Power System Protection Chapter 1

Power System Protection
Dr.Sillawat Romphochai, IEEE member

Department of Electrical Engineering,
Faculty of Engineering, RMUTT.
Chapter 1:
Power system network
and per-unit system
Electrical Power System (04022206) Dr.Sillawat Romphochai

Outline of Chapter 1
- Electric Power System Components
- AC Voltage, Current, and Power
- Complex Powers
- Concept of Complex Power Flow
- Balanced Three-Phase Circuits
- Generator Models
- Transformer Models
- Per-unit system
04211421 Power System Protection by Dr.Sillawat Romphochai

Electric Power System
Components
Figure 1.1. A power system. (Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_grid)
Electric Power System Components
- Power system consists of four main components
including:
1. Generation system (*EGAT)
2. Transmission system (*EGAT)
- >60 kV (ANSI Standard)
3. Distribution system (*PEA and MEA)
- 4 – 34.5 kV
4. Loads (*PEA and MEA)
- Commercial, industrial, and household loads

Electric Power System Components
- Additional components in the power system also
include
1. System protection
- Switchgear, circuit breaker, disconnect
switch, fuses, and lightning arrester
2. Energy and power control center
- SCADA system
3. Computer analysis
- MATLAB, DIgSILENT, PSCAD, Power
World and etc.

AC Voltage, Current,
and Powers
AC Voltage, Current, and Powers
- This section provides the basic concept of the
single-phase AC circuit analysis to obtain the
voltage, current, and power.

i (t )
v(t )
Figure 1.2. Single-phase AC circuit.

- The instantaneous voltage and current of AC system
are calculated by
v(t )  Vm cos(t   v ) (1.1)
i (t )  I m cos( t  i ) (1.2)
- The instantaneous power can be expressed as:
p (t )  v(t )i (t )  Vm cos(t   v ) I m cos(t   i ) (1.3)

- From the trigonometry identities, it has
1 1
cos( A) cos( B)  cos( A  B )  cos( A  B ) (1.4)
2 2
- By substituting (1.4) into (1.3), thus, the

instantaneous power can be expressed as:
1
p (t )  Vm I m [cos( v  i )  cos(2t   v  i )] (1.5)
2

1
p (t )  Vm I m cos( v  i )  cos[2(t   v )  ( v   i )] (1.6)
2
1
p (t )  Vm I m [cos( v  i )  cos 2(t   v ) cos( v  i )  (1.7)
2
sin 2(t   v )sin( v  i )]
- The root-mean-square (RMS) of the voltage and

current are
Vm Im
V  (1.8) I  (1.9)
2 2
   v   i (1.10)
- From (1.7), the power flow in the circuit can be
expanded by
p (t )  V I cos  [1  cos 2(t   v )]  V I sin  sin 2(t   v )
Power flow into the Power flow that borrowed

resistor and returned by the
p R (t ) reactive term
p X (t )

- Then, we focus on the first term of the
instantaneous power
pR (t )  V I cos   V I cos  cos 2(t   v ) (1.11)
The average power of this term is zero.

- Therefore, the resistive load absorbs the average
power, which is called “active power or real
power” can be calculated by
P  V I cos  W (1.12)
cos   Power factor (1.13)

- On the other hand, we focus on the second term of
the instantaneous power
p X (t )  V I sin  sin 2(t   v ) (1.14)
- It can be seen that the above equation represents the

power oscillation into and out of the load because of
the inductive and the capacitive loads.

- Thus, the amplitude of the oscillation is called
“Reactive power”, which is calculated by
Q  V I sin  var (1.15)

Complex Power
Complex power
- The phasors of the voltage and the current are
determined by
V  V  v (1.16)
I  I i (1.17)

Complex power
- For an inductive load, we have
V
 S
Q
 v i 
P
Figure 1.3. V-I phasor diagrams and power triangle of an inductive load.
Complex power
- For a capacitive load, we have
V
I
P
 
Q
i  v S
Figure 1.4. V-I phasor diagrams and power triangle of a capacitive load.
Complex power
- Therefore, the apparent power will be
S  VI  V I  v  i  V I 

(1.18)
- From Euler’s formula, then we have
S  V I cos   j V I sin  VA (1.19)

Complex power
- We also calculate the apparent power by
 V   V2
S  VI  V      (1.20)
Z  Z
- The magnitude of the complex power is expressed
as:
S  P Q 2 2 (1.21)

