T. Karthik - Prabha Karan C. - R. Rathinamoorthy - Nonwovens - Process, Structure, Properties and Applications-Woodhead Publishing India PVT. Limited (2016)

Nonwovens: Process, structure,
properties and applications

Nonwovens: Process, structure,
properties and applications
T. Karthik
R. Rathinamoorthy
C. Praba Karan
WOODHEAD PUBLISHING INDIA PVT LTD

New Delhi
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First published 2016, Woodhead Publishing India Pvt. Ltd.

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Contents
Preface ix
Foreword xiii
List of figures xv
List of tables xxi
1. Introduction to nonwovens 1
1.1 Definition of nonwoven 2
1.2 Classification of nonwovens 3
1.3 History of nonwovens 4
1.4 Market growth of nonwoven industry 6
1.5 Features of nonwoven fabrics 10
1.6 Raw materials for nonwovens 11
1.7 Product properties and applications of nonwovens 27
2. Web formation 34
2.1 Introduction 34
2.2 Staple fiber web formation system 35
2.3 Polymer lay process 75
2.4 Comparison of different web forming techniques 88
3. Nonwoven bonding techniques 95

3.1 Introduction 95
3.2 Mechanical bonding 97
3.3 Chemical bonding 132
3.4 Thermal bonding 138
3.5 Comparison of different web bonding techniques 150
vi Nonwoven: Process, structure, properties and applications
4. Finishing of nonwovens 156

4.1 Introduction 156
4.2 Mechanical finishing 157
4.3 Chemical finishing 167
5. Testing of nonwovens 181

5.2 Characterization of bonding structures 182
5.3 Testing of nonwovens 185
6. Applications of nonwovens 211

6.2 Application of nonwovens in apparel 215
6.3 Application of nonwovens in agriculture 218
6.4 Application of nonwovens in geotextiles 222
6.5 Application of nonwovens in medical textiles 225
6.6 Application of nonwoven in automotive textiles 232
6.7 Application of nonwovens in filtration 235
6.8 Application of nonwovens in home textiles 242
6.9 Application of nonwovens in roofing and construction 244
6.10 Application of nonwovens in packaging 244
7. Composite nonwovens 249

7.1 Definition 249
7.2 Importance of composite nonwovens 250
7.3 Types of composite nonwovens 250
7.4 Composite nonwoven manufacturing processes 251
7.5 Application of composite nonwoven structures 271
8. Natural fiber nonwovens 285

8.2 Cotton fiber nonwovens 287
Contents vii
8.3 Flax fiber nonwovens 289

8.4 Jute fiber nonwovens 292
8.5 Hemp fiber nonwovens 295
8.6 Kenaf fiber nonwovens 298
8.7 Milkweed fiber nonwovens 299
8.8 Pineapple fiber nonwovens 303
8.9 Abaca fiber nonwovens 304
8.10 Sisal fiber nonwovens 305
8.11 Wool fiber nonwovens 307
8.12 Kapok fiber nonwovens 307
Index 315
Preface
Industries play a vital role in economy of nations as these industries

manufacture different kind of products and relive the nation from importing
them from other countries. Textile industries are also manufacturing different
kind of fabric for clothing, furnishing, and industrial utility applications. In
the conventional fabric, the fibre is first made into yarns; on the other hand,
nonwovens are manufactured sheets or webs directionally or randomly
orientated fibres, bonded through resistance, solidity or sticking together into
a fabric.
The demands for fabrics have increased sharply over the years and
conventional textiles are not in a position to meet the production cost and
higher cost of upgradation along with demanding consumers in new fields
of consumption. With better customization of characteristics into the fabric
and appropriateness to certain end uses being advantages, nonwovens have
emerged rapidly as the fabrics of the future. The ability to produce nonwovens
with excellent characteristics in lesser response time and at affordable cost is
the most vital factor contributing to its rapid development and commercial
acceptance worldwide. On the other hand, nonwoven fabrics hold some
natural characteristics, which led them to be counted for non-usable in certain
applications. At present, many research and development has been conducted
on enhancing the characteristics of nonwoven fabrics. Nonwovens are also
entering into some astonishing fields, with making its mark in fashion apparel
also.
Demand for nonwovens in developed countries is expected to accelerate
from the pace set from 2007 to 2012, when recessionary conditions for most
of the period brought outright declines in manufacturing and construction
activity. Between 2013 and 2018, the global nonwovens market will experience
projected annual growth rates of 7.6% (tonnage), 7.5% ($) and 8.2% (m2)
according to a new market report by Smithers Apex. Nonwovens are divided
into two major categories: disposable and durable nonwovens. According to
the report, disposable nonwovens surpassed durables in value growth between
2008 and 2013, increasing from $9.1 billion to $12.5 billion, resulting in an
annual growth rate of 6.7%. Within the same timeframe, durable nonwovens
grew from $15.3 billion to $20.6 billion tonnes, at an annual growth rate
x Nonwoven: Process, structure, properties and applications
of 6.1%. According to The Future of Global Nonwovens to 2018, spunlaid

is projected to grow at the highest rate of all processes, with consumption
projected to reach 5.8 million tonnes by 2018.
This book ‘Nonwovens: Process, Structure, Properties and Applications’
plays a vital role in outlining the basic concepts of selection of raw material,
manufacturing principles of nonwoven, finishing and characterization of
nonwovens. Further, the book provides brief about the composite nonwoven
structures and its applications and the application of natural fibre nonwovens
in various sectors.
Chapter 1 outlines the various definitions of nonwoven, their classification
and market potential of nonwoven based on manufacturing technologies
and application areas. Further, the raw material requirements for the
manufacturing of nonwoven such as fibres, additives and binders are also
discussed in detail. Chapter 2 outlines the various web formation techniques
for the manufacturing of nonwovens such as drylaid, wetlaid, spunbond and
meltblown. The web formation principle, influence of material and process
variables on web formation and product characteristics are discussed in detail
for all web formation techniques.
Chapter 3 discusses the different web bonding techniques such as
mechanical, chemical and thermal bonding methods. In case of mechanical
bonding needle punching, stitch bonding and hydroentanglement; in
chemical bonding saturation, spray, print, foam and powder bonding; in case
of thermal bonding hot and belt calendaring, through-air thermal bonding,
ultrasonic and radiant heat bonding methods are dealt in detail with respect to
principle, influence of machine and process parameters on bonding, product
characteristics. Further, comprehensive comparison of three web bonding
methods is also given in detail.
Chapter 4 provides brief information about the various kinds of finishes
for nonwoven structures categorized as mechanical, chemical and specialty
finishes with respect to the principle of finishing process, their application
areas and limitations.
Chapter 5 provides the comprehensive information about the various
testing methods and standards for testing of raw materials and nonwoven
products. Apart from the basic testing methods, porosity of nonwoven structure,
fibre orientation angle and distribution and contact angle measurement are
also discussed. Further, product-specific testing of nonwovens such as testing
parameters and standards for medical and hygiene textiles, house hold
products, protective clothing, geotextiles and filter media are also provided.
Preface xi
Chapter 6 discusses about the application areas of nonwoven products

in various sectors such as apparel, agrotech, geotech, medical and hygiene,
automotive textiles, filtration products, home textiles, roofing and construction
and packaging.
Chapter 7 provides brief information about the advanced method of
production of nonwoven called as composite nonwoven structures for specific
end-use applications. Various methods of production of composite nonwoven
such as blending of two or more fibres, layered composite nonwovens,
laminated composite nonwovens, hybrid nonwovens, particulate nonwovens
and nanofibre nonwovens and their application in medical & hygiene,
filtration, sound and thermal insulation products are discussed in detail. The
last chapter (Chapter 8) reviews the application potential of natural fibre based
nonwovens in various sectors. The natural fibres such as cotton, flax, jute,
hemp, kenaf, milkweed, pineapple, abaca, sisal, wool and kapok are discussed
with respect to their application as nonwoven structures.
This book is primarily a text book intended for Textile Technology
and Fashion Technology students in universities and colleges, researchers,
industrialists and academicians, as well as professionals in the apparel and
textile industry.
Foreword
This book ‘Nonwovens: Process, Structure, Properties and Applications’

