
1 3 1 
− 1 (− cos 2θ) − cos θ + cos 3θ
4 4 12 0
I-198
 1 1 3 1  1 3 1 
= πa3  π2 − 2 − π2 + + −  − 2 + − +  
  2 4 4 12   4 4 12 
1 8
= πa3  π2 −  . ...(4)
2 3
∴ from (2), the required volume = (3) − (4)
13 8 1 8
= πa3  π2 −  − πa3  π2 −  = π a3 [6 π2 ] = 6 π3 a3 .
2 3 2 3
Example 6: Find the volume of the solid generated by the revolution of the tractrix
1
x = a cos t + a log tan2 (t / 2), y = a sin t about its asymptote.
2
(Meerut 2000, 05B; Garhwal 03; Rohilkhand 06; Avadh 09, 11;
Kashi 12; Purvanchal 14)
Solution: The given curve is

1
x = a cos t + a log tan2 (t / 2), y = a sin t . ...(1)
2
dx 1 1 1
∴ = − a sin t + a ⋅ ⋅ 2 tan (t / 2) sec 2 (t / 2) ⋅
dt 2 tan2 (t / 2) 2
a a
= − a sin t + = − a sin t +
2 sin (t / 2) cos (t / 2) sin t
(1 − sin2 t) cos2 t
=a =a ...(2)
sin t sin t
Y
Now the given curve is symmetrical –π
(0, a) t = 2
about both the axes and the
asymptote is the line y = 0 y → 0, t → 0, x → – ∞
i. e., x-axis. O
X
X′
For the portion of the curve lying in
the second quadrant y varies from a
to 0, t varies from π / 2 to 0 and x Y′
varies from 0 to − ∞.
∴ the required volume
0 π /2 dx
=2
∫− ∞ π y2 dx = 2
∫0 πy 2
dt
⋅ dt
π /2 a cos2 t
= 2π
∫0 a2 sin2 t .
sin t
dt [From (1) and (2)]
π /2 1 2
= 2 πa3
∫0 cos2 t sin t dt = 2 πa3 = πa3 .
3.1 3
I-199
1. Find the volume of the solid generated by the revolution of the cycloid
x = a (θ + sin θ), y = a (1 − cos θ), − π ≤ θ ≤ π,
(i) about the x-axis, (ii) about the base.
2. Show that the volume of the solid generated by the revolution of the cycloid
x = a (θ + sin θ), y = a (1 − cos θ), 0 ≤ θ ≤ π.
3 8
about the y-axis is πa3  π2 −  .
2 3
3. Prove that the volume of the reel formed by the revolution of the cycloid
x = a (θ + sin θ), y = a (1 − cos θ)
about the tangent at the vertex is π2 a3 . (Kumaun 2013)
4. Prove that the volume of the solid generated by the revolution about the x-axis of
1 3
the loop of the curve x = t2 , y = t − t3 is π.
3 4
5. Find the volume of the spindle shaped solid generated by revolving the astroid
x2 /3 + y2 /3 = a2 /3 about the x-axis.
6. Find the volume of the solid generated by the revolution of the cissoid
x = 2 a sin2 t, y = 2 a sin3 t / cos t about its asymptote.
(Kanpur 2006; Bundelkhand 14)
A nswers 2
32
1. (i) π2 a3 (ii) 5 π2 a3 5. πa3 6. 2 π2 a3
105
4 Volume of Solid of Revolution when the Equation of the

Generating Curve is given in Polar Co-ordinates
If the equation of the generating curve is given in polar co-ordinates, say r = f (θ), and
the curve revolves about the axis of x, the volume generated
b β dx
∫ x =a y2 dx = π
∫θ = α y
2
s=π dθ,
dθ
where α and β are the values of θ at the points where x = a and x = b respectively.
Now x = r cos θ and y = r sin θ. Therefore the volume
I-200
β d
∫θ = α r
2
=π sin2 θ (r cos θ) dθ,
dθ
in which the value of r in terms of θ must be substituted from the equation of the given
curve.
A similar procedure can be adopted in case the curve revolves about the axis of y.
Alternative method in the case of polar curves:
The volume of the solid generated by the revolution of the area boudned by the curve
r = f (θ) and radii vectors θ = θ1, θ = θ2
θ2 2 3
(i) about the initial line θ = 0 (i. e., the x-axis) is
∫θ 1 3
πr sin θ dθ,
θ2 2 3
(ii) about the line θ = π / 2 (i. e., the y-axis) is
∫θ 1 3
πr cos θ dθ,
θ2 2 3
(iii) about any line (θ = γ ) is
∫θ1 3
πr sin (θ − γ ) dθ,
where in each of the above three formulae the value of r in terms of θ must be
substituted from the equation of the given curve.
Note: The above results are important and should be committed to memory.
5 Volume of the Solid Generated by the Revolution when

the Axis of Rotation being any Line
If, however, the axis of rotation is neither x-axis nor y-axis, but is any other line CD,
then the volume of the solid generated by the revolution about CD of the area bounded by the curve
AB, the axis CD and the perpendiculars AC, BD on the axis is
OD
∫OC π ( PM )2 d (OM ),
where PM is the perpendicular drawn from any point P on the curve to the axis of
rotation and O is some fixed point on the axis of rotation.
Example 7: The cardioid r = a (1 + cos θ) revolves about the initial line. Find the volume of the
solid thus generated. (Kumaun 2000, 10; Meerut 01, 03, 07B;
Agra 01, 06, 07, 08; Rohilkhand 13, 13B)
Solution: The given curve is r = a (1 + cos θ) . ...(1)
It is symmetrical about the initial line. We have r = 0 when cos θ = − 1 i. e., θ = π .
I-201
Y
Also r is maximum when cos θ = 1 Bθ = π /2
i. e., θ = 0 and then r = 2 a . As θ increases
from 0 to π, r decreases from 2a to 0.
Hence the shape of the curve is as shown
θ=π θ=0
in the figure. For the upper half of the O A X
curve, θ varies from 0 to π .

