OPEN JOURNAL OF MODERN PHYSICS

ISSN(Print): 2372-627X ISSN(Online): 2372-6288

DOI: 10.15764/MPHY.2015.01001
Volume 2, Number 1, March 2015

OPEN JOURNAL OF MODERN PHYSICS

Sources of the Ultra-High Energy Cosmic Rays

(UHECRs)
J. Wirsich*
Reichsstrasse 107, 14052 Berlin, Germany.
*Corresponding author: norpc2@yahoo.de

Abstract:
We estimate the mean free path of protons by calculating the total cross section of the reaction p + γCM →
π + + n, where γCM represents the photons of the cosmic ray microwave radiation. Based on the Blandford-
Znajek (BZ) mechanism for electromagnetically extracting rotational energy from a black hole, we find that
at least two candidates of local Seyfert galaxies (NGC 1365 and NGC 3783) are sources of the UHECRs.
Between the event horizon and a few gravitational radii rg of the Kerr hole electromagnetic forces can
accelerate protons well above 1019 eV.
Long duration GRBs are viable candidates for UHECRs.
Keywords:
cosmic rays, black hole physics, gamma ray bursts, galaxies active: individual:
NGC 7469, NGC 1365, MCG-05-23-16, MCG-06-30-15, NGC 3516, Swift J2127.4, NGC 3783, Mrk 359,
CenA, M87.

1. Introduction

135 events of ultra-high energy cosmic rays (UHECRs) with energies ≥ 1020 eV have been observed by PAO
(Pierre Auger Observatory), AGASA (Akeno Giant Air Shower Array) and Fly’Eye. 27 events with energies E ≥ 57
Eev (1 Eev= 1018 eV) have been detected by AUGER. 57 events are recorded by AGASA, and 51 events observed by
Fly’Eye [1].
AUGER reports arrival directions, the UHECR with an energy threshold of 57 EeV within 3.2o and a maximal
distance of d < 75 Mpc [2].
Yoshiguchi et al.[3] predicted via event simulations that AGASA is able to observe UHECRs above 4 × 1019 eV
within 80 h−1 Mpc (where h is the Hubble constant divided by 100 kmxs−1 ).
Transport of the UHECR is strongly affected by the presence of the 2.7 K cosmic ray background radiation as was
pointed out by Greisen [4] and Zatsepin and Kuz’min [5]. Due to the GZK effect, particles above 1019 eV have their
origin in the local universe within z ≈ 0.02 or < 100 Mpc [1]. z means the redshift. Well beyond the GZK horizon of
> 100 Mpc, the universe becomes optically thick. Protons above 8 × 1018 eV lose energy by photopion production

p + γCM → π + + n , (1)

p + γCM → π 0 + p , (2)
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OPEN JOURNAL OF MODERN PHYSICS

π + → µ + + νµ , (3)

µ + → e+ + ν̄e + νµ (4)

π 0 → 2γ , (5)

where γCM represents the photons of the cosmic microwave background radiation.
This paper is organized as follows. In section 2 we calculate the total cross section of equation (1). We present
a lower limit of the mean free path lenght of a proton. The new idea of this study is e.g. to predict events of the
UHECRs in the range of 1020 eV from some local Seyfert galaxies (section 3.1). In section 3.2 and 3.3 we extend our
study to sources of UHERCs such as GRBs and exotic species, respectively. The influence of the magnetic field is
discussed in section 3.4. Section 3.5 presents a compilation of observations of the radio galaxies Cen A and M87.
Section 4 contains a discussion. We conclude in section 5.

2. Calculation of the total cross section of equation 1

The reaction of equation (1) describes the interaction with an energy E p = γ p m p c2 = γ p 938 MeV ≈ 1020 eV with
the cosmic microwave background radiation. γ p means the Lorentz factor of the proton. We rewrite equation (1)
including the quark combinations (flavours) (Eidelman et al.[6])

p(uud) + γCM → π + (ud)

¯ + n(udd) , (6)

where u, d, d¯ are the quarks called up, down and the antiquark of the down quark, respectively. We interpret equation
(6) as deep inelastic interaction of the photon with the proton, such that a redistribution of the quarks occurs. Then
we can write for the total cross section

σ pγ ≤ π R2Q α + α 2 + α 3 + ... ,


(7)

where RQ = 3 × 1014 cm dennotes the radius of the quark and α ≈ 1/137 the fine structure constant.
The condition of the upper limit in equation (7) implies that the photon interacts with the gluon, so that the gluon
emits a pair of quarks, namely g → d d.¯ With the result from the first term in equation (7), we calculate the mean free
path λ p of the proton as