has been authored by T. Karthik, C. Praba Karan and R. Rathinamoorthi.
The authors have several years of experience in the field teaching of textile
technology and apparel science to graduate and post-graduate students.
They have put huge efforts and used their practical experience in writing
this book.
I could find everything about nonwovens in this book. This book
begins with a well-structured introduction of nonwovens, commencing with
classifications and then proceeds to nonwoven market, raw materials and
applications. The chapters on web formation and bonding technologies are
dwelt in details and finally comparisons of different techniques are discussed.
The readers especially students would find this book very useful as a text book
for graduating students and serve as a reference book for students of higher
learning.
Mechanical and chemical finishing of nonwovens is discussed in detail
in this book with many references. One can find a wealth of information in
these chapters. Testing methods of nonwovens with reference to standards
are presented exhaustively. This would be definitely helpful especially to
personnel from industry.
The applications of nonwovens in various fields such as apparel,
agriculture, geotextiles, medical textiles, automotive, filtration, home textiles,
civil engineering and packaging industry are well documented. This will be
ready reckoner for people engaged in development of technical textiles.
Composite nonwovens are growing at a faster rate due to their appealing
functionality. Various composite nonwovens, manufacturing process and their
applications are discussed in detail in this book. Sustainable nonwovens are
the future to combat pollution arising out of disposing the nonwovens after
their use. Natural fibres have unique place which must be exploited by the
industry in developing sustainable nonwoven products in order to reduce
carbon footprint. The authors have explored many natural fibres for their use
in development of bio-degradable nonwovens. The chapter on natural fibre
nonwovens would be very useful to the readers.
xiv Nonwoven: Process, structure, properties and applications
The authors have put commendable effort in bring this book. This book
will be certainly useful to students, academicians, researchers and personnel
from industry.
Prof. R. S. Rengasamy
Department of Textile Technology
Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi
New Delhi-16
List of figures
Figure Description
No.
1.1 Structure of woven, knitted and nonwoven fabrics
1.2 Classification of Nonwovens based on production techniques
1.3 Classification of Nonwovens based on structure
1.4 Worldwide production of nonwovens by quantity
1.5 Worldwide productions of nonwovens by region
1.6 Nonwoven productions by web-forming processes
1.7 Nonwoven production by web-bonding processes
1.8 Worldwide Nonwoven Consumption in Leading Application
areas
1.9 World consumption of raw materials
1.10 Types of bi-component fibers
2.1 Classification of nonwoven based on web formation techniques
2.2 Dry-laid manufacturing process
2.3 Typical Blowroom line for processing of nonwoven
2.4 Schematic representation of a Bale breaker
2.5 Arrangement of beaters in Cleanomat
2.6 Multimixer blending machine
2.7 Tuft blender
2.8 Continuous dosing system
2.9 Storage trunk
2.10 Contifeed feeding system
2.11 Universal Roller Card
2.12 Action of Worker and stripper in card
2.13 Nonwoven Single Card
2.14 Tandem card
xvi Nonwoven: Process, structure, properties and applications
Figure Description
No.
2.15 Double doffer nonwoven card
2.16 Vibrating chute arrangment
2.17 Scan Feed Tuft Feeder
2.18 Micro-Weighing system
2.19 Scanning of feed weight
2.20 Parallel laying process
2.21 Camel back cross-laying process
2.22 Horizontal laying process
2.23 Diagramatic representation of Cross lapping angle
2.24 Struto perpendicular laying process
2.25 Principle of air-lay machine
2.26 Danweb air-laying process
2.27 Rando Opener
2.28 Random Card
2.29 Random Card K12
2.30 Random card K21
2.31 Wet-laid manufacturing process
2.32 Wet-laid nonwoven process
2.33 Pilot wet lay machine
2.34 Spunbonding process
2.35 Spunbonding process with a belt collector
2.36 Meltblown web formation process
2.37 Die design for meltblowing process
2.38 Web formation process
2.39 Schematic diagram of Meltblowing Process
3.1 Classification of bonding techniques used in nonwoven bonding
process
3.2 The basic principle of Needle punching process
3.3 Needle punching line
List of figures xvii
Figure Description
No.
3.4 Process flow in Needle punching
3.5 Needle Punching Technology
3.6 Needle punching needle barb structure
3.7 Structure of a felting needle
3.8 Structure of structuring needle
3.9 Conical needle
3.10 Stitch bonding process
3.11 The basic types of stitch structures
3.12 Stitch-bonding point and loop-formation cycle of Maliwatt
stitch-bonding machine
3.13 Steps in Stitch formation
3.14 Maliwatt stitch formation process and stitched nonwoven sample
3.15 Malivlies stitch formation process and the stitched fabric
3.16 Malimo stitch formation process
3.17 Malipol stitch formation
3.18 Voltex stitch formation process
3.19 Principle of hydro entanglement process
3.20 Working of hydro entanglement process
3.21 Hydroentangling Equipment and spunlace fabric
3.22 Chemical bonding of Nonwoven
3.23 Saturation bonding process
3.24 Foam bonding process
3.25 Spray bonding method for nonwovens
3.26 Print bonding technique for nonwoven
3.27 Powder adhesive sprinkling method
3.28 Types of calendar roller
3.29 Point bonding rollers
3.30 Embossing calendaring
3.31 Belt calendaring process
3.32 Through-air bonding with horizontal belt
3.33 Through-air bonding with rotary drum
xviii Nonwoven: Process, structure, properties and applications
Figure Description
No.
3.34 Ultrasonic bonding process
3.35 Infra-red bonding machine
4.1 Classification of Nonwoven finishing methods
4.2 Process of Nonwoven Compacting
4.3 Mechanism of Creping of nonwoven
4.4 Shearing process working mechanism
4.5 Raising rollers
4.6 Raising (napping) machine
4.7 Raising the face of the fabric
4.8 Line diagram of rotary-cylinder singeing machine
4.9 Principle of gas singeing
4.10 Line diagram of gas singeing machine
4.11 Rotogravure coating
4.12 Rotary screen coating
4.13 Spray coating
4.14 Wet or Cold laminating
4.15 Dry or Hot Laminating
5.1 Measurement of fiber orientation and orientation angle
5.2 Schematic diagram of GATS tester
5.3 Contact angle on different materials
5.4 Schematic diagram of contact angle
6.1 Nonwoven consumption of different product groups
6.2 Application of nonwovens in technical textiles
6.3 Market share of nonwovens in different application areas
6.4 Fashion apparel produced from nonwoven fabrics
6.5 Nonwoven frost covering fabric
6.6 Nonwoven mulching fabric
6.7 Nonwoven blanket fabric
6.8 Various functions of geotextile fabrics
List of figures xix
Figure Description
No.
6.9 Nonwoven in medical textiles
6.10 Application of nonwoven in a car
6.11 Global nonwoven filter market
7.1 Sandwich web-laying using multi card
7.2 Single stage multi-layered nonwoven using divider in card line
7.3 Multi-forming air-laid process
7.4 Three-layer headbox in wet-laid
7.5 Modified headbox system for improving the integrity of layered
nonwoven
7.6 Spunbond-spunbond-spunbond production process and fabric
7.7 SMS production process of Zimmer AG
7.8 SMS production process from same spinning line
7.9 SEM image of SMS nonwoven structure
7.10 CoForm® layered composite nonwoven process
7.11 Hydroknit® integrated spunbond-spunlace process
7.12 Evolon® spunlace process
7.13 SEM image of micro-fibers of splitted fibers
7.14 Laminated composite nonwoven structure from LDPE
7.15 Flame-lamination process
7.16 Hybrid nonwoven structure with scrim
7.17 VAPORWEB process
7.18 Principle of Electro Bubble Spinning
7.19 Production process of PVA nanofiber overlaid nonwoven
7.20 SEM micrograph of nanofiber overlaid nonwoven
7.21 Basic processes involved in production of nanofiber coated
textiles
7.22 SEM micrographs of nylon 6,6 electrospun fibers thermally
bonded onto viscose nonwoven
7.23 Particulates incorporated within the base substrate
xx Nonwoven: Process, structure, properties and applications
Figure Description
No.
7.24 SEM images of bonded particles between two nonwoven
structures
7.25 SEM photograph showing functional particles bonded to
bicomponent fibers
7.26 Decontamination three-layered wipe
7.27 SEM micrograph of three-layered composite nonwoven
7.28 Process sequence of production of pile-composite structure
7.29 Construction of composite nonwoven structure
7.30 3D Napco structure
7.31 3D Napco structure with PCM granules
8.1 Natural fiber classification
8.2 Oil sorption capacities of various natural fibers
List of table
Table No Description
1.1 Definitions of nonwovens
1.2 Worldwide Nonwovens Production by region
1.3 Worldwide Nonwovens Production in quantity
1.4 Properties of nonwoven fabrics
1.5 Fibers used in Nonwoven industry
1.6 Special types of binders and their application
1.7 Properties and application of nonwoven based on web formation
methods
1.8 Properties and application of nonwoven based on web bonding
methods
2.1 Wire point density for various parts of card (PPSI)
2.2 Card Width and Production rates
2.3 Relative merits of cross laying and parallel laying process
2.4 Merits and Limitations of Card Cross-lapping and Air laying
process
2.5 Relative merits of filament bonded and staple fiber bonded
Nonwovens
2.6 Comparison of Spunbond and meltblown fabrics
2.7 Comparison of Web Formation techniques
3.1 Different types of stitch bonding process
3.2 Application of thermobonded nonwovens
3.3 Comparison of different Web Bonding techniques
5.1 Standards for measurement of fiber properties
5.2 Various category of testing of various characteristics of
nonwoven products
5.3 ASTM Standards for testing of nonwoven
5.4 Standard conditions for measurement of nonwoven thickness
xxii Nonwoven: Process, structure, properties and applications
Table No Description
5.5 Common testing parameters and standards for nonwoven
application in different areas
6.1 Application fields of nonwoven fabrics
6.2 Application of different types of nonwoven fabrics
6.3 Application of nonwovens and fibers in different fields of
medical textiles
6.4 Application of nonwoven technology in automotive textiles
6.5 Comparison of Nonwoven technologies used in filtration
6.6 Application of different nonwoven products in home textiles
7.1 Composite nonwoven filters
8.1 Comparative properties of flax and other high modulus synthetic
fiber
8.2 Potential end uses of Jute based Nonwovens
8.3 Chemical composition of abaca fiber and natural fibers
8.4 Comparison of physical properties of natural fibers with sisal
fiber
1
Introduction to nonwovens
Abstract: This chapter provides the overall view of nonwoven industry. It