π B'
2
=
3 ∫0 π r 3 sin θ dθ θ = – π/2
2π π
=
3 ∫0 a3 (1 + cos θ)3 sin θ dθ [From (1)]
2 3 π
=−
3
πa
∫0 (1 + cos θ)3 (− sin θ) dθ (Note)
π
2 (1 + cos θ)4 
= − πa3   , using power formula
3  4 0
[ f ( x)]n+1
i. e.,
∫ [ f ( x)]n f ′ ( x) dx =
n +1
1 3 8
=− πa (0 − 24 ) = πa3 .
6 3
Aliter: (By double integration) Y r δθ δ r
Take a small element rδθ δr at any point

P (r, θ) lying within the area of the upper
P (r, θ )
half of the cardioid. Draw PM r
θ=π θ r sin θ θ=0
perpendicular to OX . Then O M A X
PM = r sin θ. The volume of the
elementary ring formed by revolving
the element r δθ δr about OX
= 2π (r sin θ) r δθ δr
= 2 πr 2 sin θ δθ δr .
∴ the required volume formed by revolving the whole cardioid about the initial line
π a (1 + cos θ)
=
∫θ = 0 ∫r = 0 2 π r 2 sin θ dθ dr
a (1 + cos θ)
π  r3 
=
∫0 2π 
 3

0
sin θ dθ
I-202
2π π
=
3 ∫0 a3 (1 + cos θ)3 sin θ dθ
π
2 πa3 π 2 πa3 (1 + cos θ)4 
=−
3 ∫0 (1 + cos θ)3 (− sin θ) dθ = −
3

 4

 0
2 πa3 1 2 1 8
=− ⋅ [0 − 24 ] = ⋅ πa3 ⋅ ⋅ 16 = πa3 .
3 4 3 4 3
Example 8: Find the volume of the solid formed by revolving one loop of the curve r2 = a2 cos 2θ
about the initial line. (Rohilkhand 2007B)
Solution: For the upper half of the loop θ varies from 0 to π / 4. Here the curve is
revolving about the initial line (i. e., x-axis).
2 π /4
∴ the required volume =
3
π
∫0 r3 sin θ dθ
2π π /4
=
3 ∫0 { a √ (cos 2θ)}3 sin θ dθ [∵ r2 = a2 cos 2θ]
2 πa3 π /4
=
3 ∫0 (2 cos2 θ − 1)3 /2 sin θ dθ. (Note)
Put √ 2 cos θ = sec φ so that − √ 2 sin θ dθ = sec φ tan φ dφ.

When θ = 0 , φ = π / 4 and when θ = π / 4, φ = 0.
2 πa3 0 (− sec φ tan φ)
∫π /4 (sec
2
= φ − 1)3 /2 dφ
3 √2
√ 2 πa3 π /4 √ 2 πa3 π /4
=
3 ∫0 tan4 φ sec φ dφ =
3 ∫0 (sec2 φ − 1)2 sec φ dφ
√ 2 πa3 π /4
=
3 ∫0 (sec5 θ − 2 sec3 φ + sec φ) dφ. …(1)
Also we know the reduction formula

sec n − 2 φ tan φ n − 2
∫ sec ∫
sec n − 2 φ dφ. [Establish it here]
n
φ dφ = +
n −1 n −1
π /4
π /4 sec3 φ tan φ  3 π /4
∫0 ∫0
5
∴ sec φ dφ =   + sec3 φ dφ
 4 0 4
π /4
√ 2 3  sec φ tan φ  1 π /4 
=
2
+ 
4   2 
0
+
2 ∫0 sec φ dφ

√2 3 √2 1 
= +  + [log (sec φ + tan φ)]0π /4 
2 4 2 2 
I-203
√2 3√2 3 7√2 3
= + + log (√ 2 + 1) = + log (√ 2 + 1)
2 8 8 8 8
π /4 π /4 π /4
sec φ tan φ  1
∫0 sec3 φ dφ = 
 2 
0
+
2 ∫0 sec φ dφ
√2 1
= + log (√ 2 + 1)
2 2
π /4
and
∫0 sec φ dφ = log (√ 2 + 1).
Hence the required volume from (1) is

√ 2 πa3 7 √ 2 3 √2 1  
=  + log (√ 2 + 1) − 2  + log (√ 2 + 1) + log (√ 2 + 1)
3  8 8  2 2  
√ 2 πa3 3 √ 2
=  log (√ 2 + 1) − 
3  8 8 
πa3 √ 2
= [3 log (√ 2 + 1) − √ 2].
24
Aliter: The equation of the given curve is
r2 = a2 cos 2θ or r4 = a2 r2 (cos2 θ − sin2 θ).
Changing to cartesians, the equation becomes

( x2 + y2 )2 = a2 ( x2 − y2 ) or y4 + y2 (2 x2 + a2 ) + x4 − a2 x2 = 0
Solving for y2 , we have
y2 = [−(2 x2 + a2 ) ± √ {(2 x2 + a2 )2 − 4( x4 − a2 x2 )}] / 2.
Neglecting the negative sign because y2 cannot be –ive, we have
 1 
− (2 x2 + a2 ) + 2 √ 2 a √  x2 + a2 
2 − (2 x2 + a2 ) + √ (8 a2 x2 + a4 )  8 
y = =
2 2
Now for one loop of the given curve x varies from 0 to a.
a
∴ the required volume = π
∫0 y2 dx
π a   1 
∫0 −2 x
2
= − a2 + 2 √ 2 a √  x2 + a2   dx
2  8 
a
π  2 3 2 x  2 1 2 1 2   2 1 2  
= − 3 x − a x + 2 √ 2 a ⋅ 2 √  x + 8 a  + 2 √ 2 a ⋅ 16 a log  x + √  x + 8 a   
2 0
π  2 3 3 a 3a 1 3   3a  a 
= − 3 a − a x + 2 √ 2 a ⋅ 2 ⋅ 2 √ 2 + 8 √ 2 a  log  a + 2 √ 2  − log 2 √ 2  
2 
I-204
π  5 3 3 3 1 3  a (2 √ 2 + 3) 2 √ 2  
= − a + a + √ 2 a log  ⋅ 
2  3 2 8  2√2 a  
π  1 3 1 3 
= − 6 a + 8 √ 2 a log (2 √ 2 + 3)
2
π  1 3 1 3 2
= − 6 a + 8 √ 2 a log (√ 2 + 1) 
2
πa3  1 1 πa3  1 1
= 2 ⋅ 8 √ 2 log (√ 2 + 1) − 6  = 2 4 √ 2 log (√ 2 + 1) − 6 
2
πa3 πa3 √ 2
= [3 √ 2 log (√ 2 + 1) − 2] = [3 log (√ 2 + 1) − √ 2].
24 24
Example 9: Show that if the area lying within the cardioid r = 2 a (1 + cos θ) and without the
parabola r (1 + cos θ) = 2 a revolves about the initial line, the volume generated is 18 πa3 .
(Kumaun 2009)
Solution: The equation of the cardioid is r = 2 a (1 + cos θ), ...(1)

and that of the parabola is r = 2 a / (1 + cos θ) . ...(2)
Equating the values of r from (1) and (2),
Y θ=π
–
we get B 2
2 a (1 + cos θ) = 2 a / (1 + cos θ)
or (1 + cos θ)2 = 1
or cos θ (cos θ + 2) = 0 . θ=π θ=0