1
λp ≥ ≈ 29.2 M pc , (8)
πR2Q α nCM

where nCM is the photon number density. We use the value of nCM = 530 cm−3 from Draine [7]. We compare our
result of σ pγ ≤ 2.1 × 10−29 cm2 with laboratory measurements. The total cross section of process (1) is shown in
Kaellen [8] (section 6.1 therein). At E ≈ 320 MeV and at 1 GeV values of 2 × 10−28 cm2 and 5 × 10−29 cm2 are
reported, respectively. Data above an energy of 1 GeV are not available. Abbasi et al. [9] report results of calculations
of the interaction of neutrinos with nucleons as σν ∼ 10−32 cm2 at E ≈ 1019 eV.

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 Sources of the Ultra-High Energy Cosmic Rays (UHECRs)

3. Sources of the UHECRs

3.1 Kerr Holes (“Spin Paradigm”)

According to the non-hair theorem, the Kerr metric is the unique uncharged black hole metric in general relativity.
The black holes are fully defined by their masses and spins. The arrcetion of matter onto Kerr black holes as a
mechanism of fueling the output of active Galactic nuclei (AGNs) is a model (“spin paradigm”) strongly supported
by recent spectroscopic observations of the iron-KαX-ray emission line.
The broad feature at 6.4 keVcan be modelled as a line profile arising from an accretion disk around a Kerr black
hole (Misra and Kembhavi [10], Nandra et al. [11], Dewangan et al. [12]). By modeling the X-ray spectrum of Seyfert
1.2 galaxy MCG-06-30-15 at a distance of d ≈ 37 Mpc, Brenneman and Reynolds [13] ruled out a nonspinning
black hole. The high radiation efficiency of Seyfert galaxies, η = Lbol /Ṁc2 ≈ 0.18, implies that the black hole is
spinning close to its maximum value of a ∼ 0.9 (Simmons et al. [14], Chelouche [15]). a is the dimensionless Kerr
parameter a = Jc/GM 2 , where J is the angular momentum, c the velocity of light, G the Newton gravitation constant
and M the mass of the black hole. For calculation the efficiency given above, we have used the typical parameters
Lbol (8µm − 30keV ) ≈ 1045 ergxs−1 , accretion rate Ṁ ≈ 0.1 M xy−1 and a black hle mass of M = 108 M . M is the
mass of the sun. The efficiency of non-rotating black holes drops to η ≈ 0.06 (Volonteri et al. [16]).

Table 1
Data parameters

Source AGN-Class a z
NCC 7469 Sey 1.5 0.64 0.016
NGC 1365 Sey 1.9 > 0.97 0.0055
MCG-05-23-16 Sey 2 < 0.50 0.009
MCG-06-30-15 Sey 1.2 < 0.49 0.008
NGC 3516 Sey 1.5 > 0.30 0.009
Swift J2127.4 Sey 1 0.60 0.014
NGC 3783 Sey 1 0.92 0.010
Mrk 359 Sey 1 0.66 0.017

Table 1 presents a list of 8 Seyfert galaxies in the local universe (d < 100M pc). The first column shows the name of
the AGN, the second the AGN class, the third column denotes the Kerr parameter a and the last column contains the
redshift z. The Kerr parameter results from relativistic line modeling of the FeKα line (see e.g. King et al. [17], table
1 therein). 1
Blandford and Znajek [18], hereafter BZ, demonstrated an interesting process by which energy and angular
momentum are extracted from the rotating black hole. By using the BZ mechanism, Straumann [19] calculates the
magnitude of the electric field E close to the black hole as

1 This table shows the redshift (z), data of NGC 7469 from Mohan and Mangalam [22]. Data of NGC 1365 from Walton et al.
[23] and data of other AGNs from King et al. [17]

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E ≈ 105 aV cm−1 , (9)

where a magnetic field of B ≈ 105 G and a mass of the black hole of 108 M were used (Price and Thorne [20],
Menon and Dermer [21]). a is the Kerr parameter. Between the horizon of the Kerr hole and a few gravitational radii,
Straumann [19] found a voltage of V ≈ 1020 V for a black hole with a mass of 109 M and a magnetic field in the
range of 3 × 106 G. Price and Thorne [20] report for the voltage a value of 1020 V.
The general expression for the acceleration of a charged particle in electric and magnetic field is