discusses the various definitions of nonwoven, classification of nonwoven based
on production technique and structure. The market growth potential of nonwoven
as well as features of nonwoven fabrics has also been discussed. The raw
materials for the production of nonwoven such as fibres, binders and additives
were discussed in detail. The brief description of various nonwoven products and
their properties and application were also provided.
Key words: nonwoven, binders, additives, bi-component fibres, nano fibres
Fabrics can be made from fibers as well as from yarns. In conventional

fabric production such as weaving and knitting, the fibers are converted into
yarns and consequently into fabric. The construction of woven, knitted and
nonwoven structures are shown in Figure 1.1. In nonwoven process, the fibers
are directly converted into fabrics. It eliminates the yarn production process
and makes the fabric directly from fibers. Nonwovens are unique engineered
fabrics offering cost effective solutions for an increasingly wide variety of
applications. Nonwovens are products with many different qualities.
Figure 1.1 Structure of woven, knitted and nonwoven fabrics [Source: intech.com]
The major advantages in nonwoven fabrics are the higher production

rate compared to conventional fabric formation since all yarn preparation
steps are eliminated. For example, to manufacture 600,000 meters of woven
fabric need two months of yarn preparation, three months of weaving on 60
looms and one month for processing and finishing. Nonwoven structure can
be produced with the same quantity within 2 months from order. Apart from
higher production rate, automation is possible is this system and need less
manpower and energy compared to conventional systems.
2 Nonwoven: Process, structure, properties and applications
1.1 Definition of nonwoven

A great deal of work has been done to define nonwovens and to distinguish
them from paper. Table 1.1 lists the various definitions of nonwovens.
Table 1.1 Definitions of nonwovens [Source: Hutten 2007]
S. no. Source Definition

1 Manual of Nonwoven fabrics are textile fabrics made of a fibrous
Nonwovens layer, which may be a carded web, a fiber web, or any
(Krema 1971) system of randomly laid or oriented fibers or threads,
possibly combined with textile or non-textile materials such
as conventional woven fabrics, plastic films, foam layers,
metal foils, etc., and forming them with a mechanically
bound or chemically bonded textile product.
2 Annual Book Nonwoven fabrics is a structure produced by bonding or
of Standards, interlocking of fibers, or both, accomplished by mechanical,
1989. ASTM chemical, thermal, or solvent means and the combination
International thereof. The term does not include paper or fabrics that
ASTM D 1117-01 are woven, tufted or those made by wool or other felting.
3 Man-Made Nonwoven fabric is an assembly of textile fibers held
Fiber and Textile together by mechanical interlocking in a random web or
Dictionary mat by fusing of the fibers (in case of thermoplastic fibers),
or by bonding with cementing medium such as starch, glue,
casein, rubber, latex, or one of the cellulose derivatives or
synthetic resins.
4 Nonwovens: Nonwoven is a manufactured sheet, web or batt of
Theory, Process, directionally or randomly orientated fibers, bonded by
Performance and friction, and/or cohesion and/or adhesion, excluding paper
Testing and products which are woven, knitted, tufted, stitch-
ISO-9092:1988 bonded incorporating binding yarns or filaments, or felted
(Houfek 1993) by wet-milling, whether or not additionally needled. The
fibers may be of natural or man-made origin.
5 The Dictionary of Nonwoven fabric is a cloth-like material made of fibers
Paper longer than those normally used in papermaking which,
instead of being woven on a loom, is formed by felting on
a line mesh screen from an air or water suspension with or
without binders.
6 Nonwoven fabrics A sheet, web or batt of natural and/or man-made fibers or
Handbook (INDA) filaments, excluding paper, that have not been converted
– (Association into yarn, and that are bonded to each other by any of
of Nonwoven several means.
Fabrics Industry, Note:
USA)
1. To distinguish wet-laid nonwovens from wet-laid paper
(Wakeman 1985) materials the following differentiation is made.
(a) More than 50% by mass of its fibrous content is made
up of fibers with a length to diameter ratio greater than 300.
Contd...
Introduction to nonwovens 3
Contd...
S. no. Source Definition

Other types of fabrics can be classified as nonwoven if,
(b) More than 30% by mass of its fibrous content is made
up of fibers with a length to diameter ratio greater than 600
and/or the density of the fabric is less than 0.4 g/cm3.
7 EDANA A manufactured sheet, web or batt of directionally or
(European randomly oriented fibers, bonded by friction, and/or
Disposables cohesion and/or adhesion, excluding paper and products,
and Nonwovens which are woven, knitted, tufted or stitch-bonded, or felted
Association) by wet-milling, whether or not additionally needled. The
fibers may be of material or manmade origin. They may be
staple or continuous filaments or be formed in situ.
Note:
1. To distinguish wet-laid nonwovens from wet-laid papers,
a material shall be regarded as a nonwoven if,
(a) More than 50% by mass of its fibrous content is made-
up of fibers with a length to diameter ratio greater than
300; or
(b) More than 30% by mass of its fibrous content is made
up of fibers with a length to diameter ratio greater than 300
and its density is less than 0.40 g/cm3.
8 A New System for Structure-based definition of nonwoven:
Classifying • Fiber web structures: Includes all textile sheet structures
Nonwovens, made from fibrous webs, bonded by frictional/mechanical
TAPPI Press restraints and/or covalent bonds obtained through the
use of resins, thermal fusion, or formation of chemical
(Hansen 1993)
complexes. Here, fibers or filaments are bonded so that
the average bond-to-bond distances are greater than 50–
100 times the fiber diameter giving textile-like qualities of
low bending and low in-plane stiffness.
• Net-like structures: Structures formed by extruding one
or more fiber-forming polymers in the form of a network or
film. The film may then be uniaxially or biaxially oriented to
fibrillate into a net-like structure.
• Multiplex structures: This class of fabrics combine and
utilize characteristics of several primary and/or secondary
structures, at least one of which is a recognized nonwoven
textile structure, into a single unitized structure.
1.2 Classification of nonwovens