O X
Now cos θ ≠ − 2 .
Therefore cos θ = 0
i. e., θ = π / 2 , − π / 2.
Thus the curves (1) and (2) intersect
where θ = π / 2 and θ = − π / 2.
Also both the curves are symmetrical about the initial line (i. e., x-axis). The required
volume is generated by revolving the upper half of the shaded area about the initial
line.
∴ the required volume = (Volume generated by the revolution of the area OABO of
the cardioid) − (volume generated by the revolution of the area OPBO of the parabola)
2π π /2 2π π /2
=
3 ∫0 r 3 sin θ dθ −
3 ∫0 r 3 sin θ dθ
(for cardioid) (for parabola)
2π π /2  3 8 a3 
∫0
3
= 8 a (1 + cos θ) − 3
sin θ dθ
3  (1 + cos θ) 
− 16 πa3 π /2
=
3 ∫0 [(1 + cos θ)3 − (1 + cos θ)− 3 ] (− sin θ) dθ (Note)
I-205
π /2
− 16 πa3 (1 + cos θ)4 (1 + cos θ)− 2 
=  −  , using power formula
3  4 −2  0
− 16 πa3 1 1 1  − 16 3  15 3 
= 4 (1 − 16) + 2 1 − 4   = 3 πa − 4 + 8 
3  
 16 3   − 27  3
= − πa    = 18 πa .
 3   8 
1. Find the volume of the solid generated by the revolution of r = 2 a cos θ about the
initial line.
2. The arc of the cardioid r = a (1 + cos θ), specified by − π / 2 ≤ θ ≤ π / 2, is rotated
5
about the line θ = 0, prove that the volume generated is πa3 .
2
3. Find hte volume of the solid generated by the revolution of the cardioid
r = a (1 − cos θ) about the initial line. (Rohilkhand 2010)
4. Show that the volume of the solid formed by the revolution of the curve,
4
r = a + b cos θ (a > b) about the initial line is πa (a2 + b2 ).
3 (Meerut 2008)
5. Find the volume of the solid generated by revolving one loop of the lemniscate
1
r2 = a2 cos 2θ about the line θ = π.
2 (Meerut 2006; Kumaun 07, 11)
A nswers 3
4 3 8 3 4
1. πa 3. πa 4. πa (a2 + b2 ) 5. (π2 a3 ) / 4 √ 2
3 3 3
6 Surfaces of Solids of Revolution

(a) Revolution about the axis of x. To prove that the curved surface of the solid
generated by the revolution, about x-axis, of the area bounded by the curve y = f ( x), the
ordinates x = a, x = b and the x-axis is
x=b
∫ x = a 2 πy ds,
where s is the length of the arc measured from x = a to any point ( x, y).
I-206
Or
Show that the area of the surface of the solid obtained by revolving about x-axis the arc of the curve
intercepted between the points whose abscissae are a and b is
b ds
∫a 2πy dx dx.
Proof: Let AB be the arc of the curve y = f ( x) included between the ordinates x = a
and x = b. It is being assumed that the curve does not cut x-axis and f ( x) is a
continuous function of x in the interval (a, b) .
Let P ( x, y) and Q ( x + δx, y + δy) be any two neighbouring points on the curve
y = f ( x) .
Let the length of the arc AP be s and arc AQ = s + δs
so that arc PQ = δs.
Draw the ordinates PM and QN . Let S denote Y
the curved surface of the solid generated by the
B
revolution of the area CMPA about the x-axis. arc PQ = δ s
Then the curved surface of the solid generated by
Q
the revolution of the area MNQP = δS .
x=b
A s P
We shall take it as an axiom that the curved
x=a
surface of the solid generated by the revolution of
the area MNQP about the x-axis lies between the O C M N D X
curved surfaces of the right circular cylinders
whose radii are PM and NQ and which are of the
same thickness (height) δs. There is no loss in assuming so because ultimately Q is to
tend to P .
Thus δS lies between 2 π y δs and 2 π ( y + δy) δs
i. e., 2 π y δ s < δ S < 2 π ( y + δ y) δ s
or 2 π y < (δS / δs) < 2 π ( y + δy).
Now as Q approaches P i. e., δs → 0 , δy will also tend to zero. Hence by taking limits as
δs → 0, we have
dS
= 2 π y or dS = 2 π y ds.
ds
x=b x=b x =b
∴
∫x = a 2πy ds =
∫ x = a dS = [S] x = a
= (the value of S when x = b) − (the value of S when x = a)
= surface of the solid generated by the revolution of the area ACDB − 0.
x=b
∴ the required curved surface =
∫ x = a 2π y ds
I-207
x=b   dy 
2
=
∫x = a 2π y
ds
dx
dx, where
ds
dx
= √ 

1 +   ⋅
 dx  

(b) Axis of revolution as y-axis. Similarly the curved surface of the solid generated by the
revolution about the y-axis, of the area bounded by the curve x = f ( y), the lines y = a , y = b
and the y-axis is
y=b b ds
2π
∫ y=a x ds or S = 2π
∫y = a x
dy
dy,
  dx  
2
ds 
where
dy
= √ 1 +    ⋅
  dy 

