INTRODUCTION AND BASIC CONCEPTS dynamics 's no exception, Precise definition of basic concepts forms {a sound foundation for the development of a science and prevents possible misunderstandings. We start this chapter with an overview of ther modynamics and the unit systems, and continue with a discussion of some basic concepts such as system, state, state postulate, equilibrium, process, and cycle, We discuss intensive and extensive properties of a system and define density, specifie gravity, and specific weight. We also discuss temperature and ‘emperature scales with particular emphasis on the International Temperature ‘Seale of 1990. We then present pressure, which isthe normal force exerted by ‘fluid per unit area, and we discuss absolute and gage pressures, the variation of pressure with depth, and pressure measurement devices, such as manom- eters and barometers, Careful study of these concepts is essential for a good understanding of the topics in the following chapters. Finally, we present an intuitive systematic problem-solving technique that can be used as a model in solving engineering problems. E= science has a unique vocabulary associated with it, and thermo. OBJECTIVES. The objectives of Chapter tare to = dently the unique vocabulary ‘associated with thermodynamics through the precise defntion cof basic concepts to form sound foundation forthe evelopment ofthe principles of thermocymaics, Review the metric Stand th English unit systems that vl be used throughout the tex. Explain the basic concepts ofthermodynamics such as system, state, state postulate equlltrium, process, and ogle Discuss properties ofa system and define density, specific ‘gravity, and specific weight. Review concepts of temperature, temperature Scales, pressure, and absolute and gage pressure Introduce an intuitive systematic problem-sohing technique,perme s2 ERGY Be INTRODUCTION AND BASIC NAMICS AND EN science of energy. eae cs : irfroult to give a precise definiy ‘Thermodyniing of what oirmguse changes. *" body has a feling of eg the ability 10 Core words terme (hea) Energy can ‘ the ang “rhe name thermodynamics SES ive ofthe early efforts 10 converte, dynanis (power), which i MOS adly interpreted to include all aspeg, into power. Today the fa rmations including power generation, refriger,, of energy ancl energy th the properties of matter en shi oneal ws of nature is the conservation ssc) ence BY is change from one form f0 an ree eaateySHVATOEL Taling ots cop stan. Thats enerby anor Deo ts potential energy being conver) acess ae spe tne conservation of eneFZy Principle also fam, sic energy (Fig. tine ane ofthe diet industry: A person who has @ Breater cnersyinpy Ve ‘2e) will gain weight (store energy in the form (food) then energy output exercise) will gain wei PRD. anda person who has a smaller energy input than Output wil le srelah (Fg. 122). The change inthe energy content of a body or any oe 1s from FIGURE 1-1 Energy cannot be ereated or Gcstroyed itcan only change forms ais equal to the difference between the energy input and the energy cu. oe ‘ut, and the energy balance is expressed a8 Ey ~ Eau: = AE. The first law of thermodynamics is simply an expression of the conser. ea vation of energy principle, and it asserts that energy is a thermodynamic ‘property. The second law of thermodynamics asserts that energy has quality aaa as well as quantity, and actual processes occur in the direction of decreasing Sanity ‘quality of energy. For example, a cup of hot coffee left on a table eventu- ally ‘cools, but a cup of cool coffee in the same room never gets hot by itsel! rmnyom (Fi 1-3). The high-temperature energy of the coffee is degraded (ans Fost) formed into a less useful form at a lower temperature) once itis transferred to Gans)” the surrounding air, FIGURE 1-2 ‘Conservation of energy prirciple for the human body. lynamics emerged simultaneously i8 ‘William Rankine, Rudolph Clsivs lam Thomson), The term shermadynam's m by Lord Kelvin in 1849, The firs thermody in 1859 by Witliam Rankine,» protesor #8 articles jarge number ofp does noe rece tes re in the container. It would be sufice™ inet. This macroscopic approach (0‘of thermodynamics that does not require a knowledge of the behavior of a dual particles is called classical thermodynamics. It provides a direct inlay ay (0 solve engineering problems. A more elaborate approach, a Fon the werage ‘behavior of large groups of individual particles, is called jstical thermodynamics. This microscopic approach is rather involved an ‘sed in tis text only in a supporting role, Application Areas of Thermodynamics {ir ctvties in nature involve some interaction between energy and matter; {ius itis hard to imagine an area that does not relate to thermodynamics in fone manner. Therefore, developing a good understanding of basie principles {ithermodynamics has long been an essential part of engineering education. ‘Thermodynamics is commonly encountered in many engineering systems snd other aspects of life, and one does not need to go very far to see some application areas of it. In fact, one does not need to go anywhere. The heart js constantly pumping blood to all parts of the human body, various energy. conversions occur in trillions of body cells, and the body heat generated is constantly rejected to the environment. Human comfort is closely tied to the ‘ae of this metabolic heat rejection, We try to control this heat transfer rate by adjusting our clothing to the environmental conditions, Other applications of thermodynamics are right where one lives. An ordi- nary house is, in some respects, an exhibition hall filled with wonders of thermodynamics (Fig. 1-4). Many ordinary household utensils and appli- ances are designed, in whole or in part, by using the principles of thermo- dynamics. Some