Nonwoven can be broadly classified based on two aspects as shown in Figures
1.2 and 1.3 as
1. Based on production techniques
2. Based on structures
Classification based on production

techniques
Based on web formation Based on web bonding Based on web finishing
Dry-laid nonwovens Wet-laid nonwovens 1. Coated

1. Card laid 2. Laminated
• Parallel laid 3. Crimped
• Cross-laid 4. Printed
2. Random air-laid 5. Special finish
Spun laid
nonwovens
1. Spunbond Mechanical Thermal bonding Chemical
2. Metblown Bonding 1. Calendering bonding
1. Needle punch 2. Through air 1. Impregnating
2. Spun laced bonding 2. Foam coating
3. Stitch bonded 3. Sonic bonding 3. Spraying
4. Print bonding
Figure 1.2 Classification of nonwovens based on production techniques
Classification based on structure
Classification with respect to Classification with respect to

position of fibers bonding
Fiber situated in the Fiber situated perpendicular Mechanically Chemically and thermally
fabric plane to the fabric plane bonded textiles bonded textiles
Bonded by Bonded by Bonded by Segment Agglomerate Point

single fibers fiber bundles threads structure structure structure
Figure 1.3 Classification of nonwovens based on structure
1.3 History of nonwovens

The nonwoven industry has a different organisation in contrast to the
conventional textile industry. In spite of these two industries sharing a
certain legacy, the nonwoven industry has distinctive features of having its
advancements bolstered by the present wide production of synthetic fibers, by

the high production speed of its machinery and in many cases by the reduced
cost of its products, favoured by the use of technologies and innovative
processes with high value addition. Along these lines, the nonwoven industry
has developed a unique identity, different from that of the traditional textile
industry which is based on apparels and household fabrics.
When England was the principal textile producing country in the 19th
century, recognizing that huge amount of fiber were wasted as a trim, Mr.
Garnett, a textile engineer, developed a specialized carding machine (known
as Garnett machine) to tear up the waste material into fibrous form which can
be utilized as a filling material for pillows and beds.
Afterwards, machinery manufacturers in Northern England region
started binding the fibers using needles (mechanical) or by using binders
(chemical) into webs which are the precursors of today’s nonwovens. This
method remained similar in the middle of the 20th century and these batts are
specifically produced for insulation of railroad box cars in the United States
of America (Albrecht 2003). At present, the nonwoven fabric was utilized
between the Space Shuttle Discovery’s heat resistant tiles and the spaceship’s
skin and nonwovens were component of the space suits worn to the moon.
The development in nonwoven sector over the years is given below:
• 1936 Dr. Carl Nottebohm initiates development of nonwovens in
Weinheim
• 1948 Start of dry-laid staple fiber nonwovens production, introduction
of Vliesline garment interlinings and Vildea window cloth.
• 1950 Joint Venture to produce dry-laid nonwovens in USA (Pellon)
• 1960 Joint Venture to produce dry-laid nonwovens in Japan (Japan
Vilene Company)
• 1965 Introduction of spunbonded polyamide nonwovens technology
developed by Dr. Ludwig Hartmann.
• 1973 Production of wet-laid nonwovens is started. Production of
polyester spunbond begins at new Kaiserslautern plant.
• 1982 Production of lightweight polypropylene nonwovens.
• 1984 Start-up of the first non-European facility to produce polyester
spunbonded nonwovens in North Carolina (USA).
• 1985 Acquisition of a leading producer of staple fiber nonwovens in
Brazil
• 1988 Opening of a new research and development centre for staple
fiber nonwovens incorporation using hydro entanglement technology
in Weinheim.
• 1994 Joint Venture with Japanese partner Japan Vilene Company to

produce interlinings in Suzhou/China.
• 1997 Merging of the staple-fiber and spunbonded Nonwovens Business
Groups. Formation of 6 divisions with global responsibilities.
• 1998 The Italian company Marelli & Berta, a manufacturer of woven
interlinings joins the Freudenberg Group.
• 1999 Evolon, a new technological breakthrough is achieved. The
first continuous microfiber spunlaced fabric is developed with a large
number of applications.
• 2002 New Plant Concept: A 50 million investment to modernize and
restructure the facilities in Europe and North America.
• 2006 Freudenberg Nonwovens acquires Scimat Ltd, Swindon/UK –
the leading finisher of battery separators.
• 2007 Restructuring of the North American industrial business
to simplify product ranges and improve supply chain efficiency.
Commissioning of a new spunbond line at Fiberweb’s site at
Norrköping, Sweden.
• 2008 Creation of two global hygiene business units – Consumer
Fabrics and Airlaid Fabrics, and three regional industrial businesses
– Americas Industrial, Europe Industrial and Terram. Acquisition of a
Chinese polyester nonwoven fabric producer – Hengguan
• 2009 Commissioning of a new spunbond line at Fiberweb’s site at
Trezzano Rosa, Italy. Formation of a 50/50 JV between Petropar
(Brazil) and Fiber web, comprising Fitesa Brazil and Fiber web
spunbond sites at Washougal, USA and Queretaro, Mexico to form
Fitesa Fiber web, the second-largest spunbond producer in the
America.
1.4 Market growth of nonwoven industry

The nonwoven industry is one of the rapidly developing industries in the
world. It is acquiring a sophisticated and diverse market over the years. For
the past 30 years, it has been exhibiting an average growth of about 8% and is
expected to sustain this rate of growth for the next ten years. The technology
in nonwoven industry has seen a marked improvement in nearly all available
major manufacturing processes, including those of spunbond, meltblown,
needle punched, spunlaced, wet laid and dry laid fabrication (Ramkumar
2012; INDA 2004, 2006, 2007). The ability to produce nonwovens with extra-
ordinary properties in less time and at affordable prices is the most critical
factor contributing to its rapid development and commercial acceptance

worldwide.
The nonwoven industry developed in the three fundamental industrialized
regions of the world, the USA, Western Europe and Japan. All of them have
made a significant contribution to the technological development of the
nonwovens industry and also fuelling its growth by finding new applications
for nonwovens (Russell 2007). The worldwide-nonwoven production in terms
of quantity and in different regions of the world is given in Tables 1.2 and 1.3
and Figures 1.4 and 1.5, respectively. From the tables and figures, it can be
clearly seen that the nonwoven production has a very good growth rate in the
upcoming years and Asian countries have immense potential to increase their
contribution in the nonwoven market.
Table 1.2 Worldwide nonwovens production by region [Source: INDA Estimates &
Rory Holmes, INDA-CAB Conference 2012. www.inda.org]
1997 2002 2011 2016 Growth Rate Growth Rate

1997–2010 2011–2016
(%/Year) (%/Year)
Dollars $11 $15 $26 $37 6.2% 7.8%
(billions)
Sq Meters 61 93 205 305 8.7% 9.0%
(billions)
Tonnes 2.7 4.0 7.6 11.1 7.7% 7.8%
(millions)
Table 1.3 Worldwide nonwovens production in quantity (millions of tonnes)

[Source: INDA Estimates & Rory Holmes, INDA-CAB Conference 2012. www.inda.org]
2006 2011 2016 Growth Rate Growth