Complex power
- Example 1: Determine the complex power supplied
each load and the total power
I I1 I2 I3
V Z1 Z2 Z3
Figure 1.5. The RLC parallel circuit for Example 1.
- Assume V  12000 V
Z1  60  j 0 , Z 2  6  j12  and Z 3  30  j 30 
Complex power
Step 1: Find the currents
12000
I1   20  j 0 A
60  j 0
12000
I2   40 - j80 A
6  j12
12000
I3   20  j 20 A
30  j 30
Complex power
Step 2: Find the complex power of each load from
(1.18), then we get
S1  VI  1.20 kV  20  j 0 A   24 kVA
 
1
S2  VI  1.20 kV  40 - j80 A   48  j 96 kVA

 
2
S3  VI  1.20 kV  20  j 20 A   24  j 24 kVA
 
3
Ans (a)
Complex power
Step 3: Find the total complex power, then the total
complex power is
Stotal  S1  S2  S3
Stotal   24    48  j96    24  j 24  kVA
Stotal  96  j 72 kVA
Ans (b)

Complex power
- Example 1:
- From the currents and the complex powers, the phasor diagram
can be shown in Figure 1.6. S 2
S
I3
I1
S1
S3
I
I2
Figure 1.6. The phasor diagrams of the load currents and complex powers for Example 1.
Complex Power Flow
Complex power flow
Z  R  jX  Z  
I12
V1 V2
V1  V1 1 V2  V2  2
Figure 1.7. Two-areas power system for analyzing complex power flow characteristics.
Complex power flow
- Therefore, the current flow from source 1 to 2 can
be calculated by
V1 1  V2  2
I12 
Z 
 V1   V2 
I12   1       2    (1.22)
 Z   Z 
   

Complex power flow
- Next, we can compute the complex power flow
from 1 to 2 by the following equation

 V1   V2 
S12  VI  V1 1 

1       2    
12  Z   Z 
    
2
V1 V1 V2
S12      1   2 (1.23)
Z Z

Complex power flow
- Now, the real and reactive powers are derived by
the power triangle relationship.
2
V1 V1 V2
P12  cos   cos(  1   2 ) (1.24)
Z Z
2
V1 V1 V2
Q12  sin   sin(  1   2 ) (1.25)
Z Z

Complex power flow
- In the transmission line system, the resistance is
small in comparison to the inductance. Thus, the
impedance of the line can be assumed R=0.
Z  X 90
V1 V2
P12  sin(1   2 ) (1.26)
X
2
V1 V1 V2
Q12   cos(1   2 ) (1.27)
X X

Complex power flow
- Exercise 1.1: Determine;
- (a) the active and the reactive power by each source
- (b) the line loss of the power system as
demonstrated in Figure 1.7.
V1  120  5 V
where
V2  1000 V
transmission line Z  1  j 7 

Balanced Three-Phase
Circuits
Balanced three-phase circuits
- As described in the previous section, the modern
electric power system consists of the parameters,
which use the three-phase system configuration,
representing in ABC phases that are displaced by
120 degree.

ECn EBn
E An E An
EBn ECn
Positive phase sequence (ABC) Negative phase sequence (ACB)
Figure 1.8. Positive and negative sequences’ phasor diagrams of a three-phase circuit.
VAn ZL Van
Ia
ZG
ZP
E An
n n
ZP ZP
ECn EBn
ZG VBn ZL Vbn
VCn ZG Vcn
Ib
ZL
Ic
Figure 1.9. Y-connected circuit for analyzing a balanced three-phase circuits relationships.
- Therefore, the ABC generated voltage are expressed
as:
E An  E p 0 (1.28)
EBn  E p   120 (1.29)
ECn  E p   240 (1.30)

- For the balanced three-phase loads, The terminal
voltages of the generator of ABC phase and the
loads voltage are balanced.
- Thus, the generator’s terminal voltage phase-A and

the load voltage of phase-A can be calculated by
VAn  E An  Z G I a (1.31)
Van  VAn  Z L I a (1.32)

- For Y-connected loads,
Van  V p 0 (1.33)
Vbn  V p   120 (1.34)
Vcn  V p   240 (1.35)
V p is the magnitude of the phase voltage (line-to-

neutral voltage)

The line voltage of the Y-connected loads can be
obtained from Kirchhoff’s voltage law
Vab  Van  Vbn  V p 10  1  120   3 V p 30 (1.36)
Vbc  Vbn  Vcn  V p 1  120  1  240   3 V p   90 (1.37)

Vca  Vcn  Van  V p 1  240  10   3 V p 150 (1.38)