examples include the electric or gas range, the heating and sicconditioning systems, the refrigerator, the humidifier, the pressure cooker, the water heater, the shower, the iron, and even the computer and the TV. On ‘larger scale, thermodynamics plays a major part in the design and analy- sis of automotive engines, rockets, jet engines, and conventional or nuclear poner plans, solar collectors, and the design of vehicles from ordinary cars tosirplanes (Fig. 1-5). The energy-efficient home that you may be living in, for example, is designed on the basis of minimizing heat loss in winter and heat gain in summer, The size, location, and the power input of the fan of your ‘computer is also selected after an analysis that involves thermodynamics, 1-2 » IMPORTANCE OF DIMENSIONS AND UNITS ‘Any physical quantity can be characterized by dimensions. The magnitudes ‘signed to the dimensions are called units. Some basic dimensions such mass m, length L, time , and temperature T are selected as primary or fundamental dimensions, while others such as velocity V, energy E, and Volume V aze expressed in terms of the primary dimensions and are called FIGURE 1-4 The design of many engineering systems, such as this solar hot water system, involves thermodynamics.a (o Aircraft and spacecraft 1) Power plats A ping networkin an industrial ity CURE 1-5 ‘0 application aces of thermodynamic, Sacre eet ae meen aye Bg pls RNa iy ae vir A i ty nc le z “Rh ‘nn ncaa Und rasa Teese BE: SCom nag YI UMD in att English sy feats ind fh , l, however, has no appar his system are related 1 © teat to tegen S528 nich O ft, 4 gt = 1 gal, ec.) *. The Unites 4 Ts ited States is the only ia ly Converted ae metric system. |r spe seat efforts t develop a universally acceptable system of units ‘pack to 1790 when the French National Assembly charged the French deny of Sciences to come up with such a unit system. An early version Spe met system was soon developed in France, but it didnot find univer- of Mceptance until 1875 when The Metric Convention Treaty was prepared 2 signed by 17 nations, including the United States. In this international ‘Bay, meter and gram. were established as the metric units for length and oss, spectively, and a General Conference of Weights and Measures {GGPM) was established that nas to meet every six years In 1960, the CGPM the SI, which was based on six fundamental quantities, and their ‘js were adopted in 1954 at the Tenth General Conference of Weights and Nessues: meter (m) for length, kilogram (kg) for mass, second (s) fr time, npere (A) for electric current, degree Kelvin (°K) for temperature, and can- {dia (cd) for laminous intensity (amount of light). In 1971, the CGPM added fundamental quantity and unit: mole (mol) for the amount of matter. ‘Based on the notational scheme introduced in 1967, the degree symbol was oficially dropped from the absolute temperature unit, and all unit names were tobe written without capitalization even if they were derived from proper ames (Table 1-1). However, the abbreviation of a unit was to be capitalized ifthe unit was derived from a proper name. For example, the SI unit of force, which is named after Sir Isaac Newton (1647-1723), is newton (not Newton), andit is abbreviated as N. Also, the full name of a unit may be pluralized, but its abbreviation cannot. For example, the length of an object can be 5 m or S meters, not 5 ms or 5 meter. Finally, no period is to be used in unit abbre- ‘viations unless they appear at the end of a sentence. For example, the proper abbreviation of meter is m (net m.). ‘The recent move toward the metric system in the United States seems to have started in 1968 when Congress, in response to what was happening in the rest of the world, passed a Metric Study Act. Congress continued to pro- ‘mote a voluntary switch to the metric system by passing the Metric Conver- sion Act in 1975, A trade bill passed by Congress in 1988 set a September 1992 deadline for all federal agencies to convert to the metric system. How- ‘er, the deadlines were relaxed later with no clear plans for the future, The industries that are heavily involved in international trade (such as the ‘uiomotive, soft drink, and liquor industries) have been quick to convert to the metric system for economic reasons (having a single worldwide design, ‘ever sizes, smaller inventories, etc.). Today, nearly all the cars manufactured ‘nthe United States are metric. Most car owners probably do not realize this ‘nil they try an English soccet wrench on a metric bolt. Most industries, ‘amever, resisted the change, ihus slowing down the conversion process. At present the United States is a dual-system society, and it will stay that ‘9 until the transition to the metric system is completed. This puts an extra ‘on today’s engineering students, since they are expected to retain their ing of the English system while learning, thinking, and working in {Es ofthe SI. Given the position of the engineers in the transition period, it ystems are used inthis text, with particular emphasis on SU units. a “The seven fundamental (or primary) dlimensions and their units in SU Dimension Unit Length ‘meter (mm) Mass kilogram (kg) Time second (3) ‘Temperature kelvin (K) Electric current ampere (A) ‘Amount of ight candela (ed) ‘Amount of matter _ mole (mol) eee) ‘Standard prefixes in ST units yotta, Y Ma ww FIGURE 1-6‘Some SI and English Units she kilogram (ke), my Jn, he ots of mas ne and time its in the Enalishsysege and second (9), respective oj (s). The pound symbol 1b ainda (bm, fot 8 sso et Roman of a 4, te fe end of the Roman occupa the abbreviation of bra, this symbol eve? x Spits in the £0 SYsteMs are rea é h English Briain in 410. The mass and lenet 1 bm = 0.45356 ke gid 201 (2) bm “1 = 0.048.m ras bias ih 7 . tn the English