2006–2011 Rate 2011-2016
(%/Year) (%/Year)
NAFTA 1.61 1.87 2.2 3.00% 3.30%
Europe 1.56 1.95 2.6 4.60% 5.90%
China 0.97 1.65 2.82 10.50% 12.00%
Other Asia Pacific 0.51 0.59 0.78 3.00% 5.70%
Japan 0.33 0.33 0.35 0.00% 1.20%
Middle East 0.26 0.32 0.45 3.60% 7.70%
Rest of World 0.44 0.9 1.88 16.60% 14.60%
TOTAL 5.68 7.61 11.08 6.00% 7.80%
12 300000
10 250000
8 200000
Tonnes (millions)
6 150200
m2 (millions)
4 100000
2 50000
0 0
2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015
Figure 1.4 Worldwide production of nonwovens by quantity [Source: INDA, 2012]
NAFTA Greater Europe Asia ROW
8000
In '000 tonnes
7000
6000
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
2001 2006 2011
Figure 1.5 Worldwide productions of nonwovens by region [Source: INDA, 2012]
By considering the nonwoven market with respect to web forming and

web-bonding technologies as shown in Figures 1.6 and 1.7, respectively, it is
clearly shown that the dry laid, polymer laid web forming technologies and
needle punched web-bonding technology dominates the nonwoven market.
The spunlace technology growth is also found to be rapid particularly in
specific application areas (INDA 2004, 2006, 2007).
4000
3500
3000
2500
In '000 tonnes
Dry-laid
2000
Wet-laid
1500 Polymer-to-web
1000
500
0
2001 2006 2011
Figure 1.6 Nonwoven productions by web-forming processes [Source: INDA, 2012]
1800
1600
1400
1200
In '000 tonnes
1000 Needle punched
800 Spunlace
Thermal/Resin
600
400
200
0
2001 2006 2011
Figure 1.7 Nonwoven production by web-bonding processes [Source: INDA, 2012]
The drylaid process has continually progressed and has established itself
as the primary web forming technique. It is however very varied, especially
in terms of web bonding. In recent years, there has been a remarkable
increase of hydro-entangling, particularly related to the development of
wiping applications (Schoffmann and Schwend 1991; INDA 2007). Airlaid
fabrics using short fibers, which are the latest newcomer, are also making
quick progress. Although the wetlaid sectors have doubled their inputs in that
same time span, this appears to be insignificant when compared to the other
processes. The market consumption of nonwovens in different application

areas are shown in Figure 1.8.
Others
13%
Hygiene
26%
Construction
13%
Other
Medical
industrials
5%
4%
Wipes
Automotive
12%
6%
HF&B
Filtration 9%
7% Apparel
5%
Figure 1.8 Worldwide Nonwoven Consumption in Leading Application areas

[Source: INDA, 2012]
From Figure 1.8, it is clear that the hygiene sector plays a vital role
in consumption of nonwovens. Nonwovens are widely employed in the
development of incontinence products and also in the baby care sector like
cover stocking, leg cuffs, tapes, acquisition/distribution layer, textile back
sheets, etc. Unfortunately, the oligopolistic market condition in the hygiene
sector has caused the nonwovens manufacturers to reap lower profits in this
sector (EDANA 2014). Another sector, which took off recently, is the wipes
sector, be it for personal, industrial or household applications. The geotextiles
and roofing applications have trebled in 15 years time.
1.5 Features of nonwoven fabrics

Nonwovens neither depend on an organized geometrical structure or the
interlacing of yarn for internal cohesion. They are essentially the effect of the
relationship between a single fiber and another. Hence nonwoven fabrics have
characteristics of their own, with new or improved properties (absorption,
filtration). These properties open them up to a wider range of applications.
Nonwovens are versatile owing to their ability to provide innovative,
economical and sometimes unexpected solutions to innumerable business
challenges. Innovative products and solutions can be created using
nonwovens which helps to solve intricate problems and meet specific needs
by incorporating appropriate properties. These properties are frequently used

in combinations to create fabrics suited for specific end use, while achieving
a decent balance between product use-life and cost (Batra and Pourdeyhimi
2012). By selecting suitable raw materials and methods or by adopting
finishing treatments to nonwovens, such as printing, embossing, moulding,
laminating etc, the desired properties can be developed in the nonwovens. The
basic properties expected from nonwovens are given in Table 1.4.
Table 1.4 Properties of nonwoven fabrics
• Abrasion resistant • Lint free • Elastic

• Absorbent • Liquid repellent • Filtration
• Antistatic • Long-lasting • Flame resistant
• Biodegradable • Mouldable • Foldable
• Breathable • Non-conductive • Glueable
• Colour fast • Non-fading • Heat sealable
• Conductive • Permeable • Impermeable
• Crease resistant • Porous • Ironable
• Dense • Printable • Kind to skin
• Drapeable • Protective • Light
• Dry cleanable • Tear resistant • Resilient
• Durable • Washable • Rot and mildew resistant
• Dust free • Weatherproof • Sewable
• Dyeable • Weldable • Smooth
• Stiff • Stretchable • Soft
• Strong • Sterilisable • Stable
1.6 Raw materials for nonwovens

The three main categories of raw materials used to produce a nonwoven fabric
are:
• Fibers
• Binders
• Additives
1.6.1 Fibers
Nonwoven structures are fundamentally composed of fibers. Consequently,
the utility properties and performance of a nonwoven is dependent on the
fibers used to a significant extent. A fiber may be defined as any natural
or manmade substance, characterized by a high ratio of length to width,
flexibility, a certain minimum strength, elasticity and sufficient temperature

stability which is suitable for being processed into a fabric.
The choice of fibers in the manufacture of nonwovens is markedly
dependent on intended application of the fabric such as strength characteristics,
abrasion resistance, resistance to water, chemicals, weather and light. A
wide range of fibers, both natural and manmade, has been employed in the
production of nonwovens. Almost all the fibers known to mankind have been
used in the production of nonwovens at one time or another. However, the
commercially significant nonwoven fabrics have been restricted to relatively
few types of fibers, owing to their availability and properties (Batra 1989).
These include both the conventional fibers, as well as the high performance
fibers. The properties of the final nonwoven product depend on the choice of
fibers. The factors influencing the choice of fibers are customer requirement,
cost, process ability, changes of properties because of web formation and
consolidation. The fibers can be in the form of staple fiber, filament or even
yarn. Table 1.5 lists the significant fibers used in the nonwovens industry all
over the world. The world consumption pattern of different natural as well as
synthetic fibers is shown in Figure 1.9.
Table 1.5 Fibers used in nonwoven industry
Traditional fibers High performance fibers