Etot = e0 (E + (v/c) B) L(rg ) (1 + z)−1 , (10)

where Etot is the energy, E the electric field, B the magnetic field and v the velocity of the particle. We assume that
the acceleration of the proton occurs at some gravitational radii L(rg ) from the center of the galaxy. z dennotes the
redshift. The scale lenght can be estimated based on the innermost disk of the AGN. Isagawa et al. [24] showed
that the disk of the Seyfert galaxy MCG-06-30-15, producing the FeKα line, have an inner radius of 1.2 rg , where
rg = GM/c2 is the gravitational radius. Krolik and Hawley [25] have studied several edges of an accretion disk
(”turbulence edge”, ”reflection edge”, ”radiation edge”). They concluded that the inner edge of the disk is located
in the range of r = 2rg − 7rg . Dewangan et al. [12] fixed the inner radius of the disk at 1.2 rg (Kerr black hole),
when using the broad FeKα emission line of the Seyfert galaxy MCG-05-23-16. Reynolds et al. [26] report for the
AGN in NGC 4258 an innermost emission region of the disk of 10 rg − 40 rg , where rg = GM/c2 = 5.8 × 1012 cm.
Note that the data given above are distances between X-ray emitting region and the accretion disk (e.g. Reis and
Miller [69], table 1). We choose a value of L = 10 rg , where a mass of the Kerr hole of M = 108 M is used. We
approximate the equation (10) to be

Etot ≈ e0 1.35 × 1019 eV + 1.5 × 1019 eV,

(11)

where we used the values of E = 105 V cm−1 , B = 105 G and a = 0.9. Due to the hight Lorentz factor γ p , we expect
values of v/c in the range of 0.99. We have shown that the BZ mechanism in the centers of AGNs (see Table 1) is
able to accelerate protons well above 1019 eV. Figure 1 shows a schematic view of the BZ model.
Figure 1 is illustrating the magnetosphere of a Kerr hole, where ΩH is the angular velocity and B the magnetic
field (not in scale).

3.2 Gamma-ray bursts (GRBs)

The class of the so-called long gamma-ray bursts ( i.e. GRBs with a duration of ≥ 2s) and soft spectra are connected
to the collapse of very massive stars (Le Floc’h et al. [27]). Several long GBRs nearby have been spatially and
temporally coincident with supernovae. GBRs are modeled by magnestars (e.g. Bernadini et al. [28]). GRBs 980425
(d≈ 33 Mpc) and GBR 060218 (d ≈ 138 Mpc) could be driven by magnestars. Both are associated with supernovae
SN 1998bw and SN 2006bj, respectively (Campana et al [29]). GBRs are one of the most promising sources of
UHECRs (e.g. Waxman [30]). In the magnetosphere of a magnestar, very large electric fields are able to accelerate
particles to high energies. The electric field can be calculated by the Maxwell equation

~∇ · ~E = 4π ρ , (12)

where the charge density is given by

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 Sources of the Ultra-High Energy Cosmic Rays (UHECRs)

Figure 1. Magnetosphere of a black hole.

Ω B(r)
ρ ≈ ,
2π c
2µ
B(r) = 3 , (13)
r

where the dependence of the angles is neglected. Ω is the angular momentum and B(r) the magnetic field. The
magnetic dipolar field is given by Lyne and Graham-smith [31]

B0 R3
µ = . (14)
2
Finally, combining (12), (13) and (14), we obtain

Z
Ω
Z R
dE ≈ 2 B0 R3 r−3 dr
c 0
5
E ≈ π 1010 V cm−1 , (15)
12

where the parameters R = 106 cm, B = 5 × 1014 G and T = 8 s are used (see Lyne and Graham-Smith [31], Table
13.2).
The energy of the proton is then

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OPEN JOURNAL OF MODERN PHYSICS

 
5
Etot = e0 π 1016 + 5 × 1020 eV , (16)
12

where a scale lenght of 106 cm and v/c ≈ 0.99 are used. Hirotani [32] report that from the surface of neutron stars,
an electromotoric force of EMK ≈ 1016.5 V is exerted from the magnetic pole.
If the GRBs are source of UHECRs, significant gamma-ray emission in the range of MeV-TeV photon emission
should be detectable. Waxman [30] found the association

d ṅ p (CR) (GBR)
E p2 1019 − 1020 eV ≈ εγ


(0.02 − 2 MeV ) . (17)
dE p

On the right side, the energy generation rate per decade in the range 1019 − 1020 eV is given as being associated
to the γ-ray generation rate of GRBs. An application of the idea of Waxman [30] is given by Ioka, Kobayashi and
Mezaros [33].