system, force is usally considered to be one ofthe py - dintensioneind is assigned a nonderived unit. This is @ source of co id ens that necessitates the use ofa dimensional constant (g,) in atider force to be a secondary dime sim To avoid this nuisance, we "Newton's second las, that i, of small opp nt to the weighsurface ofthe moon, an astronaut weighs about o ones jahs on ext Fig. 119) HOM Oe ith of what she siaxsea level a mass Of | ke weighs 9.807 N, as illustrated in Fig. 1-10, A 1 Ibm, however, weighs 1 Ibf, which iislenten fa eund-mass and poundforce can be used intechar ee levine ich is amajor source of error in the English system. > “s POUnd lb), tshould be noted thatthe gravity force ating on a mass is due othe atime. son between the masses, ard thus its proportional tothe magne nce fuses and inversely proportional to the square ofthe distance horeay nen herfore te gravitational acceleration g at a location depends on lata edstance tothe center ofthe wurth, and toa lesser extents the poate de fhe moon and the sun. The value of @ varies with location from 0 #39 suet atthe poles (9.789 at the equator) to 7.322 m/s? at 1000 kin above seu level However, atatitudes up to 30 km, the variation of g from the seaclevel vale £9807 mis? is less than 1 percent. Therefore, for most practical purposes the gravitational acceleration can be assumed to be constant a 9.807 mic, aften rounded to 9.81 m/s?, It is interesting to note that at locations below sealevel, the value of g increases with distance from the sea level, reaches a ausimum at about 4500 m, and then starts decreasing, (What do you think the vale of gis atthe center of the earth?) The primary cause of confusion between mass and weight is that mass is asualy measured indirectly by measuring the gravity force it exerts. This ‘pprach also assumes that the forces exerted by other effects such as air buoyancy and fluid motion are negligible, This is like measuring the distance ‘basta by measuring its redshift, or measuring the altitude ofan airplane by sneauring barometric pressure. Both ofthese are also indirect measurements The correct direct way of measuring mass is to compare it a known mass This is cumbersome, however, and itis mostly used for calibration and mea suring precious metals. Work, which is a form of energy, can simply be defined as force times disance; therefore, it has the unit “newton-meter (N-m),” which is called a joule (J). That is, 1J=1Nm (1-3) A more common unit for energy in SI is the kilojoule (1 kI = 10° J). In the English system, the energy nit fs the Btu (British thermal unit), which is ined asthe energy required to raise the temperature of 1 Ibm of water at °F by °F, In the metric system, the amount of energy needed to raise the ‘emperature of 1 g of water at 14.5°C by 1°C is defined as 1 calorie (cal), and cal = 4.1868 J. The magnitudes of the kilojoule and Btu are almost identical (1Btu = 1,0551 ki). Here is a good way to get a feel for these units: If you (G2 'ypical match and let it burn itself out, it yields approximately one Btu Fone ki) of, ig. 1-11). One ma eee ae is joule per second (1/s), which is called @ i is called power. Acom- Sante caot work. hee en 0 OW Bestia cee oil in the unit kilowat-hour (kWh), hich i fc appliance with a rated power of FIGURE 1-9 A body weighing 150 Ibf on earth will ‘weigh only 25 Ibf on the moon, g=9807mst — |g=s2Ta Ai? W=93807 kom 74 Ibm fs? 9807 N Skee FIGURE 1-10 ‘The weight of a unit mass at sea level FIGURE 1-11 ‘A typical match yields about one Btu (or cone Ki) of energy if completely burned. lobe M. CombatVe energy. Therefore, of electricity per Year should be something Tike ‘will generate 1204 ce “the ney Dimensional Homogen We all know that apples and ore age to do it (by ‘mistake, dimensionally homogeneous: the same unit. If, at some ‘That have made an error at a ‘valuable tool to spot Ors. EXAMPLE T-4 A slip 12000 reer ees zeal 2 ier s ne hes oey ee ‘iis ie veaningless 2 tur wy wit mec Pet of course)- stage of al to ad two quantities chat have difere*™ in earlier stage- Electric Power Generation by @ Wind Turbine | ' ‘electric power. To reduce its power bill, the sei units KW and kWh are. ot ver, whereas KWh ig q 50% unit of Prd turbine will generates wep incorrect. A COTTE sa curing with rated power of a eration, the JeMtes do not add. But we somehow In engineering, all equations it te an ean nants “analysis, we find ourselves in a pose site itis a clear indication thy” o checking dimensions can sereq"’ ‘arated power of 30W. Ifthe turbine Gein te aroun of electric power ps | ‘money saved by the school per year. i BlatotB peony He y saved per year are to be ck amount of es eer at of 30W or 304 Th2 Obtain fgaNPLE 12 — Obtaining Formulas from Unit Considerations {fled with ol whose density is p = 850 kg/m IF the volume of the tank is determine the amount of mass m in the tank. aac UUION, Te olme olka The manofoh soba Siretine Olistneayicompesibe abaane ea ae ee ee Gr Altech sen ud cachet nae ey sa eesti rao Sacty entre nates ee Se ontolllogams. Thats, whaever calculations we do, we should op witht san { togans Putin the given inormation imo perpestive, we ene p= 830 kg/m* and Y= 2m! sobvious that we can eliminate m? and end up with kg by multiplying these two omites. Therefore, the formula we are Tooking for should be : m= pV Ts, m= (850 kg/m?)