• PET • Aramid (Nomex/Kevlar)
• Polyolefin (PP/PE) • Conductive Nylon
• Nylon • Bi-component
• Cotton • Melamine (heat & flame resistant)
• Rayon • Superabsorbent
• Wool • Hollow fibers
• Lyocell • Spandex fibers (polyether)
• Modacrylic • Fusible co-PET fiber
• PA-6 support/matrix fiber
• Glass micro-fiber
• Chlorofiber
• Antibacterial fiber
• Stainless steel
• Rubber thread
• PTFE
• Nanofibers
Figure 1.9 World consumption of raw materials [Source: ANFA, EDANA, INDA]
Wood pulp is the only natural fiber to be used in large quantities in the
nonwoven industry. Wood pulp is characterized by high water absorbency,
bulk and low cost which makes it preferable despite of being far shorter in
length than the traditional fibers. Cotton fibers facilitate easy fabrication into
nonwovens owing to their excellent inherent properties. The disposables
and sanitary products sector extensively makes use of viscose rayon fibers.
Rayon fibers can be effectively processed into webs and easily bonded into
nonwovens fabrics (Hansen 1993). The fibers like cotton, rayon and acetate,
being composed of cellulose, are moisture absorbent in nature. This moisture
absorbing tendency makes them act as carriers for microbes, thereby providing
them strength along with biodegradability.
Viscose rayon was a prominently used in the nonwovens manufacturing
until 1985. Over the years, the US and Western Europe have gradually cut down
the production of viscose rayon due to higher costs of the fiber. The reduction
in the costs of PP and PET in comparison with viscose rayon, (especially there
was big drop in 1989) and the inherent superior tensile properties of these
fibers forced the slow decline of shipment of viscose rayon fibers. Due to
the cleanliness and absorptive properties of viscose rayon fibers, nonwovens
manufactured from these are mainly utilized in medical/surgical/sanitary
sectors and in wet wipes (Lee and Cassill 2006). Likewise, the tampon and
incontinence products make use of cotton fibers. The utilization of cotton
fibers has stabilized at 40–45 million pounds.
Polypropylene (PP) is the most widely used man-made fiber. PP fibers
are well-known for their hydrophobicity, voluminous and thermoplastic
nature. PP is cheap and possesses good rheological characteristics to form
fine fibers. Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) is used in nonwovens requiring
tensile strength and mechanical properties to a greater extent. Nylon fibers are
utilized in nonwovens owing to their excellent resiliency properties (Albrecht
2003). Being more expensive than most of the other fibers, nylon is less used.
The other “special fibers” listed in Table 1.1 have only a limited market share,
probably no more than 15 percent of the whole nonwovens market.
Bi-component fibers, fibers containing dissimilar polymers in the core
and sheath find extensive applications in thermally bonded nonwovens. The
segmented pie and islands in sea structures are recent developments in bi-
component fiber structures. The nature of the product being manufactured and
the fabrication process being used determines the properties required by the
constituent fibers. Considering that each manufacturing process produces a
range of fabrics with distinct properties, all the fibers cannot be used in equal
volumes in all nonwoven processes.
In spite of the availability of a large number of fibers, few fibers namely,
the polyolefins, polyester, and rayon dominate the commercially important
nonwoven fabrics. These three fibers constitute a major share of the nonwovens
market. The olefin-based fibers are gaining constantly importance, replacing
the natural fibers, viscose rayon and polyester in many applications. This shift
in fiber consumption can be regarded as the effect of increased use of olefin-
based nonwovens in absorbent products around the world.
The reasons for high consumption of PP in nonwoven sector are due to
the following properties:
• Low density enabling lightweight fabrics to be made
• Low glass transition and melting temperature, economical for thermal
bonding
• Inherent hydrophobicity
• Good bulk and cover
• Chemical stability
• Resistance to mildew, perspiration
• Stain and soil release
• Good mechanical strength and abrasion resistance
The two unconventional fibers emerging in nonwoven applications
namely, bicomponent fibers and nanofibers are discussed in detail below.
1.6.1.1 Bi-component fibers

Bicomponent fibers can be defined as fibers composed of two components
which are distributed over the entire length of the fiber. Each component may
possess different physical or chemical properties. The components may either
be similar polymers or entirely different polymer types (Russell 2007). By
“co-extruding” two polymers into one single fiber, the different properties
of both polymers are combined. Hence the newly created fiber has improved
properties and can be designed to suit many new applications. The properties
of the individual components, the choice of combination of the different
polymers, additives and the shape of the bicomponent fiber are the major
factors influencing the resultant properties and possible applications of the
bicomponent fibers.
Common bicomponent configurations

Most commercially available bicomponent fibers are configured in a sheath/
core, side-by-side, or eccentric sheath/core arrangement as shown in Figure
1.10.
(a) Concentric sheath/core (b) Eccentric sheath/core (c) Side-by-side (d) Pie Wedge (e) Island/Sea
Figure 1.10 Types of bi-component fibers [Source: www.centexbel.be]
(a) Concentric sheath/core

This concentric sheath/core configuration is mainly used in melt fibers; fibers
with a sheath made of polymers with a low melting point around a core with
a high melting point. When melt fibers are heated, the sheath will melt; the
consequent cooling will bind the nonwoven or composite structure without
affecting the core polymer. This configuration can also be used to produce
fibers with an expensive core with weaker/cheaper polymer layer forming the
sheath and vice versa.
(b) Eccentric sheath/core
In the eccentric sheath/core configuration, the core polymer is eccentric or
moved out of the radial centre. Both the polymers have different shrinking
ratios, causing the fiber to curl when it is heated in a relaxed state. This process
adds to add crimp and volume to the fiber.
(c) Side-by-side
In the side-by-side configuration, both the polymers occupy an equal part
of the fiber surface. Depending on the difference in shrinkage nature of the
chosen polymers, the fiber may develop more crimp than the eccentric sheath/
core configuration.
(d) Pie wedge

This construction contains sixteen adjoining “pie wedges”. Every pie wedge
of a particular polymer A is separated from wedges of the same polymer on
both sides by wedges of another polymer B. The pie wedge arrangement is
made to split into microfibers of 0.1 to 0.2 denier be the action of mechanical
forces.
(e) Islands/Sea
In this configuration, polymer A represents the islands, and polymer B
represents the sea. This fiber structure facilitates numerous fine filaments of
one polymer to be dispersed in the matrix of another soluble polymer. By
dissolving the latter, the fabric structure is made up on the basis of very fine
microfibers. Hence, microfibers can also be produced in this method apart
from the direct extrusion methods.
These five basic configurations can be adapted in function of the desired
fiber or yarn properties. It is for example possible to limit the number of
islands to produce conductive yarns. On the other hand, it is possible to
provide a hole in the pie-wedge configuration (hollow pie wedge) to split
the filaments even more easily. The yarn diameter can be adapted to produce
trilobal (instead of round) filaments with a sheath/core or side/side structure
for carpet applications.
Polymers for bi-component fibers
A wide range of polymers apart from the regular polymers like polyethylene
terephthalate (PET), nylon, and polypropylene (PP) can be used in
a bicomponent fiber. Polymers such as polycyclohexanedimethanol
terephthalate, polytrimethylene terephthalate, polybutylene terephthalate,
PET glycol and a huge range of copolyesters are being utilized. Aliphatic
polyesters such as polylactic acid and polyhydroxyalkanoates, which are
environment friendly and derivable from renewable sources are gaining
importance.
The range of available polyamides and polyolefins has been augmented
by the co-polymerisation technology. The expanded range include nylon 6;
nylon 6,6; nylon 11 and nylon 12; copolyamides; high-density polyethylene
(HDPE); linear low-density LDPE; syndiotactic PP; and polymethylpentene.
But the most captivating aspect is the application of engineering polymers
in nonwovens manufacturing. These polymers have extra-ordinary properties
but their usage in commodity applications has been restricted by their costs.
The list of engineering polymers includes polyphenylene sulfide, polyvinyl
alcohol, polyetherimide, and thermoplastic polyurethanes and many more
polymers are also available.
Applications of bicomponent fibers

Bicomponent fibers can provide:
• Thermal bonding
• Self bulking/self crimping
• Very fine fibers (microfibers/nanofibers)
• Unique cross sections
• The functionality of special polymers or additives at reduced cost
Applications requiring engineering polymers make use of the basic
sheath/core configuration. Engineered polymers having excellent surface
properties can be used as the sheath in bicomponent fibers. Subsequently, the
fiber’s core can be made with a suitable lower-cost polymer. This helps to
deliver the benefits of the more expensive polymer at a lower cost.
Side-by-side bicomponent fibers typically are based on the difference in
shrinkage characteristics between the two polymers to produce self crimping
fibers. The application of heat introduces shrinkage in the fibers. On the
application of heat, the two polymers shrink at different rates, causing the
fiber to curl into a helix. Hence the nonwoven can be manufactured flat and
can be made to expand during application.
Microfibers are produced using the pie wedge configuration. Direct
spinning of microfibers is a costly process producing low throughputs. Also
direct spinning of microfibers cannot produce fibers as fine as 0.3 to 0.5 denier
per filament (dpf) – and expensive, as throughputs are low. Whereas spinning
a 2–3 dpf pie-wedge fiber overcomes the throughput limitations (Gamayunov
et al. 1994). Once a nonwoven web is formed from these fibers, it can be
split into microfibers usually about 16 segments per fiber by subjecting to
mechanical agitation like hydroentangling process. This drastically reduces
the cost of production compared to direct spinning. Further advancements
are hollow and partial-wrap versions of this cross section that improve of the
fiber›s relative splittability.
The sea/islands configuration also generates microfibers. In this case,
the microfibers are obtained by dissolution of the sea polymer in a suitable
solvent – typically, a light, hot caustic bath or warm water. The nonwoven
fabric made of sea/islands fibers is passed through the solvent bath to produce
the microfiber fabric. One major drawback associated with this method
is that some of the microfibers may also be washed down the drain. More
finer microfibers can be produced using this configuration compared to the
piewedge configuration.
Advantages of bicomponent thermal binder fibers