3.3 Exotic sources of UHERCs

Calculation of the electric field outside the horizon of a Kerr-Newman black hole with a mass of 7 M leads to the
result (Punsley [34])

E ≈ 5.6 × 108 V cm−1 . (18)

Using the scale lenght of 6 × 106 cm and magnetic field of B ≈ 1010 G, we find for the energy of a proton

 
Etot = e0 3.7 × 1015 + 6 × 1016 eV , (19)

where v/c ≈ 0.99 was used. For the candidate of strange star PSR 0943+10 (Xu, Qiao and Zhang [35]), an electric
field at the surface of the 1.1 pulsar of

E ≈ 4 × 105 V cm−1 (20)

was presented. Using B ≈ 2 × 1012 G and r = 7 × 105 cm we obtain

Etot = e0 2.8 × 1011 + 1.4 × 1018 eV .

(21)

where v/c ≈ 0.99 was used.

Our findings lead to the conclusion that the exotic sources are not able to accelerate protons to ultra-high energies,
although models of quark novae predict events of UHERCs above 1019 eV (Quyed, Keraenen and Maalampi [36]).

3.4 The influence of the magnetic field

Magnetic fields are universally present in astronomical bodies, ranging the Earth to distant AGNs (Ryu et al. [37]).
Estimations of the intergalactic magnetic field by cosmological simulations were presented by Das et al. [38]. A
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 Sources of the Ultra-High Energy Cosmic Rays (UHECRs)

cosmic-ray driven wind model to explain the soft and diffuse X-ray emission toward the Galactic center is given by
Everett et al. [39].
The magnetic fields may have their origin in a primordial field that grows as galaxies form. Because the UHECRs
originate from nearby sources (located within ≈ 100 Mpc), the arrival directions should point toward their sources,
since they are expected to be weakly deflected by the intergalactic and Galactic magnetic fields. Up to 1017 eV
protons can be confined within the galaxy by a magnetic field of ≈ 3µG. This fact points out that the sources of the
UHECRs are distributed isotropically. Protons with energies of E ≥ 1018 eV cannot be confined within the galaxy
and the UHCRs originating from extragalactic sources.
On the other hand, Sigl et al. [40] modelled the intergalactic magnetic field by the Bierman battery. They found
that the deflection due to the intergalactic field ( ≈ 10 nG) is significant with ≥ 20o above 1019 eV. But Dolag et al.
[41] report a deflection angle of protons at E≈ 1019 eV to be less than 1o .
Takami and Sato [42] suggest that the Galactic magnetic field disturbes the correlation of the highest cosmic rays
with their sources for protons above an energy of 6 × 1019 eV.
PAO reports a lack of UHECRs from the Vigro cluster with contains the well known cD-galaxy M87 (Zaw et al.
[2]). The lack of protons from M87 can be explained by the decay of the proton. In the standard model, the decay of
the proton in its quarks (uud) occurs in ≥ 1029 y (Langacker [43]). On the other hand, accelerated protons, described
by the standard quantum field theory (QFT), suggest that the decay of the proton can occur in 887 s via the process
(“Unruh-effect”)

p → n + e+ + νe , (22)

in dependence of high proper acceleration a = e0 | ~E | /me where ~E is the electric field (Vanzella and Matsa [44]).

3.5 The radio galaxies Cen A and M87

The most mentioned candidates as sources of the UHECRs are Cen A (MGC 5128) and M87 (NGC 4486). Both
are of the type of radio galaxy with the classification of FRI (Antonucci and Barvaiinis [45]). Antonucci [46] and
Wysong and Antonnucci [47] have classified Cen A as a misaligned BL Lac object. Some authors suggest that, if FRI
are misaligned BL Lac objects, one would expect radiation like synchrotron/synchrotron self Compton (SSC) (Fraija
et al. [48]). Observations have reported that Cen A shows a radio jet and a X-ray jet (Marconi et al. [49]). The center
of Cn A habors a black hole with a mass of MBH = 2+3.0 8
−1.4 × 10 M (Marconi et al. [50]).