(2.m') = 700 kg Discussion Note that this approach may not work for more complicated formulas, Nondimensional constants also may be present in the formulas, and these cannot be deve from unit considerations clone, You should keep in mind that a formula that is not dimensionally homo- encous is definitely wrong (Fig. 1-14), but a dimensionally homogeneous formula is not necessarily right. Unity Conversion Ratios ‘estas all nonprimary dimensions can be formed by suitable combinations of Primary dimensions, all nonprimary units (secondary units) can be formed by combinations of primary units, Force units, for example, can be expressed as [Ne tig! and 11603274 They can also be expressed more conveniently as unity conversion ratios as Libr ac cil Tota ea 32.174 Ibmfls 1 and nity conversion ratios are identically equal to 1 and are unitless, and thus 'atios (or their inverses) can be inserted conveniently into any calculation ‘ Prperly convert units (Fig. 1-15). You are encouraged to always use unity ‘®1version ratios such as those given here when converting units, Some text- Inge fined as g, = 32.174 Ibm-f ie 2 eae Sone fore unt 0 tuatch, This Mactog i aviation and is strongly discouraged by the lea sen authors. We recommend that you instead use unity conversion ratios, FIGURE 1-13 ic for Example 1-2, EVERY TERM IN AN EQUATION MUST HAVE THE SAME Ur FIGURE 1-14 Always check the units in your calculations. (3) ft) (nots) | ES (ait) (as Pe (iain Every unity conversion ratio (as well Birecersccs, een ei ‘unity conversion ratios, each within its ‘own set of parentheses, - | f=) |printing may say “Net wet: anically, this means tha te arth and has a mass of 4536, e actual weight of the cerYr penbenivelninecolindatdevice shown in Fig. 1-20. Let us say that we on tbe ond ‘out what ‘happens to the enclosed gas when it is heated. ye are focusing oUF attention on the gas, itis our system, The inner sie ofthe piston and the cylinder form the boundary, and since no mass ese , boundary, it is a closed system. Notice that energy may cross. sptounday and part ofthe boundary (the inner surface ofthe piston in spscse) BY TROVE. Everything outside the gas, including the piston and the ris the Z ie sytem, oF @ control Yolume, as itis often called, isa properly _eleed region in Space, It usually encloses a device that invalves mass flow sateen a compressor, turbine, ot nozzle, Flow through these devices is best ‘atjed by selecting the region within the device as the control volume. Both joss and energy can cross the boundary of a control volume. shlarge number of engineering problems involve mass flow in and out of _gxem and, therefore, are modeled as control volumes. A water heater, a car ‘editor, a turbine, and a compressor all involve mass flow and should be ana- ‘i as control volumes (open systems) instead of as control masses (closed Ie Sec aaia eae ay reson nazace gan be selected ox 2 con rm coe ls the tet fan anes ly nal Bagtnee lt we, re (> ‘good choice for the FIGURE 1-19 ‘Mass cannot cross the boundaries of a closed system, but energy can, aFicuRE 1-22 An open system (a control volume) with one inlet and one exit. ‘eMC tt EacaCrisper Kein joe tne meses em conse ine hhow much heat dey a steady stream of, supbrtaced by cold water, and OS fem forthe anal. nse bs ours ‘ed by the interior gy.."* | wi fixed ESE yolumme Forres as mass leavin” conve arent and cold te Fhe tank form thee can concent Tider the eri eeiizol REE at toro Bee , sme. ng the i Strength cot Yass cossine Ger gtudy must be define surface forth analysis tHe SY ated is quite simple and obvioy, in In an ees the apse ON egious and unnecessary task. Ing fully ta most cases He 9 on ‘et ng the se MY Jy maybe ater in ved, anda pt ‘ Bove eran geal sly he ysis. choice SYSTEM 1-4" PROPERTIES OFA * tems called a property. Some familiar prope ‘otume V, and mass m. The list can be exteis Wich as viscosity, thermal conductivity, mo, sion coefficient, electric resistivity, and characteristic of sys eeprom ener to include less familiar ones st lus of elasticity, thermal expan: velocity and elevation. : ; Properties are considered to be either intensive or extensive. Intensiy properties are those that are independent of the mass of a system, such aster perature, pressure, and density. Extensive properties are those whose val. Ee on the size—or extent—of the system. Total mass, total volume, x! ‘momentum are some examples of extensive properties. An eas determine whether a property is intensive or extensive is to divide i syste de van aiual rats with an imaginary partition, as shown in Fi fer vil ee a as shown in Fig. 1-23. 4 sive properties as the original syste, ic properties. S00 Vim) and speste atoms that are wig Homogenenan Atomic nage in the gas phase. Ye" sume tne *tlization Sina with a A substance ‘and view i Thisdeaeanea Sonne at Satine. 10 the sp 8 point functions a!" excep thea B9,jump discontns® Thy stom we deal with i ahi is the case in practi he continuum idealizaio®” density of water in 8unm asense ofthe distance involved atthe molecular level, consider a joer filed with oxygen at atmospheric conditions, The diameter of the owen nec is about 3 x 10! m and its mass is 5.3 x 10-2 kg. Also, the path of oxygen at 1 atm pressure and 20°C is 6.3 x 10-* m. That noth oxygen molecule travels, on average, a distance of 6.3 X 10" m (about Js ves its diameter) before it collides with another molecule. aso there are about 3 10'S molecules of oxygen in the tiny volume of samiat {aim pressure and 20°C (Fig. 1-24), The continuum model i appli- {pleas long asthe characteristic length ofthe system (such as its diameter) is ‘ote that we jumped from point A horizontally to point B and ignored the part ‘underneath since the pressure at both points is the same. Simplifying, Moe bal uh on Devt ts ER a: bo ond od Not that the distance’ a must be included in the analysis even ‘effect on the result. Also, when the fluid flowing in the p simplifies to P; — P BEF! Hophiogdng, ere oy 5 FIGURE 1-57 Jn stacked-up fluid layers at rest the pressure change across each fluid layer of density p and height his ph. A flow section FIGURE 1-58 Measuring the pressure drop across a flow section or a flow device by @ differential manometer.cs e% ‘ube cos seton C@ FIGURE 1-60 ‘Various types of Bourdon tubes tomeasure pressure They work intern sl pry nie makers (bottom phot) dy ube cos setion, “UF >the fa Pe: Chet cite sur at pi - wing alon interface, moving in 1 atthe air—water or sig : Nl we reach poi 2 ind setting the ps! th en tbe atmosphere B85 bh = Surin ith Pe Arya rte esl equ 10 Pi since ther P+ Paaiash + Paib a — Prac Par Solving for P, and substituting, P=, Path — Paths Pens res = Pawalts~ Past = Pay + Press ~ Paneth een = 85,6 kPa + (981 m/s?