• Uniform distribution of adhesive can be achieved
• Fiber remains as a part of the structure and adds integrity
• Customized sheath materials can be selected to bond various materials
• Wide range of bonding temperatures
• Cleaner and environmentally friendly fabrication (no effluent)
• Recyclable
• Lamination/molding/densification of composites also possible
1.6.1.2 Nano fibers

The National Science Foundation (NSF) defines nanofibers as fibers having
at least one dimension of 100 nanometer (nm) or less. But in general, the
nonwoven industry treats fibers having a diameter of less than one micron
as nanofibers. Nanofibers are a relatively new class of materials utilized in
many important applications like medical, filtration, barrier, wipes, personal
care, composite, garments, insulation, and energy storage (Huang et al. 2003).
Nanofibers find applications in many sectors ranging from medical to consumer
products and industrial to high-tech applications for aerospace, capacitors,
transistors, drug delivery systems, battery separators, energy storage, fuel
cells, and information technology owing to their unique properties.
By and large, the electro spinning process is adopted to produce polymeric
nanofibers. The fibers produced by this process have diameters ranging from
10 nm to several hundred nanometers. The factors influencing the spun fiber
properties include field uniformity, polymer viscosity, electric field strength
and DCD (distance between nozzle and collector).
Alternatively, nanofibers can be produced by spinning bi-component
fibers with Islands-In-The-Sea configuration. Usually, these bi-component
fibers are spun in deniers of 1–3 with about 240 to as much as 1120 filaments
of one polymer surrounded by a dissolvable polymer (Subbiah et al.
2005). On dissolving the surrounding polymer, the matrix of nanofibers is left
behind, which can be further subjected to stretching or mechanical agitation.
Fibers such as nylon, polystyrene, polyacrylonitrile, polycarbonate, PEO,
PET and water-soluble polymers are commonly used. The island: sea
ratio in the bicomponent fiber is generally around 80:20. The resulting
nanofibers will have a diameter of approximately 300 nm (Bognitzki et al.
2001; Baumgarten 1971). In comparison with electrospinning, nanofibers
produced from bicomponent fibers are coarser and will have a very narrow
diameter range.
Properties of nanofibers
Nanofibers are characterized by special properties chiefly due to extremely
high surface to weight ratio compared to conventional nonwovens. Nanofiber
nonwovens are suitable for specific filtration applications due to its low
density, large surface area to mass, high pore volume, and tight pore size.
Application of nanofibers
Nanofiber webs have higher surface area compared to meltblown webs and
hence have substituted meltblown webs in critical filtration areas. Their highly
porous structure with high surface area makes them ideal for many filtration
applications. These nonwovens are most suitable for filtering submicron
particles from air or water. Some of the applications of nanofiber-based
nonwovens are aerosol filters, facemasks, and protective clothing (Li and Xia
2004). Recently, military fabrics make use of laminated layers of nanofibers
along with carbon fibers to enhance chemical and biological protection.
Nanofibers are also utilized in medical applications like drug and genes
delivery, artificial blood vessels, artificial organs, and medical facemasks. In
this field, carbon fiber hollow nano tubes which are finer than the blood vessels
are widely use. These carbon fiber hollow nano tubes have potential to carry
drugs into the blood cells thus enabling medicines to be directly transferred to
internal tissues (Baumgarten 1971). Companies like Johnson & Johnson and
Genzyme Corporation have developed anti-adhesion materials. Researchers
have developed nanofibers from compounds naturally present in blood for
applications in bandages and sutures which are capable of gradually dissolving
in blood. It has the advantages of reduced infection rates, minimized blood
loss and is capable of disintegrating without causing harm to the body
Layered composite structures are used to meet specific filtration
applications. These filters are composed with multiple meltblown layers
structured using fine to coarse filaments to constitute the bulk. These MB
layers are combined nanofiber webs. The MB layers incorporate fluid
resistance properties and the nanofiber layers provide smoothness for health,
wear and comfort (Doshi and Reneker 1995).
1.6.2 Binders
In fiber bonding, adhesives are usually polymeric in nature and for optimum
performance the adhesive-fiber combination should have most of these
characteristics:
• Polarity – The adhesive and fiber should be of similar polarity. Thus,
polar water soluble animal glue will stick to cellulose as both are
highly polar. But rubber adhesive will not adhere to cellulose.

• Surface tension – The adhesive must be capable of wetting the fiber,
thus reducing the surface energy between the adhesive and fiber.
This essentially means lowering the contact angle between the two
surfaces.
• Surface properties of fibers – The fiber characteristics, especially
physical surface properties, are also determinant of magnitude of
adhesive bonding strength. The three most important variables are (i)
primary fiber roughness, (ii) fiber cross-section, and (iii) multi-fiber
substrate geometry and porosity.
(a) Primary fiber roughness – With the increase in the roughness
of the fiber the adhesive bond strength increases. However, the
wetting of the fiber by the adhesive is of great importance as
good wetting increases the adhesion.
(b) Fiber cross-section – Generally fibers are of circular cross-
section. However, crenulated cross-section increases the
surface area and as a consequence adhesion increases.
However, this is to be weighed against increased stiffness of
the nonwoven product.
(c) Multi-fiber substrate geometry and porosity – It is known
that substrate geometry and total porosity affect adhesion
characteristics substantially.
• Glass transition temperature (Tg) – One of the most important factor
for adhesive binder in nonwoven is Tg. Hardness and flexibility of the
polymer at normal temperature is dependent on the Tg of the binder.
Tg of the binder is adjusted as per the requirement of the finished
fabrics by copolymerisation of different monomers.
For a long time, the structural integrity is imparted to most of the
nonwovens by means of chemical binder. Moreover, the binders were selected
accordingly to contribute properties required to enhance the performance of
the nonwoven. In the initial stages, nonwovens were bonded using different
types of natural resins and glues. Later on, synthetic binding agents were
engineered to satisfy the requirements in terms of structural and performance
aspects of nonwoven fabrics.
Latex binders provide economical methods of web bonding and achieving
specific properties. In most cases latex binders prove to be cheaper than the
use of special binder fiber. As a general practice, synthetic binders are used
in combination with mechanical and thermal bonding techniques, to achieve
the finished fabric which otherwise cannot be produced by using either one of
the techniques alone (Young 1996). Also, most binder systems are compatible
with pigments and dyes and help in colouration of nonwoven fabrics.
Binders may be classified, by their physical state at the time of
application, into the two broad classifications of dry or wet binders. The
dry systems are made up of thermoplastic fibers or powders. Wet systems
include solutions, of both aqueous and solvent types, as well as polymer
dispersions and emulsions.
1.6.2.1 Dry binders

Attempts have been made to use thermoplastic polymers in powder form
for binding nonwoven fabrics. Some thermoplastic polymer powders have
been developed commercially. Even though these thermoplastic powders
are satisfactory for binding, their usage has been limited due to problems of
uniform powder distribution in the web and holding them in required places
for efficient binding. Meanwhile, the use of thermoplastic fibers is practicable
and is in commercial usage. This method provides a more uniform distribution
of the binder throughout the web, the fiber itself a binder which can be
incorporated into a fiber blend (Young 1996; Morris and Mlynar 1995). The
actual bonding may be achieved by passing the web containing the bonding
fiber between heated smooth or patterned rolls, depending on the type of end
product desired and the amount of bonding fiber present. Infrared or hot air
heating may also be used for bonding.
Theoretically, any fiber which softens and flows at a temperature lower
than that of the remainder of the web can be used as a thermoplastic fiber. In
actual practice, polyviny1 chloride, polyethylene, or vinylidene polymers and
copolymers, polyamides or polyesters or acetate fibers with very low melting
points are used. Thermoplastic fibers offer a number of advantages as binders
for nonwoven fabrics. The exact amount of binder used can be determined
exactly as it is part of the web blend. The distribution of the binding fiber can
be controlled very well depending upon the type of web forming equipment
used. Special impregnating system is not required as the binder was part of
original web (Walton 1996). Thermoplastic fibers may also serve in heat
sealing the product to other materials.
However, thermoplastic fibers have not gained much prominence as
nonwoven binders probably because of the nature of the fibers themselves. To
have a low melt temperature the polymers should have low molecular weight
and therefore inherently low strength. Such fibers generally are not compatible
where for high strength applications. The use of latex binders restricts the
operational flexibility and the type of products being manufactured.
1.6.2.2 Wet binders