Vca Vcn Vab
30
Van
Vbn
Vbc
Figure 1.10. A phasor diagram of the line and the phase voltage.
Hence, the RMS line voltage is able to calculate by
VL  3 V p 30 (1.39)

The three-phase line currents is written by
Van
Ia   I p   (1.40)
Zp
Vbn
Ib   I p   120   (1.41)
Zp
Vcn (1.42)
Ic   I p   240  
Zp
 is the impedance phase angle.
Thus, the line currents are equal to the phase currents.
IL  IP (1.43)

- For delta-connected loads,
a Ia
I ab
Zp
b Ib Zp I ca
Zp
I bc
c Ic
Figure 1.11. A delta-connected load for analyzing the relationships.

The line voltages are equal to the phase voltages
VL  VP (1.44)
The phase currents are expressed as:
I ab  I p 0 (1.45)
I bc  I p   120 (1.46)
I ca  I p   240 (1.47)
Ip is the phase current magnitude.
The line currents are calculated by using Kirchhoff’s
current law.
I a  I ab  I ca  I p 10  1  240   3 I p   30 (1.48)
I b  I bc  I ab  I p 1  120  1  0   3 I p   150 (1.49)
I c  I ca  I bc  I p 1  240  1  120   3 I p 90 (1.50)
Thus, the line and the phase currents relationship is
I L  3 I p   30 (1.51)

- The three-phase power calculation:
For balanced three-phase circuits, the instantaneous

voltages can be computed by
van (t )  2 V p cos(t   v ) (1.52)

vbn (t )  2 V p cos(t   v  120) (1.53)
vcn (t )  2 V p cos(t   v  240) (1.54)

For balanced three-phase circuits, the instantaneous

currents can be computed by
ia (t )  2 I p cos(t  i ) (1.55)
ib (t )  2 I p cos(t  i  120) (1.56)
ic (t )  2 I p cos(t  i  240) (1.57)

Hence, the sum of the phase a, b, and c powers is the

total three-phase instantaneous power, which is
determined by
p3 (t )  van (t )ia (t )  vbn (t )ib (t )  vcn (t )ic (t ) (1.58)

Substituting the instantaneous voltages and currents in

to the instantaneous power, we have
p3 (t )  2 V p I p cos(t   v ) cos(t  i )

 2 V p I p cos(t   v  120) cos(t  i  120)
 2 V p I p cos(t   v  240) cos(t  i  240)
(1.59)

By implementing the trigonometry identities,

0
p3 (t )  V p I p  cos( v  i )  cos(2t   v  i )
0
 Vp I p  cos( v  i )  cos(2t   v  i  240) 
0
 Vp I p  cos( v  i )  cos(2t   v  i  480) 
(1.59)

Therefore, the three-phase power is obtained by
P3  3 V p I p cos( v  i ) (1.60)

- From the three-phase instantaneous power equation,
we can conclude that the power is constant and
greater than the single-phase power over three
times, while the instantaneous power of each phase
is oscillating.
Again, the three-phase reactive power is also obtained by
Q3  3 V p I p sin( v  i ) (1.61)

- The complex power of the three-phase circuit is
S3  P3  jQ3 (1.62)
S3  3V p I p (1.63)
- For Y-connected loads V p  VL / 3 and I p  I L

P3  3 VL I L cos  (1.64)
Q3  3 VL I L sin  (1.65)

- For Delta-connected loads I p  I L / 3 and V p  VL
P3  3 VL I L cos  (1.66)
Q3  3 VL I L sin  (1.67)

- Exercise 1.2:
2  j4 
a a
VL  207.85 V
60 
b b
 j 45 
c
c
j 40 
30 
Figure 1.12. A balanced three-phase circuit for Exercise 2.

- Exercise 1.2: From the three-phase circuits, find
(a) The current derived from the supply
(b) The active, and reactive powers supplied to the
circuit
(c) The line-to-line voltage at the loads.
(d) The phase current in each load.
(e) The active and reactive powers in each load and the
line.