[(13,600 ke/m')(0.35 ™) z is) (gee) =(6s08g/n'x02 (he TAN ee izing that ronal from one tbe to the next an realizing ae te ane sinplifis te sas ce Ao Fone tt mower soni hid nd mercury manometers and thermometers are being teinaltyons sar sberasetie isto exposre tO merry vpor Gung sm aceien. — (1000 kg/m*)(0.1 m) Other Pressure Measurement Devices Another type of commonly used mechanical pressure measurement device is the Bourdon tube, named after the French engineer and inventor Eugene Bourdon (1808-1884), which consists of a bent, coiled, or twisted hollow ‘metal tube whose end is closed and connected to a dial indicator needle (Fig. 1-60). When the tubes open to the atmosphere, the tube is undeflected, ae vies On the dial a this state is calibrated to read zero (gage pres. Aue). When the iluid inside the we is pressurized, the tube stretcher apd m to the applied pressure, including pressure called pressure transducers, effect to an electrical effect ge, abso- ide range of applications, Gage pres- mo en felerence by venting the atmosphere, and they give ares of in ie pe of altitude, ‘Abso- M loc aioe ‘their dif ce, instep, transducers . Be Samba open tone eae OE 8 ‘phragm deflect MPUIS. AS the diaphragmpete ea eaten Pressure difference across it, the strain ee ste ay ige circuit amplifies the output. A capaci- tance transducer works similarly, but capacitance change is measured instead GFresistance change as the diaphragm stretches, lectrie transducers, also called. solid-state pressure transducers, ‘work on the principle that an electric potential is generated in a crystalline substance when it is subjected to mechanical pressure. This phenomenon, first discovered by brothers Pierre and Jacques Curie in 1880, is called the piezoelectric (or press-eleciric) effect. Piezoelectric pressure transducers have ‘amoch faster frequency response compared to diaphragm units and are very suitable for high-pressure applications, hut they are generally not as sensitive as diaphragm-type transducers, especially at low pressures, ‘Another type of mechanical pressure gage called a deadweight tester is used primarily for calibration and can measure extremely high pressures (Eg. 1-61). As its name implies, a deadweight tester measures pressure direcly through application of a weight that provides a force per unit area- the fundamental definition of pressure. It is constructed with an internal ‘chamber filled with a fluid (usually oil), along with a tight-fitting piston, cyl- ier, and plunger. Weights are applied to the top of the piston, which exerts ‘a force on the oil in the chamber. The total force F acting on the oil at the piston-oil interface is the sum of the weight of the piston plus the applied weights. Since the piston cross-sectional area A, is known, the pressure is calculated as P = F/A,. The only significant source of error is that due to static friction along the interface between the piston and cylinder, but even ‘this error is usually negligibly small. The reference pressure port is connected to either an unknown pressure that is to be measured or to a pressure sensor that is to be calibrated. 4-11 « PROBLEM-SOLVING TECHNIQUE — aig af 0} gortasia a os saionesab Dh aORATYIS: + learning any science is to grasp the fundamentals and to gain onde edge of The nest stp ist master the fundamentals by test knowledge. This is done by solving signifieant real-world problems. ‘Solving such problems, especially complicated ones, requires a systematic approach, By using a step-by-step approach, an engineer can reduce the so tion of a complicated problem into the solution ofa series of simple probiots (Fig. 1-62). When you are solving a problem, we recommend tha ‘you use following steps zealously as applicable. Ths will help you avoid some ofthe ‘common pitfalls associated with problem solving. otoweds @ , Lae 34 Step Statem a sea (he, a ‘key information given, and Weights ot Adjostable plunger Reference presse port real FIGURE 1-61 A deadweight tester can measure ‘extremely nigh pressures (up t0 10,000 psi in some applications. FIGURE 1-62 [A step-by-step approach can greatly simplify problem solving.Te Given: Artprice in DEE ‘Tobe found: Densiy of ising information: Arrosrers esa Assumption #1: Tle P= stm Capos Enoes eft of Chto Wi case moe Isr) “Assumption #2: Te P=083 im (Appopie. Ignores nly inor fees suchas weet) FIGURE 1-63 ‘The assumptions made while solving an engineering problem mus’ be reasonable and justifiable erry FIGURE 1-64 ‘The results obtained from an eogneig aly forreonbipen. eked cog with the SUIHININES, Lisi eraetiOn® 1, see the entire problem qth 1 during & PFOCESS (such dicate them on the sker, i mas mh Hes Oe a ‘and in roximations s a tions made to sim oximations 1 Sy jons and APP ration. Justify the quest, for missing quantities that are ya cific data for atmospheric prec” jhould be noted in the analysiy° creasing elevation. For exam. 0 m) (Fig. 1-63). step 3: As tate any : Emp Se es of SP or example ee 1 Foe 1 am, HoweNe a shoric pressure decreases vA tae atm in Denver elevation IS Physical coal Jaws and principles (Such as the cons, mmo their simplest form by utilizing the asuny 9m to which a physical law is applied mus the increase in speed of Water flonig, lying conservation of mass between i, rable values Ste} | apotall the