Remark: If an arc length revolves about x-axis, the basic formula for the surface of
revolution in all cases is
∫ 2πy ds, between the suitable limits. If we want to integrate
w.r.t. x , we shall change ds as (ds / dx) dx and adjust the limits accordingly.
A similar transformation can be made if we want to integrate w.r.t. y or with respect to
θ or w.r.t. some parameter, say t .
Example 10: Find the curved surface of a hemisphere of radius a . (Agra 2005; Kanpur 14)
Solution: A hemisphere is generated by the revolution of a quadrant of a circle about
one of its bounding radii.
Let the equation of the circle be x 2 + y 2 = a2 . ...(1)
Let the hemisphere be formed by revolving about x-axis the arc of the circle (1) lying in
the first quadrant.
Differentiating (1), w.r.t. x , we get
2 x + 2 y (dy / dx) = 0 or dy / dx = − x / y.
ds   dy 
2   x 2   y 2 + x 2   a2 
Therefore
dx
= √ 1 +

 
 dx 
=

√ 1 + 2  =
 y  √ 
 y 2 
= √  
 y 2
 
[From (1)]
= a / y.
For the arc of the circle (1) lying in the first quadrant x varies from 0 to a .
∴ the required surface
0 a ds
= 2π
∫x = a y ds = 2 π
∫0 y
dx
⋅ dx
a a a
∫0 ∫0
a
= 2π y⋅ dx = 2 π a dx = 2 π a [ x]0 = 2 πa . a = 2 πa2 .
y
I-208
Example 11: Find the surface generated by the revolution of an arc of the catenary
y = c cosh ( x / c ) about the axis of x . (Meerut 2000, 04B, 07, 07B, 10; Rohilkhand 14)
Solution: The given curve is, y = c cosh ( x / c ). ...(1)

Differentiating (1) w.r.t x , we get
dy x 1 x
= c sinh ⋅ = sinh ⋅
dx c c c
  dy  2 
√ 1 + sinh2 c  = cosh c ⋅
ds x x
∴
dx
= √ 1 +  

 dx 
=

...(2)
If the arc be measured from the vertex ( x = 0 ) to any point ( x, y), then the required
surface formed by the revolution of this arc about x-axis
0 ds x x x
=
∫x = a 2π y
dx
dx = 2 π
∫0 c cosh
c
⋅ cosh dx,
c
from (1) and (2)
x x
x  2 x
=πc
∫0 2 cosh2
c
dx = π c
∫0 1 + cosh c  dx (Note)
x
 c 2 x  c 2 x
= π c  x + sinh  = π c  x + sinh 
 2 c 0  2 c 
 x x
= π c  x + c sinh cosh  ⋅
 c c
Example 12: Prove that the surface of the prolate spheroid formed by the revolution of the ellipse
of eccentricity e about its major axis is equal to 2 × area of the ellipse
× [√ (1 − e2 ) + (1 / e) sin− 1 e] .
Solution: [Note. Prolate spheroid is generated by the revolution of an ellipse

about its major axis]
x2 y2
Let the equation of the ellipse be + = 1, ...(1)
a2 b2
the x-axis being the major axis so that a > b.
The parametric equations of (1) are x = a cos t , y = b sin t .
∴ dx / dt = − a sin t and dy / dt = b cos t.
  dx  
2 2
 dy 
√
ds 2 2 2 2
We have =    +   = √ (a sin t + b cos t )
dt  dt  dt  
= √ { a2 sin2 t + a2 (1 − e2 ) cos2 t }, [∵ for the ellipse b2 = a2 (1 − e2 )]
= a √ (1 − e2 cos2 t ) . ...(2)
Now the ellipse (1) is symmetrical about y-axis and for the arc of the ellipse lying in the
first quadrant t varies from 0 to π / 2. At the point (a, 0 ) we have t = 0 and at the point
(0 , b) we have t = π / 2.
I-209
Hence the required surface S formed by the revolution of the ellipse (1) about the
x-axis
=2
∫ 2πy ds, between the suitable limits
π /2 ds π /2
= 4π
∫0 y
dt
dt = 4 π
∫0 b sin t . a √ (1 − e2 cos2 t ) dt,
[∵ y = b sin t and ds / dt = a √ (1 − e2 cos2 t ), from (2)]

π /2
= 4 π ab
∫0 sin t √ (1 − e2 cos2 t ) dt.
1
Put e cos t = z so that − e sin t dt = dz . When t = 0, z = e and when t = π , z = 0.
2
0 1 4 πab e
∴ S = − 4 π ab
∫e e
√ (1 − z 2 ) dz =
e ∫0 √ (1 − z 2 ) dz
e
4 πab  z 1  4 πab  e 1 
=  √ (1 − z 2 ) + sin− 1 z =  √ (1 − e2 ) + sin− 1 e
e 2 2 0 e 2 2 
= 2 πab [√ (1 − e2 ) + (1 / e) sin− 1 e]
= 2 × area of the ellipse × [√ (1 − e2 ) + (1 / e) sin− 1 e].
Remark: The solid of revolution formed by revolving an ellipse about its minor axis is
called an oblate spheroid.
Example 13: The part of the parabola y 2 = 4 ax cut off by the latus rectum revolves about the
tangent at the vertex. Find the curved surface of the reel thus generated.
(Kumaun 2010; Bundelkhand 11)
Solution: The given parabola is Y

L
y 2 = 4 ax . ...(1)
(a, 2a)
Differentiating (1) w.r.t. x , we get
dy / dx = 2 a / y.
  dy  2   2
∴
ds
dx
= √ 1 +  
  dx 
=

√ 1 + 4ya2  S(a, 0)
X' O X
 4 a2   x + a
= √ 1 +

=
4 ax  √ 
 x 
⋅
The required curved surface is generated by the

revolution of the arc LOL′ (LSL′ is the latus L'
rectum), about the tangent at the vertex
i. e., y-axis. The curve is symmetrical about x-axis Y'
and for the arc OL, x varies from 0 to a .

I-210
a ds
∴ the required surface = 2
∫ x = 0 2π x dx dx
a  x + a
= 4π
∫0 x √  x 
 dx
a
= 4π
∫0 √ ( x 2 + ax) dx
a   a
2
 a
2

= 4π
∫0 √   x + 
 2
− 
 2  dx

(Note)
a
1  a 1 a2  a 
= 4 π   x +  √ ( x 2 + ax) − ⋅ log   x +  + √ ( x 2 + ax) 
2  2  2 4   2    0
 1 1 
∵ ∫√ ( x 2 − a2 ) dx = x √ ( x 2 − a2 ) − a2 log {x + √ ( x2 − a2 )}
2 2 
1 3 1 3  1  1 
= 4 π  ⋅ a a √ 2 − a2 log  a + a √ 2 + a2 log  a 
2 2 8 2  8 2 
3 1  3  1  
= 4 π  a2 √ 2 − a2 log   a + a √ 2  a  
 4 8   2  2  
 1 
= πa2 3 √ 2 − log (3 + 2 √ 2)
 2 
2  1 2
= πa 3 √ 2 − log (√ 2 + 1)  (Note)
 2 
= πa2 [3 √ 2 − log (√ 2 + 1)] .
1. Find the surface of a sphere of radius a. (Kanpur 2006)
2. Show that the surface of the spherical zone contained between two parallel
planes is 2πah where a is the radius of the sphere and h the distance between the
planes. (Kanpur 2009)
3. Find the area of the surface formed by the revolution of the parabola y2 = 4 ax
about the x-axis by the arc from the vertex to one end of the latus rectum.
(Rohilkhand 2011)
4. Find the surface generated by the revolution of an arc of the catenary