But the nucleus of Cen A is strongly obscured by matter with NH ≥ 1023 cm−2 (Grandi et al. [51]). The AGN of
Cen A belongs to the class of LINER galaxies. From Simpson and Meadows [52] we have for Cen A the ionisation
parameter U ≈ 10−4 , where

Q
U = . (23)
4π r2 nH c

Q means the number of photons xs−1 , r the distance from the center and nH the density of hydrogen in cm−3 . Typical
values of Seyfert galaxies are U ≈ 10−2 − 10−1 . M87 belongs to the class of LINER as well (e.g. Maoz et al. [53],
see section 4 therein). Observations of Cen A by PAO report at least two events of the UHECRs inside a 3.1o circle at
Cen A (Moskalento et al. [54]). The telescope Array (TA) has measured the UHECRs in the range of 1018.2 − 1020.3
eV (Abu-Zayyad et al. [55]). But TA reports no events from Cen A and M 87. Further, a search for large scale
anisotropies in the distribution of arival directions of UHECRs above 1019 eV found no significant deviation from
isotropy (Abreu et al. [56]). Already Ginzburg and Syrovatsii [57] have postulated M87 as a source of cosmic rays,
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OPEN JOURNAL OF MODERN PHYSICS

although their paper concerns mainly synchroton radiation from individual and ensemble of electrons. M87 belongs
to the class of misaligned BL Lac objects. However, it is shown that M87 posses the following properties with BL
Lac objects (Tsvetanov et al. [58]):
Its host is of the Hubble type E0, its radio galaxy belongs to the type of FRI and the AGN is of the type LINER.
Observations by HST lead to the conclusion that the center of M87 harbors a supermassive black hole with a mass of
MBH = (3.2 ± 0.9) × 109 M (Maccetto et al. [59]). Like TA, PAO reports a lack of events of UHECRs from M87
(Zaw et al. [2], see section 6 therein).

4. Discussion

By exploring the accretion onto black holes with spin in centers of AGNs, Sharpio [60] concludes that the thin disk
is able to drive a black hole to maximal spin (a≈1) and efficiency of η ≈ 0.42. McKinney [61] concludes that the BZ
mechanism is able to produce an ultrahigh jet only, when using a thin disk and a Kerr parameter of a≈ 0.9.
On the other hand, Hirose et al. [62] doubt that a Kerr hole with a ≈ 0.5 is able to produce a strong magnetic field
at small radii. Krolik, Hawley and Hirose [63] conclude that the BZ mechanism is able to extract energy from the
black hole in dependence of accretion only. For low spin parameters, the efficiency of electromagnetic energy is 0.01
only.
Lovelace [64] has presented a model of double radio galaxies where a magnetized disk around a massive black
hole with a mass of MBH = 108 M is used. Lovelace [64] found for the energy of protons, accelerated by electric and
magnetic fields, values of ≤ 1019 eV. It is, however, important to realize that in this study the protons are accelerated
well above 1019 eV by the BZ mechanism using new observations of the Kerr parameter in nearby Seyfert galaxies
(Table 1). This study predicts events of UHECRs in the range well above 1019 eV from local Seyfert galaxies., e.g.
NGC 1365 and NGC 3783.

5. Conclusions

In this paper, we present the results of the main free path of protons when calculating the total cross section of
equation (1). The main free path of a proton is far beyond the scale lenght of the Galaxy.
Using the spin paradigm, we show that Kerr holes with high spins are able to accelerate protons well above 1019
eV.
Recent observations of AGNs in the local universe have been suggested as evidence as the origin of broad lines in
accretion disks around black holes. Our study proposes at least two point sources that are candidates of UHECRs
(Table 1). Future data analyses from e.g. PAO or from KASCADE-Grande will be able to test this prediction.
Searching for neutrinos from point sources in the local universe shows no evidence that Cen A or M87 are sources
of UHECRs (Abbasi et al. [65], Adrian-Martinez et al. [66]). On the other hand, neutrinos can integrate to very high
redshifts, while protons integrate to ≈ 100 Mpc and heavy ions to ≈ 20 Mpc (Allard et al. [67]).
Assuming that long-duration GBRs can be modelled as magnestars, we confirm that GRBs are promising candidates
for UHECRs, although long-duration GRSs are rare.
Lee, Witjers and Brown [68] found that the BZ mechanism is a very good candidate for powering GRBs.

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 Sources of the Ultra-High Energy Cosmic Rays (UHECRs)

5.0 Note added in proof:

Recently, a new nearby Seyfert galaxy with a Kerr hole (a ≥ 0.99) at the centre of the galaxie was observed:
NGC 4051 (z = 0.0023), Sesana et al., ApJ 794, 104 (2014), Table 2.

5.0 Acknowledgement

The author is very grateful to Dr. Wolfgang Hasse (Technische Universität Berlin and Wilhelm-Foerster-Sternwarte
Berlin) and Dr. Stephan Lenzner (Wilhelm-Foerster-Sternwarte Berlin) for their help in converting my manuscript
into LATEX.

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