Generator Models
Generator Models
(Synchronous Generator)
Z s  Ra  jX s
Ia
E V
Figure 1.13. The equivalent circuit of the synchronous machine

Generator Models
E V
jX s
Ia
Figure 1.14. A synchronous machine connected to an infinite bus

Generator Models
E
E
Ia
E
Zs Ia Zs Ia
 Zs Ia   
 V Ia V V
Ia
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 1.15. Phasor diagrams:

(a) Lagging power factor; (b) Unity power factor; and (c) Leading power factor

Generator Models
- The percentage change in terminal voltage from no-
load to rated load is used to calculate the percentage
of voltage regulation (VR).
Vnl  Vrated E  Vrated

VR   100%   100% (1.68)
Vrated Vrated

Synchronous Generator
(Power Angle Characteristics)
E   V 0
jX s
Ia
Figure 1.16. A single-machine infinite bus system for analyzing the power angle
S3  3VI a (1.69)
E   V 0
Ia  (1.70)
Z s 
E   V 0
jX s
Ia
2
E V V
S3  3     3  (1.71)
Zs Zs

E   V 0
jX s
Ia
2
E V V
P3  3 cos       3 cos  (1.72)
Zs Zs
2
E V V
Q3  3 sin       3 sin  (1.73)
Zs Zs
- Neglecting Ra then Z s  jX s and   90 , we have
E V
P3  3 sin  (1.74)
Xs
V
Q3  3
Xs
 E cos   V  (1.75)

- The maximum power occurs when   90
E V
Pmax 3  3 (1.76)
Xs
Pmax 3 is called the steady-state stability limit.

- Considering the   0 , then the reactive power is
V
Q3  3
Xs
E V  (1.77)
E V Overexcited
E V Underexcited

- Therefore, the real power can be adjusted by the power
angle.
- The reactive power can be regulated by the difference

in the excitation voltage and the busbar voltage.

Power Transformer
Equivalent Circuit of Transformer
R1 jX 1 I 2 R2 jX 2 I2
I1 I0
Ic Im
V1 Rc1 jX m1 E1 E2 V2
Figure 1.17. Equivalent circuit of a power transformer

Equivalent Circuit of Transformer
- The modern transformer is designed by reducing the
power core loss with a high permeability. For this
reason, the shunt branch in the equivalent circuit can be
neglected.
Re1 jX e1 Re 2 jX e 2
I1 I2
N1 N2
V1 V2  V2 V1  V1 V2
N2 N1
(a) (b)
Figure 1.18. Simple circuits of a transformer: (a) referred to primary side; and
(b) referred to secondary side
Regulating Transformers
- The exciting transformer and series transformer make
up the regulating transformer, which is used to adjust
the voltage magnitude and phase angle.
a Van
Van Van
n
Figure 1.19. Regulating transformer’ equivalent circuit for voltage magnitude control

- The output voltage of the regulating transformer for
voltage magnitude control at position 1 can be
expressed as:
Van  Van  Van (1.78)

- For the phase angle control, the phase shifting method
is used for adjusting the angle of the voltage
a Vbc
b
Van Van
Vbc 1
c 2
n
Figure 1.20. Regulating transformer’ equivalent circuit for phase shifting control

Vcn
 Van
Van
Vbc
Vbn
Vbc
Figure 1.21. Phasor diagram of voltages for phase shifting control in regulating transformer
- Therefore, the output voltage at position 1 is
Van  Van  Vbc (1.79)

The Per-Unit System
The Per-Unit System
Why do we use the per-unit system?
Figure 1.22. Multi machines and voltage levels power system

The Per-Unit System
Because:
- The power system contains multiple voltage levels that
the impedance’s transformation to a single-voltage
level, which is very difficult.
- The per-unit (pu) value of a quantity is calculated by
actual quantity
Quantity in per-unit =
base value of quantity
S V I Z
S pu  V pu  I pu  Z pu  (1.80)
SB VB IB ZB

The Per-Unit System
- The line-to-line voltage and the three-phase base
apparent power of volt-ampere are defined first. As a
result, the base current can be expressed as follows:
SB
IB  (1.81)
3VB
- The base impedance can be computed by
VB 
2
VB / 3
ZB  or ZB  (1.82)
IB SB

The Per-Unit System
(Change of base)
Why do we change the base in the per-
unit system?
Because
- The transmission line’s impedances are represented by
their ohmic value.
- The parameters of the generators and transformers are
presented in per-unit quantities depending on their own
ratings.
- On a common system base, all impedances must be
presented in per-unit.
The Per-Unit System
(Change of base)
- Exercise 1.3: Figure 1.22 shows the three-phase power
system as a single-line diagram, which includes the
generator, transformers, transmission lines, motor, and
load.
- G: 90 MVA, 22 kV, X = 18%
- T1: 50 MVA, 22/220 kV, X = 10%
- T2: 40 MVA, 220/11 kV, X = 6.0%
- T3: 40 MVA, 22/110 kV, X = 6.4%
- T4: 40 MVA, 110/11 kV, X = 8.0%
- M: 66.5 MVA, 10.45 kV, X = 18.5%
- Line 1: X = 48.4 ohm
- Line 2: X = 65.43 ohm
- Load: 40 MVA at 0.6 power factor lagging at 10.45 kV
The Per-Unit System
(Change of base)
- Exercise 1.3: If we select the base apparent power is
100 MVA and the base voltage is 22 kV on the
generator side.
- (a) Draw an impedance diagram with all
impedances marked in per-unit, including load
impedance.
- (b) if the motor operates at 10.45 kV, and 0.8 PF,
then determine the voltage at bus 1, the generator
emf, and the motor emf.