y = c cosh ( x / c ) about the axis of x, between the planes x = a and x = b.
5. For a catenary y = a cosh ( x / a), prove that aS = 2V = πa (ax + sy), where s is the
length of the arc from the vertex, S and V are respectively the area of the curved
surface and volume of the solid generated by the revolution of the arc about
x-axis.
I-211
6. Find the surface of the solid generated by the revolution of the ellipse
x2 + 4 y2 = 16 about its major axis. (Meerut 2005, 06)
7. Find the surface of the solid formed by the revolution, about the axis of y, of the
part of the curve ay2 = x3 from x = 0 to x = 4 a which is above the x-axis.
A nswers 4
8 2
1. 4 πa2 3. πa [2 √ 2 − 1]
3
 c 2b c 2a  4π 
4. πc (b − a) + sinh − sinh  6. 8 π 1 +
 2 c 2 c   3 √ 3 
128
7. πa2 [125 √ (10 ) + 1]
1215
7 Surface Formula for Parametric Equations

Suppose the equation of the curve is given in parametric form x = f (t), y = φ(t), t being
the variable parameter. Then the curved surface of the solid formed by the revolution
about the x-axis
ds
= 2πy
dt ∫dt, between the suitable limits
 dx 2 2
√   dt   dy 
ds
where = +  .
dt  dt 

Example 14: Find the surface of the solid generated by revolution of the astroid
x2 /3 + y2 /3 = a2 /3 or x = a cos3 t , y = a sin3 t about the x-axis.
(Kumaun 2000, 13; Agra 01; Rohilkhand 07, 09, 11B; Meerut 06,09; Kashi 12)
Y
Solution: The parametric equations of the curve are π
(0, a)B t = –
2
x = a cos3 t , y = a sin3 t .
dy a
dx
∴ = − 3 a cos2 t sin t and = 3 a sin2 t cos t . A' a t=0
dt dt
O A X
ds  dx  2
 dy  
2
(a, 0)
Hence
dt
= √  
 dt 
+  
 dt  

B'
= √ [9 a2 cos4 t sin2 t + 9 a2 sin4 t cos2 t ]
I-212
= √ [9 a2 sin2 t cos2 t (cos2 t + sin2 t )] = 3 a sin t cos t .
Also the given curve (astroid) is symmetrical about both the axes and for the curve in
the first quadrant, t varies from 0 to π / 2.
π /2 ds
∴ the required surface = 2
∫t = 0 2π y
dt
dt
π /2 π /2
= 4π
∫0 a sin3 t . 3 a sin t cos t dt = 12 π a2
∫0 sin4 t cos t dt
π /2
sin5
2 t 1  12 πa
2
= 12 πa   = 12 π a2  − 0  = ⋅
 5 0 5  5
Example 15: Prove that the surface of the solid generated by the revolution of the tractrix
1 1
x = a cos t + a log tan2 t , y = a sin t
2 2
about its asymptote is equal to the surface of a sphere of radius a .
(Agra 2002; Gorakhpur 06; Meerut 09B)
Solution: The given tractrix is

1 1
x = a cos t + a log tan2 t , y = a sin t .
2 2
1  
sec2 t  
dx 2 1 1
∴ = − a sin t + a ⋅ = a  − sin t + 
dt 1 1 1
tan t 2  2 sin t cos t 
2  2 2 
 1  (− sin2 t + 1) a cos2 t
= a  − sin t +  =a =
 sin t  sin t sin t
dy
and = a cos t .
dt
 dx 2 2   a2 cos4 t  a cos t
√   dt   dy 
√ 
ds
Hence = +  = + a2 cos2 t = ⋅
dt  dt   sin2 t  sin t
The given curve is symmetrical about both the axes and the asymptote is the line y = 0
1
i. e., x-axis. For the arc of the curve lying in the second quadrant t varies from 0 to π .
2
π /2 ds
∴ the required surface = 2 .
∫0 2 πy
dt
dt (Note)
π /2 a cos t π /2
= 4π
∫0 a sin t .
sin t
dt = 4 πa2
∫0 cos t dt
= 4 πa2 [sin t]0π / 2 = 4 πa2
= the surface of a sphere of radius a .

I-213
1. Find the surface area of the solid generated by revolving the cycloid
x = a (θ − sin θ), y = a(1 − cos θ) about the x-axis.
2. Find the area of the surface generated by revolving an arc of the cycloid.
x = a (θ + sin θ), y = a (1 − cos θ) about the tangent at the vertex.
3. The portion between two consecutive cusps of the cycloid x = a (θ + sin θ),
y = a (1 + cos θ) is revolved about the x-axis. Prove that the area of the surface so
formed is to the area of the cycloid as 64 : 9.
4. Prove that the surface area of the solid generated by the revolution, about the
1
x-axis of the loop of the curve x = t2 , y = t − t3is 3π.
3
5. Prove that the surface of the oblate spheroid formed by the revolution of the
 1 − e2 1 + e  
ellipse of the semi-major axis a and eccentricity e is 2 πa2 1 + log   .
 2e 1 − e  
A nswers 5
64 2 32 2
1. πa 2. πa
3 3
8 Surface Formula for Polar Equations

Suppose the equation of the curve is given in the polar form r = f (θ). Then the curved
surface generated by the revolution about the initial line, of the arc intercepted
between the radii vectors θ = α and θ = β is
θ =β  2

√  r2 +  dθ
ds ds dr
∫θ = α 2π ( r sin θ)
dθ
dθ, where
dθ
=  . [∵ y = r sin θ]

Note: In some cases we may use the formula
 dθ
2

√ 1 +  r dr 
ds ds
S=
∫ 2πy
dr
dr , where
dr
= .