relevant basic pl tion of mass), and reduce ther tions made. However, the rezio cleanly identified first. For example, through a nozzle is analyzed by app! inlet and outlet of the nozzle. Step 5: Properties Determine the unknown properties at known states necessary to solve te problem from property relations or tables. List the properties separately, indicate their source, if applicable, 4 Step 6: Calculations Subst t i SIultone co dunt into the simplified relations and perform’: calculations to determine thei and unit cancelatons, sa eee Pay particular attention to the uti unit is meaningless, Als, don't give gnc cimensional quantity with: the caleulator—round the resus! ‘an appropriate number of «i HS (See the subsection on signif Aigits at the end of this sec Step 7: R e + Reasoni (Check to make guy i ona “ay oF eet ba syer, nd Discussion Ihe el geo esosbe ana ue a S. year (Fig, Ee Of natural ae For example ls: Point out the Year ate the conclusions significant aha Repeat the calculato insulating a water bea % SNHOt result in savings of $2 Xe OF the re Suts, and di dra and i frome 0 fo demas Emphasis E8Ults and any recom it ‘Agair Jimitati der wh" ti le, inst E ions un ; Inline % dort the yy o8ibemisundersi mi mr lyin Po . ‘ying assumptions ee 8 @ water heater W" PY $40 a year, indicat?™ rio cuss their impjon will pay for itself from the energy it saves in | ie indicate that the analysis does not consider Ibo oot, rand that veo ne case if yOu install the insulation yourself i ‘sn ind thatthe solutions you present to your instructors, and any eg analysis presented to others, sa form of communication There asi organization, completeness, and visual appearance are of ee neporance for maximum effectiveness (Fig, 1-65) Besides, netness oufes as a great checking too! since itis very easy to spot errors and a-Si in eat work Careessness and skiping sep o save ine sep opeosing more ime and unnecessary anit. nae described here is used in the solved example problems with- _ Mssny satng each step, a5 well ain the Solutions Manual ofthis text. aetpe problems, some ofthe steps may not be applicable or necessary For ‘ents not practical to list the properties separately. However, we ea the importance of a logical and orderly approach to solving. Most difficulties encountered while solving a problem are petra lack of knowledge; rather, they ae due to a lack of organization {uae stongly encouraged to follow these steps in problem solving until Jdovlop your own approach that works bes for you, Engineering Software Packages ‘You may be wondering why we are about to undertake an in-depth study of the fundamentals of anothe: engineering science. After all, almost all such ‘we are likely to encounter in practice can be solved using one of ‘evel sophisticated software packages readily available in the market today. ‘These software packages no: only give the desired numerical results, but also ‘omy the outputs in colorful graphical form for impressive presentations. itis unthinkable to practice engineering today without using some of these ‘ockuges. This tremendous computing power available to us at the touch of ‘bution is both a blessing and a curse. It certainly enables engineers to solve problems easily and quickly, but it also opens the door for abuses and misi ‘omation. In the hands of poorly educated people, these software packages ‘as dangerous as sophisticated, powerful weapons in the hands of poorly rere engineering software packages with- _Thinking that a person who can use the engineering so! ith- oa practice engineering is like thinking ‘as a car mechanic. IFit were true . ied engineers since any person who knows how to use a word ®eesing program can also learn how to use those software packages. How ‘the statistics show that the need for engineers is on the rise, not on the te the availability of these powerful packages. : ; cand the engi- ay ember that ios cones mane NS ] i FIGURE 1-65 Neatness and organization are highly valued by employers. FIGURE 1-66 An excellent word-processing program does not make a person a good writer; it simply makes a good writer a more efficient writer. ©Caia imagen Images REE edical software pac, ' sticated Neither will engines : ee ne ing education. They jical SC? .ngineeri . Wily sitions €Pe from mathematics 1 yy! ass it oom discussing the phy, inthe oles time on the mechanic in eat in eater detail s available today put an extra bury, sein EES oye at fg thorough understanding of aves ey mst il physical phenoment. Be able to py copa Bel” ore ‘sound engineering judgments, just jy, fundamentals, ive, and matt do it much better, and much fast, atin ers. However, they mus erful tools available today. 7); ee ie models bees ae Piationspatide rules, ang Tate ‘engineers in the past had £0 a Today they rely on software packages, Thy hand calculators and comm the possibility of a simple misunderstangin, easy access to such power ei reat damage make it more important today thy, or misinterpretation causing Sr" fundamentals of engineering. In this ten Cee a soi att pu the emphasis on developing an intuitive ay Dhyscel undersandng of natural phenomena instead of on the mathematic Aetals of solution procedures. Equation Solvers You are probably familiar with the equation solving capabilities of spreai- wnat tS Microsoft Excel. Despite its simplicity, Excel is commonly 5 Th oe : cxscetng pag a the aeion Solvers that are commonly used 4s a program that easily solves syne tS EdUation Solver (EES), which diferent equations nimevialy Nes ERE OF nonlinear algetraic » Teen factions as well as ane Ee Hbrary of built-in therm aiace geass Property data, Funetions, and it allows tie ing problems, Packages, ecuat the user me une the equations oN 40 not solve enginee- : IRB and fogged the use. Thee rng toby imply at Eaton solvent by applying any r- andes toate sg SH tsuling se Sa¥e the user considenbé palate and to conden uh Cant engineeri al equations, This NOt suitable for and convenient.