Bibliography
1. Grainger, John J., "Power System Analysis", Mc. Graw-
hill Book Company, 1994.
2. Hadi Saadat, "Power System Analysis" , Third Edition,
Mc. Graw-hill Book Company, 2011.
3. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_grid

Power System Protection Chapter 1

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

You might also like

Power System Protection Chapter 1

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Power System Protection Chapter 1

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Power System Protection

Dr.Sillawat Romphochai, IEEE member

Electrical Power System (04022206) Dr.Sillawat Romphochai

04211421 Power System Protection by Dr.Sillawat Romphochai

04211421 Power System Protection by Dr.Sillawat Romphochai

04211421 Power System Protection by Dr.Sillawat Romphochai

04211421 Power System Protection by Dr.Sillawat Romphochai

Figure 1.2. Single-phase AC circuit.

04211421 Power System Protection by Dr.Sillawat Romphochai

v(t )  Vm cos(t   v ) (1.1)

- The instantaneous power can be expressed as:

p (t )  v(t )i (t )  Vm cos(t   v ) I m cos(t   i ) (1.3)

04211421 Power System Protection by Dr.Sillawat Romphochai

- By substituting (1.4) into (1.3), thus, the

04211421 Power System Protection by Dr.Sillawat Romphochai

- The root-mean-square (RMS) of the voltage and

p (t )  V I cos  [1  cos 2(t   v )]  V I sin  sin 2(t   v )

Power flow into the Power flow that borrowed

04211421 Power System Protection by Dr.Sillawat Romphochai

pR (t )  V I cos   V I cos  cos 2(t   v ) (1.11)

The average power of this term is zero.

04211421 Power System Protection by Dr.Sillawat Romphochai

cos   Power factor (1.13)

04211421 Power System Protection by Dr.Sillawat Romphochai

p X (t )  V I sin  sin 2(t   v ) (1.14)

- It can be seen that the above equation represents the

04211421 Power System Protection by Dr.Sillawat Romphochai

Q  V I sin  var (1.15)

04211421 Power System Protection by Dr.Sillawat Romphochai

04211421 Power System Protection by Dr.Sillawat Romphochai

- From Euler’s formula, then we have

S  V I cos   j V I sin  VA (1.19)

04211421 Power System Protection by Dr.Sillawat Romphochai

04211421 Power System Protection by Dr.Sillawat Romphochai

Figure 1.5. The RLC parallel circuit for Example 1.

S2  VI  1.20 kV  40 - j80 A   48  j 96 kVA

Stotal   24    48  j96    24  j 24  kVA

04211421 Power System Protection by Dr.Sillawat Romphochai

04211421 Power System Protection by Dr.Sillawat Romphochai

04211421 Power System Protection by Dr.Sillawat Romphochai

04211421 Power System Protection by Dr.Sillawat Romphochai

04211421 Power System Protection by Dr.Sillawat Romphochai

04211421 Power System Protection by Dr.Sillawat Romphochai

04211421 Power System Protection by Dr.Sillawat Romphochai

ECn  E p   240 (1.30)

04211421 Power System Protection by Dr.Sillawat Romphochai

- Thus, the generator’s terminal voltage phase-A and

04211421 Power System Protection by Dr.Sillawat Romphochai

Van  V p 0 (1.33)

Vbn  V p   120 (1.34)

Vcn  V p   240 (1.35)

V p is the magnitude of the phase voltage (line-to-

04211421 Power System Protection by Dr.Sillawat Romphochai

Vab  Van  Vbn  V p 10  1  120   3 V p 30 (1.36)

Vbc  Vbn  Vcn  V p 1  120  1  240   3 V p   90 (1.37)

04211421 Power System Protection by Dr.Sillawat Romphochai

Hence, the RMS line voltage is able to calculate by

04211421 Power System Protection by Dr.Sillawat Romphochai