9 Curved Surface Generated by Revolution about any

Axis
If the given arc AB is revolved about a line CD other than the coordinate axes, then the
curved surface thus generated is
I-214
= 2π
∫ ( PM) ds, (between the proper limits of integration)
where PM is the perpendicular drawn from any point P on the arc AB to the axis of
revolution CD and ds is the length of an element of the arc AB at the point P.
Example 16: Find the surface of the solid generated by the revolution of the lemniscate
2 2
r = a cos 2θ about the initial line. (Garhwal 2000, 02; Meerut 04, 10B, 11;
Rohilkhand 08B; Agra 14; Purvanchal 14)
Solution: The given curve is r 2 = a2 cos 2θ. ...(1)

Y
θ = π /4
a θ =0
B A X
O
θ = –π/4
Differentiating (1) w.r.t. θ, we get

dr
2r = − 2 a2 sin 2θ
dθ
dr − a2 sin 2θ
or = ⋅
dθ r
 2  dr  2 
∴
ds
dθ
= √  r +  
 dθ


 2 a4 sin2 2θ 
= √  a cos 2θ +
 r2


1
= √ { r 2 . a2 cos 2θ + a4 sin2 2θ }
r
1
= √ { a4 cos2 2θ + a4 sin2 2θ } , [∵ r 2 = a2 cos 2θ]
r
= a2 / r. ...(2)
The given curve is symmetrical about the initial line and about the pole.
1 1
Putting r = 0 in (1), we get cos 2θ = 0 giving 2θ = ± π i. e., θ = ± π .
2 4
1 1
Therefore one loop of the curve lies between θ = − π and θ = π .
4 4
I-215
There are two loops in the curve and for the upper half of one of these two loops θ
1
varies from 0 to π .
4
= 2 × the surface generated by the revolution of one loop
π /4 ds
=2.
∫0 2π y
dθ
dθ, where y = r sin θ
π /4 a2
= 4π
∫0 r sin θ ⋅
r
dθ [From (2)]
π /4
π /4
= 4 πa2
∫0 sin θ dθ = 4 πa2 [− cos θ]0
= 4 πa2 [− (1 / √ 2) + 1] = 4 πa2 [1 − (1 / √ 2)] .
Example 17: A circular arc revolves about its chord. Find the area of the surface generated,
when 2α is the angle subtended by the arc at the centre.
Solution: Let the parametric equations of the circle be
x = a cos θ, y = a sin θ, …(1)
θ being the parameter.
Y
θ=α
A
M P
(a cos θ , a sin θ )
α
θ
O X
α D N B
θ=0
Take any point P (a cos θ, a sin θ) on the circular arc ABC which is symmetrical about
the x-axis and which subtends an angle 2α at the centre O so that ∠ AOB = α.
We have OD = OA cos α = a cos α. Draw PM perpendicular from P to AC, the axis of
rotation. Then
PM = ON − OD = a cos θ − a cos α. …(2)
For the upper half of the arc to be rotated i. e., for the arc BA, θ varies from 0 to α.
ds   dx  2  dy  2 
Also
dθ
= √    +   
 dθ  dθ  

I-216
= √ { a2 sin2 θ + a2 cos2 θ} = a.
= 2 × surface generated by the revolution of the arc BA about the chord AC
α ds
=2×
∫0 2 π ( PM )
dθ
dθ
α
= 4π
∫0 (a cos θ − a cos α). a . dθ [From (2)]
α
= 4 πa2 [sin θ − θ cos α]0 = 4 πa2 [sin α − α cos α].
1. Find the area of the surface of revolution formed by revolving the curve
r = 2 a cos θ about the initial line.
2. Find the surface of the solid formed by the revolution of the cardioid
r = a (1 + cos θ) about the initial line. (Purvanchal 2006, 10; Kashi 11)
1 1
3. The arc of the cardioid r = a (1 + cos θ) included between − π ≤ θ ≤ π is rotated
2 2
1
about the line θ = π. Find the area of the surface generated.
2
(Purvanchal 2010)
4. A quadrant of a circle of radius a revolves about its chord. Show that the surface
of the spindle generated is
 1 
2 πa2 √ 2 1 − π .
 4 
5. The lemniscate r2 = a2 cos 2θ revolves about a tangent at the pole. Show that the
surface of the solid generated is 4 πa2 . (Meerut 1993, 2005B; Kumaun 12)
A nswers 6
32 2 48
1. 4 πa2 2. πa 3. √ 2 πa2
5 5
10 Theorems of Pappus and Guldin

(Agra 2014)
State and prove the theorems of Pappus and Guldin.

I-217
Theorem 1: Volume of a Solid of Revolution:

If a closed plane curve revolves about a straight line in its plane which does not intersect it, the
volume of the ring thus obtained is equal to the area of the region enclosed by the curve multiplied
by the length of the path described by the centroid of the region.
Proof: Let AP1 BP2 A be the closed plane curve and let it rotate about the axis of x .
Y P2
B
A
P1
x=b
x=a
O L M N X
Let AL ( x = a) and BN ( x = b) be the tangents to the curve parallel to the y-axis (a < b) .
Also let any ordinate meet the curve at P1, P2 and let MP1 = y1, MP2 = y2 so that
y1, y2 are functions of x .
Now volume of the ring generated by the revolution of the closed curve AP1 BP2 A
about the axis of x
= volume generated by the area ALNBP2 A
− volume generated by the area ALNBP1 A
b b b
=π
∫a y22 dx − π
∫a y12 dx = π
∫a ( y22 − y12 ) dx. ...(1)
Also if y be the ordinate of the centroid of the area of the closed curve, then
b 1 1 b
y=
∫a 2
( y1 + y2 ) ( y2 − y1) dx
=
2 ∫a ( y22 − y12 ) dx
, ...(2)
A A
where A is the area of the closed curve. [See the chapter on centre of gravity]
Hence from (1) and (2), the required volume = 2 π A y = A × 2 π y
= area of the closed curve × circumference of the circle of radius y
= (area of the curve) × (length of the arc described by the centroid
of the region bounded by the closed curve).
Theorem 2: Surface of a solid of revolution :
If an arc of a plane curve revolves about a straight line in its plane, which does not intersect it, the
surface of the solid thus obtained is equal to the arc multiplied by the length of the path described by
the centroid of the arc.
Proof: Let l be the length of the arc AB and let it revolve about OX .
Let the abscissae of the extremities A and B of the arc be a and b.
I-218
Then the surface generated by the revolution of the arc AB about x-axis is
Y
B
P
A
y
O L M N X
x=b
=
∫ x = a 2π y ds ...(1)
Also we know that (see the chapter on centre of gravity) the ordinate y, of the centroid
of the arc from x = a to x = b, of length l, is given by
b
y=
∫x = a y ds
...(2)
l
From (1) and (2), we get the required surface
= 2π y l = l × 2π y
= (length of the arc) × (length of the path described by the centroid of the arc).
Note 1: The closed curve or arc in the above theorems must not cross the axis of
revolution but may be terminated by it.
Note 2: When the volume or surface generated is known, the theorems may be
applied to find the position of the centroid of the generating area or arc.
Example 18: Find the volume and surface-area of the anchor-ring generated by the revolution
of a circle of radius a about an axis in its own plane distant b from its centre (b > a) .
Solution: Here the given curve (circle) does not intersect the axis of rotation, so
Pappus theorem can be applied.
Y
a
G
O M X
I-219
In this case, A = area of the region of the closed curve