‘Unit Setings: SIC KPa ks mass deg x5 yet No uniterablems wore deta. Calculsion me ».1 sec FIGURE 1-67 EES screen images for Example 1-11.Oo ind density Were ¢ are fairly con 2 ——na comet ny tte vue 8 e012 Te ht We ae cn 4 t ely, Te value *72 1 L, and it cannot be 2.7% or oO ma ti sues7s ie Find: Ma m= p= Rundi 3 seen FIGURE 1-69 A result with more significant digits than that of given data falsely implies more precision, given to be 3.75000 1. and since they all its (0.845000 ke/L, respectiv fident that the volume is 4.76 L. However, the accurate within 40) ccan be 3.746, 3 ‘volume can be eae 975 L ig. 1-69). Iv is. more APPS Fa alton anda doe round theis what computer wil normally doy ving problems, we wil assume the gi < _aibeuaiing poten eg dig, Trt, if the Ienglhof # PRS te be 4 m, we will asure it to he 40.0 m in Owuee jusity using tigi the final results, You should also keep in ming hit 4 values are subject to measurement errors, and sults obtained, For example, if the density of 1e mass determined using 150, 3.753, eC» s in all the di round i .ven information to be accu- three signific all experimentally determined such errors will reflet in the re 4 substance has an uncertainty of 2 percent, then th this density vale will also have an uncertainty of 2 percent ‘You should also be aware that we sometimes knowingly introduce small errors in order to avoid the trouble of searching for more accurate data, For ‘example, when dealing with liquid water, we just use the value of 1000 ke/m* for density, which isthe density value of pure water at 0°C, Using this value at 75°C will result in an error of 2.5 percent since the density at this temperature is 975 kg/m’. The minerals and impurities in the water will introduce addi- tional error. This being the case, you should have no reservation in round the fia results oa reasonable numberof significant digits. Besides, having ay pn! nea inthe reas of engineering analysis i usually the tis hr, te bai concepts inated and discus. Thermodynamic rimaly de wih ener Te in ny of ormaeame 2 sony a esen ofthe coseaton of cay Teed a nee eaten ny Bese miter tat ea . 38 quan, and actual processes occur nthe Aescion of dceting ually ofenrgy Co BE 10 be in hermoadynoon Pr unit mass, am elo i A process with sate to: eran The zeroth law of si len eats ss 9 a feading event hey are notin contacts we emPeTATE ‘The temperature i tem today ae a SHES Used in the SI and the English sys- TK) = 70) $273.15 mm TR) = TC) + 45967 € magnitudes of each diese; Secon 01 Kan 1c Ks OF each division of 1'R enc ATK) = are The: » and ATR) = ATR, norma fc sire dE Hy pe relative 0 absolue wae oasc aL Pa and the, vacuum among ltteeebeteen the aU the absorus Pee PSB is called pete Pressure and eoseTe the local Pres Pressures- {Go topliere pressure are clled saci presaures The meee gt, a VACUUM Fess re elated by an — Pra Pan — Pang (for pressure above P,.,) (for pressure below P, am) ‘te pressure at & point in a fluid has the same magnitude jrall directions. The variation of pressure with elevation is given by pa a ae ‘where the positive z direction is taken tobe upward. When the density of the fTuid is constant, the pressure difference across a fhid layer of thickness Azis AP=P.— P= pg Az a ‘The absolute and gage pressures in @ liquid open to the atmosphere at a depth h from the free surface are P= Pat Bh OF Pr = sh Small to moderate pressure differences are measured by @ manometer, The pressure in a stationary fluid remains ‘constant in the horizontal direction. Pascal's principle states that the pressure applied to a confined fluid increases the pressure throughout by the same amount. ‘The atmospheric prossure 1s measured by a barometer and is given by Pan = poh where fis the height of the liquid column, REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READINGS 1 American Society for Testing and Materials. Standards {for Metric Practice, ASTM E 380-79, January 1980. 2. A. Bojan. Advanced Engineering Thermodynamics. 31d ed. New York: Wiley, 2006. Thermodynamics LIC Why does a bicyclist pick up speed on a downbll road ven when he is not pedaling? Does this violate the conserva- tion of energy principle? 1.2C One of the most amusing things a person can experience ‘shen carin neutral appears to go uphill when its brakes are ‘leased, Can ths really happen o sit an optical illusion? How ‘an you verify if a road is pitched uphill or downhill? 1-3C An office worker claims that a cup of cold coffee on tis table warmed up to 80°C by picking up eneray from the Surrounding air, which is at 25°C. Is there any truth to his claim? Does this process violate any thermodynamic laws? THC _ What is the difference between the classical and the meqine 3, J. A. Schooley, Thermometry: Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 1986. Mass, Force, and Units 1-5C Explain why the light-yearhas the dimension of length 146C What is the difference between pound-mass and ‘pound-force? 1-7C What i the net force acting on a car cruising ata con- stant velocity of 70 kmh (a) on a level road and (#) on an vil road? 1-8 What is the weight, in N, of an object with a mass of 200 kg ata location where g = 9.6 m/5*? 1-9E Ifthe mass ofan object is 10 tbm, whats its weigh, in Ibf, ata locaton where g = 32.0 FS"? 4-40 The acceleration of high-speed aircraft is sometimes expressed in g's (in multiples of the standard acceleration of gravity). Determine the upward force, in N, that a 90-Kg, man ‘would experience in an aircraft whose acceleration is 6 g's. "The yale ofthe gravitational acceleration g decreases from 9.807 ns? at sea level to 9.767 mis? at ‘m, where large passenger planes cruise. eduction in the weight of an airplane 13,000 m relative to its weight at see eve.earase ve of 2210 00 1 ud we. Assuring the dest of eS 1 ‘Tanto the weight ofthe combined system 1413. 