= area of the circle of radius a
= πa2
and l = length of the arc of the curve

= circumference of the circle
= 2πa .
As the centroid of the area of a circle and also of its circumference lies at the centre, so
y = b in both the cases and hence the length of the path described by the C.G. = 2πb .
Now by Pappus theorem, the required volume of the anchor-ring
= (area of the circle) × (circumference of the circle generated by the centroid)
= πa2 . 2 πb = 2 π2 a2 b.
And the surface area of the anchor-ring

= (arc length of the circle) × (circumference of the circle generated by the centroid)
= 2 πa . 2 πb = 4 π2 ab.
Example 19: Show that the volume generated by the revolution of the ellipse
x2 / a2 + y2 / b2 = 1 about the line x = 2 a is 4 π2 a2 b.
Solution: Area of the given ellipse is πab.

The C.G. of the ellipse will describe a circle of radius 2a when revolved about the line
x = 2 a. Hence the length of the arc described by the C.G. = 2 π (2 a) = 4 πa.
Y
B
x = 2a
b
a
A' O A M X
B'
Y'
∴ by Pappus theorem the required volume

= (area of the ellipse) × (length of the arc described by its C.G.)
= πab . 4 πa = 4 π2 a2 b.
Example 20: The loop of the curve 2 ay2 = x( x − a)2 revolves about the straight line y = a.
Find the volume of the solid generated.
Solution: The given curve is 2 ay2 = x ( x − a)2 . …(1)
The curve (1) is symmetrical about the x-axis and the loop lies between x = 0 and x = a.
Differentiating (1) w.r.t. x, we get
I-220
Y
M y=a
a
B
(0, 0) (a, 0)
O G A X
4 ay (dy / dx) = 2 x ( x − a) + ( x − a)2 = 3 x2 − 4 ax + a2 .
Now (dy / dx) = 0 when 3 x2 − 4 ax + a2 = 0
or when x = a / 3, which gives from (1),

y = (a √ 2) / (3 √ 3), i. e., < a,
showing that the loop does not intersect the straight line y = a.
By symmetry the C.G. of the loop lies on x-axis i. e., the distance of the C.G. from the
axis of revolution ( y = a) is a. When the loop is rotated about y = a, its C.G. will
describe a circle of radius a whose perimeter is 2πa.
Also the area A of the loop
a a ( x − a) √ x  ( x − a) √ x 
=2
∫0 y dx = 2
∫0 √ (2 a)
dx, ∵ from (1), y =
 √ (2 a) 

a
 2 a
 2  x5 /2 ax3 /2 
√
4
= √  
 a ∫0 ( x3 /2 − ax1 /2 ) dx =  
 a 
 5 / 2
−
3 / 2
 =
0 15
√ 2 a2 .
∴ by Pappus theorem, the required volume

4 8
= 2 πa × A = 2 πa × √ 2 a2 = √ 2 πa3 .
15 15
Example 21: Prove that the volume of the solid formed by the rotation about the line θ = 0 of the
2 θ2
area bounded by the curve r = f (θ) and the lines θ = θ1, θ = θ2 is π
3 θ1 ∫
r3 sin θ dθ.
Solution: Let OAB be the area bounded by the curve r = f (θ) and the radii vectors
θ = θ1 and θ = θ2 . We have to find the volume formed by the revolution of area OAB
about the initial line OX .
Take any point (r, θ) inside the area OAB and take a small element of the area r δθ δr at
the point P. Drop PM perpendicular from P to the axis of rotation OX. We have
PM = OP sin θ = r sin θ,
Now the volume of the ring formed by revolving the element of area r δθ δr about OX
= 2 πr sin θ . r δθ δr = 2 πr2 sin θ δθ δr.
I-221
Therefore the whole volume formed by revolving the area OAB about OX
B
Y
r δθ δ r r = f( θ )
2
θ
A
θ=
P(r, θ )
θ = θ1
r
r sin θ
θ
O M X
f (θ)
θ2 f (θ) θ2  r3 
=
∫θ = θ ∫r = 0
1
2 πr2 sin θ dθ dr =
∫θ = θ1
2 π sin θ  
 3 0
dθ
2 θ2 2 θ2
=
3
π
∫θ = θ1
[ f (θ)]3 sin θ dθ =
3
π
∫θ 1
r3 sin θ dθ.
where r is to be replaced from the equation of the curve r = f (θ).

Note: Proceeding as above we can also show that the volume of the solid formed by the
π 2 θ2
rotation of the above mentioned area about the line θ =
2
is equal to π
3 ∫θ 1
r3 cos θ dθ.
Use Pappus theorem to find:

1. The position of the centroid of a semi-circular area.
2. The volume generated by the revolution of an ellipse having semi-axes a and b
about a tangent at the vertex.
3. Find by using Pappus theorem the volume of the ring generated by the revolution
of an ellipse of eccentricity 1 / √ 2 about a straight line parallel to the minor axis
and situated at a distance from the centre equal to three times the major axis.
4. Find the volume of the ring generated by the revolution of the cardiod
r = a (1 + cos θ) about the line r cos θ + a = 0, given that the centroid of the
cardioid is at a distance 5 a / 6 from the origin.
5. A semi-circular bend of lead has a mean radius of 8 inches; the initial diameter of
1
the pipe is 4 inches and the thickness of the lead is inch. Applying the theorem
2
of Pappus and Guldin find the volume of the lead and its weight, given that 1
cubic inch of lead weighs 0.4 lb.
[Hint: Internal diameter of pipe = 4 inches.
I-222
1
Thickness of metal = inch
2
∴ external diameter of the pipe = 4 + 1 = 5 inches.
1 9
∴ area of lead = π (52 − 42 ) = π.
4 4
The centroid of this area is at a distance of 8 inches from the axis of rotation.
Therefore the length of path traced out by its centroid in describing a semi-circle
= 8π inches.
9
∴ volume of the lead = 8 π × π = 18 π2 cu. inch.
4
∴ weight of the pipe = volume × density = 18 π2 × 0 .4 lb. = 71.1 lb]
6. State the theorems of Pappus and Guldin. (Meerut 2008)
A nswers 7
1. 4a / 3π
2. 2 π2 a2 b or 2 π2 ab2
3. 6 √ 2 π2 a3 , where a is the semi-major axis
11 2 2
4. π a
2

(b), (c) and (d).
1. The volume of the solid generated by the revolution of the area bounded by the
curve r = f (θ) and the radii vectors θ = θ1, θ = θ2 about any line ( θ = γ ) is
θ2 2
(a)
∫
θ1 3
π r 3 cos(θ − γ ) dθ
θ2 2
(b)
∫θ 1 3
π r 3 sin(θ − γ ) dθ
θ2
(c)
∫θ 1
πr 2 sin(θ − γ ) dθ
θ2
(d)
∫θ 1
πr 2 cos(θ − γ ) dθ
I-223
2. The volume of the paraboloid generated by the revolution about the x-axis of the
parabola y 2 = 4 a x from x = 0 to x = h is
(a) 2 πah 2 (b) 2πah
2 2
(c) πah 2 (d) πah
3 3 (Rohilkhand 2005)
3. The curved surface of the solid generated by the revolution about the of y-axis
the area bounded by the curve x = f ( y), the lines y = a, y = b and y-axis is
b b
(a)
∫a πx ds (b)
∫a 2πx ds
b 2 b
(c)
∫a 3
πx ds (d)
∫a π2 x ds
Fill in The Blank(s)

curve y = f ( x), x-axis and the ordinates x = a, x = b about the x-axis is …… .
(Meerut 2003)
curve r = f (θ) and the radii vectors θ = θ1, θ = θ2 about the initial line is …… .
(Meerut 2001)
3. If the equation of the curve in the polar form is r = f (θ), then the curved surface
generated by the revolution about the initial line of the arc intercepted between
the radii vectors θ = α and θ = β is
θ =β ds ds
∫θ = α 2 π (r sin θ)
dθ
dθ, where
dθ
= …… .
4. If the equations of the curve in parametric form are x = f (t), y = φ (t), t being the
variable then the curved surface of the solid formed by the revolution about the
ds ds
x-axis is 2πy
∫ dt
dt, between the suitable limits, where
dt
= …… .
True or False
curve r = f (θ) and the radii vectors θ = θ1, θ = θ2 about the initial line θ = 0 is
θ1 2
∫θ 2 3
πr 3 sin θ dθ.
2. If an arc length revolves about x-axis, the basic formula for the surface of
revolution in all cases is
∫ 2π yds, between the suitable limits.
I-224
A nswers

1. (b) 2. (a) 3. (b)

b θ2 2
1.
∫a πy 2 dx 2.
∫θ
1 3
πr 3 sin θ dθ
 2
  dx  2  dy  2 
 2  d r 
3. √ r +   
  d θ 
4. √    +   
 dt  dt  
 
True or False
1. T 2. T

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Kumaun University Semester Syllabus w.e.f. 2016-17

A.R. Vasishtha A.K. Vasishtha

KRISHNA Prakashan Media (P) Ltd.

B.A./B.Sc. Paper-II M.M.-50

Paper II: Integral Calculus

Definite Integrals: Integral as a limit of sum, Properties of Definite integrals,

Multiple Integrals: Double integrals, Repeated integrals, Evaluation of Double integrals,

Geometrical Applications of Definite Integrals: Area bounded by curves (quadrature),

2. Improper Integrals ( Infinite Integrals)..................................................................I-29—I-36

3. Differentiation and Integration Under the Sign of Integration....................I-37—I-52

4. Beta and Gamma Functions..................................................................................I-53—I-84

5. Dirichlet's and Liouville's Integrals..................................................................I-85—I-102

6. Double and Triple Integrals

8. Rectification (Lengths of Arcs and Intrinsic Equations of Plane Curves).........I-163—I-186

9. Volumes and Surfaces of Solids of Revolution.............................................I-187—I-224

2. Improper Integrals (Infinite integrals)

Differentiation and Integration

4 Beta and Gamma Functions

Double and Triple Integrals

Volumes And Surfaces of Solids

Fundamental Theorem of Integral Calculus: Let f ∈ R[a, b] and let φ be a

2 Fundamental Properties of Definite Integrals

Then the R.H.S.

Put x = a − t, so that dx = − dt.

∴ from (1), we get

[putting x = 2 a − y in the second integral and changing the limits]

interchanging the limits in the second integral

changing the argument from y to x in the second integral

as if, f (sin x) is an even or an odd function respectively.

as if, f (cos x) is an even or an odd function respectively.

according as n is an even or an odd integer, (by property 6).

Here taking f ( x) = cos2 n x, we see that

Adding (1) and (2), we get

Therefore f ( x) is an odd function of x .

Adding (1) and (2), we get

by a property of definite integrals, refer prop. 6.

dividing the numerator and the denominator by cos2 x .

Now put b tan x = t . Then b sec2 x dx = dt .

Also when x = 0 , t = 0 and when x → π / 2, t → ∞.

Adding (1) and (2), we get

(1/sin x)cos x − x2 cos x  ∞

Adding (1) and (2), we get

Evaluate the following integrals :

3 The Definite Integrals as the Limit of a Sum

= (m + 1) i. e., a constant. …(2)

Solution: Here f ( x) = e x ; therefore f (a) = e a , f (a + h) = e a + h, etc.

= lim he a {1 + e h + e2 h +…+ e(n − 1) h}

Solution: Here f ( x) = sin x; therefore f (a) = sin a, f (a + h) = sin (a + h) , etc.

4. Using the definition of integral as the limit of a sum, show that

4 Summation of Series with the Help of Definite Integrals

Putting a = 0 and b = 1, so that h = (1/ n), we get

if p and q are independent of n .

summation; for example, r may vary from 1 to n or from 0 to 2n , etc. .

sign of integration i. e., by

expressing the general term in the form (1/ n) f (r / n)

of integration of x from 0 to 2, we get

= log 3 − log 1 = log 3 − 0 = log 3.

Krishna's - Integral Calculus, Edition-3

Krishna's - Integral Calculus, Edition-3

Krishna's - Integral Calculus, Edition-3