2-kg rock is thrown a Iocaton where the fea vi 9,79 vs. Determine the ac a id, ER Solve Prob. 1-13 vsing epprr oi 14 FE So Prem le,nlding Ne me sca rons with proper units 12 A3-kg plastic ‘rsers() 255 1 (2) 150 ot 1417 The gas tank of a car is filled with a nozzle that Gischarges gasoline at a constant flow rate, Based on unit considerations of ‘obiin a relation for the filling time in terms of the volume V of the tank (in L) and the discharge rate of gasoline V (in L/s). ‘Systems, Properties, State, and Processes 1-18C How would you define a system to determine the ‘the engine of car is ejected to the air by the radi Soceteneoeetnn Shale ose system ora an open system? Explin, i, Dial gystem 10 determing AeA arto ofits wae plant? ect ‘emt a nearby © pe the state of the dir in y 30d 160012 you dese goes this ait undergo fy pene HON Te kind cof process m sumospere?” Wr, warm afte difference be" noon? seen intensive and exe, sent of a system is defined 25 ty fhis definition violates iy, coming convention) 1s the specify quasi-equiibsium process? What i is a 1-27 What is & engin isothermal, isobaric, and. isochoric processes, ‘L-29€ What is specific gravity? How is itrelated to density! 4-30 SY The density of atmospheric air varies with elev tion, decreasing with increasing altitude () Using the data given in the table, obtain a relation forthe ‘variation of density with elevation, and calculate the density an elevation ‘m. (6) Calculate the mass of the atmo4-32¢ Consider an tlcohol and « mercury thermometer that exactly 0°C at the ice poin: and 100°C at the steam point. ‘The distance between the two foints is divided into 100 equal arts in both thermometers, Do you think these thermometers Fi give exactly the same reading at a temperature of, say, (°C? Explain. 4-38C Consider two closed systems A and B, System A con- tains 3000 I of thermal energy at 20°C, whereas system B contains 200 KJ of thermal energy at $0°C, Now the systems sre brought into contact with each other. Determine the direc- tion of any heat transfer between the two systems, {SE Consider a system whose temperature is 18°C. Express ths temperature in R, K, and °F, 4-35E Steam enters a heat exchanger at 300 K. What isthe temperature ofthis steam in °F? 41-36 The temperature of a system rises by 130°C during @ heating process. Express this rise in temperature in kelvins. 1-37E. The temperature of a system drops by 45°F during stosine roses Saar 1-388 The temperature of the lubricating oil in an automo- tile engine is measured as 150°F. What i the temperature of this oil in °C? 1-39E Heated air is at 150°C. What is the temperature of this ai in °F? Pressure, Manometer, and Barometer 1-40C What is the difference between gage pressure and sbsolte pressure? I4IC Explain why some people experience nose bleed- ing and some others experietce shortness of breath at high clevatons. 1-2C _Ahalth magazine resorted that physicians measured 100 adults’ blood pressure using two different arm positions: parallel to the body (along the side) and perpendicular to the body (straight out). Readings in the parallel position were ‘up to 10 percent higher than those in the perpendicular posi- tion, regardless of whether the patient was standing, siting, ‘orlying down, Explain the possible cause for the difference. 1-43C_ Someone claims that the absolute pressure ina liquid ‘of constant density doubles when the depth is doubled. Do you gree? Explain, IAC Consider two identical fans, one at sea level and the ‘other on top of a high mountain, running at identical speeds. i rates and (b) the iA ted as 146F A manometer measures a pressure difference as 40 inches of water. What is this pressure difference in pound- force per square inch, psi? Answer: 1.44 pst 1-47 A vacuum gage connected to a chamber reads 35 kPa at @ location where the atmospheric pressure is 92 kPa. Deter- ‘mine the absolute pressure in the chamber. A-48E ‘The maximum safe air pressure of a tie is typically ‘written on the tire itself. The label on a tire indicates that the ‘maximum pressure is 35 psi (gage). Express this maximum, pressure in kPa. FIGURE P1-48E 1-49E A pressure gage connected to a tank reads 50 psi ata location where the barometric reading is 29.1 in Hg. Determine the absolute pressure in the tank. Take py, = 848.4 Ibm’ Answer: 643 pala 1-50 A pressure gage connected to a tank reads 500 kPa at Jocation where the atmospheric pressure is 94 KPa. Determine the absolute pressure in the tank. 1-S1E A 200-pound man has a total foot imprint area of ‘72 in’. Determine the pressure this man exerts on the ground if (@ he stands on both feet and (b) he stands on one foot. 1-52 The gage pressure in a liquid at a depth of 3 mis read to be 42 kPa. Determine the gage pressure in the same liquid ata depth of 9m. 41-53 The absolute pressure in water at a depth of 9 m is read to be 185 kPa. Determine (a) the local atmospheric pres- ‘ure and () the absolute pressure ata depth of 5 m in a liquid whose specific gravity is 0.85 at the same location. 1-84 Consider 1.75-m-tall man standing vertically in water ‘and completely submerged in pool, Determine the difference between the pressures acting at the head and atthe toes of the ‘man, in KPa. 1.55 The barometer of a mountain hiker reads 750 mbars at the beginning of a hiking trip and 650 mbars at the end. [Neglecting the effect of alitude on local gravitational accel- eration, determine the vertical distance climbed. Assume an fverage air density of 1.20 kg/m’. Answer: 850 m can be used to measure the height ic readings at the top and atthe 675 and 695 mmHg, respectively, ——