Only very few nonwoven fabrics are manufactured using solvent solutions
as binders. Although both the process efficiency and the end product are
excellent, the major problem arises from the use of solvents. The use of
solvents is costly unless recovery systems, which are very expensive, are
available. Furthermore, solvents are hazardous in nature, both by fire and
toxicity (Morris and Mlynar 1995). Water solutions of natural gums, proteins,
starches, and some synthetic water soluble polymers are limited in use as
binders. None of these are used as the primary binder for quality items except
where stiffness can be tolerated as in cheaper decorative fabrics. In some
cases these materials are used as pre-bonding agents before other treatments.
The water-based emulsion systems, which include the polymer lattices
dispersed and stabilised in water medium, are the most versatile and popular
of the nonwoven binders. Their ease of handling and non-hazardous nature
makes them attractive in comparison with other wet binders. Special types of
binders along with their application areas are shown in Table 1.6.
Table 1.6 Special types of binders and their application [Source: Mukherjee et al. 1992]
S. no Type of binders Applications

Acrylic Binders
1. Acrylic acid grafted oxidised starched copolymers Super absorbent wet by nonwovens
cross-linked with N,N’, methylene bisacrylarnide
2. Alkyl methacrylate, methacrylic acid; C-polyol Self-sealing materials for water
methacrylate copolymer roofing cable lines, geotextiles,
medicines
3. Copolymers of unsaturated water soluble Useful for bonding cellulose fibers
carboxylic acid or derivatives and methacrylic acid and pulp in paper, wipes or towels,
hydroxy alkyl ester monomers combined with a diapers
SBR latex
4. Copolymer of 2-ethylhexyl acrylate, styrene, Web-based wallpaper with
acrylic acid & vinyl acetate emulsion starch based extending gluing time.
binder
5. Acrylic polymer emulsion, paraffin emulsion and Moisture permeable – waterproof
water 6 nonwoven fabrics
6. Acrylic acid, Bu-arylate, styrene copolymer (Mol Coated nonwoven emulsion binder
Wt 636000 and Tg 45°C) with reduced flammability
7. Aqueous 65% potassium acrylate cross-linked Highly hygroscopic webs for
with 0.085% N,N’, methyl bisacrylamide disposable diapers
8. Copolymer of CI–4 alkyl acrylates, CI-4 alkyl Binders for nonwovens with good
methacrylates and unsaturated C3-Scarboxylic impregnating properties
acid
9. Emulsion polymer of methyl methacrylate, Emulsion adhesive for heal sealing
ethylhexyl acrylate, methacrylic acid and of tea bags
acrylamide
Contd...
Contd...
10 Butyl-acrylate, styrene copolymer Self cross-linking resin for porous
separator material in batteries
11. Butyl acrylate copolymer Adhesive tape for water proof
fabrics
12. Copolymer of Bu-acrylate, acrylonitrile and Nonwoven material with improved
N-methylol acrylamide ironability
13. Emulsion polymer of acrylic unsaturated Aqueous dispersion type pressure
monomers (homo or copolymer; Tg = 2500K) sensitive adhesives for nonwoven
and aqueous dispersion of polymers prepared by
emulsion polymerization of ethylenic monomers
14. Acrylic acid ester copolymer; blended with 20% Interlining materials with good
SBR emulsion resilience, improved tensile strength
15. Butyl acrylate-vinyl acetate copolymer dispersion Air permeable nonwovens with
shape memory
16. Butyl acrylate, acrylonitrile, N-methylol acrylamide Nonwoven fabric for lining with
copolymer good laundering and dry cleaning
resistance
17. Latex containing acrylic acid-2-ethyl Polyolefin nonwovens with high wet
hexylacrylate-vinyl chloride-vinylidine chloride strength retention
copolymer
18. Carbonized sulfonated styrene-di-vinyl benzene Spun-bonded nonwoven protective
copolymer later o a suitable acrylate fabric having flame resistant and
flexibility
19. Acrylic polymer emulsion blend with ethylene vinyl Stretchable wrinkle fibrous sheet
acetate copolymer
20. Acrylic acid-acrylonitrile copolymer Hygroscopic products for sanitary
goods and sealing materials
21. Acrylic resin modified with chlorohexidine Antibacterial electric fiber webs
for filters and wipers are prepared
using the binder
22. Emulsion polymer of acrylic acid ester, M.F. resin, Laminated pattern paper for textile
organic amine printing
23. Acrylic polymer emulsion (Tg – 80–0°C) Two ply nonwoven fabric laminate
24. Cross-linkable polyacrylates impregnated with Non-blocking, non cross-linking
binder containing 10% silicone dispersion adhesively bonded fleeces
25. Vinyl chloride emulsion blended with small High loft polyester nonwovens.
amount of aminoplast Good flame resistance better
wash and dry-cleaning resistance,
resilience and compression
recovery
26. Ethylene-vinyl chloride copolymer Laminates of nonwoven fabric
with wood composite base for rear
package automobile interiors
27. Polyvinyl chloride emulsion Antistatic finish for textile and carpet
backings
28. Vinyl chloride-vinylidine chloride- copolymer or Chemical resistant fabrics for
Ethylene vinyl acetate copolymer protective garments
Contd...
Contd...

29. Vinyl chloride homo or copolymer with plasticiser Fire resistant particulate binders for
and chemical stabiliser automobile felts
30. PVC emulsion binders Glass fiber nonwovens with good
tensile strength, breaking strength
31. Ethylene vinyl ester-vinyl chloride copolymer Composition for fabric and paper
binder emulsion
32. Ethylene vinyl acetate copolymer emulsion Synthetic nonwovens for retention
of volatile liquid
33. Ethyl vinyl acetate copolymer Adhesives for bonding textiles
(polyester cotton fabrics)
34. Polyvinyl acetate aqueous emulsion Thermal insulating nonwoven bulky
product
35. Ethylene vinyl acetate copolymer blended with Coated nonwoven fabric with
40% SBR latex increased oil adsorption
36. Polyvinyl acetate, blended with lubricating oil, Reinforcing glass fiber material
epichlorohydrin-polyamide copolymers
37. Copolymers of ethylene, vinyl acetate and Nonwoven textiles
N-methylol compound
38. Aqueous latexes or emulsion of vinyl acetate and Ageing resistant, cold sealable
natural rubber coatings for packaging materials
39. Polyvinyl acetate hot melt adhesive Interlining
40. Ethylene vinyl acetate copolymer emulsion Highly absorptive binders for
polyester nonwovens
41. Polymer of ethylenic unsaturated carboxylic acid Water-resistant binders for
with ethylene or vinyl acetate and compound polyester nonwovens
containing atidirine
42. Vinyl butyl resin solution Nonwoven reinforcement for
composite (carbon fiber and glass
fiber)
SBR BINDERS
43. SBR latex binder, mica, titanium pigment, kaolin Nonwoven coated paper or cloth
clay, sodium pyrophate, casein, ammonia, with pearly gloss, good printed
antifoaming agent gloss and printability
44. Binder comprises a copolymer of butadiene Nonwoven webs for sanitary use
styrene, ethynically unsaturated carboxylic acid
45. SBR latexes of acrylate polymers High strength, high modulus
interlining fabrics
46. Emulsion of styrene butadiene, MAA, Binders for nonwoven fabrics for
N(butoxymethyl acrylamide) imparting stiffness, water and
solvent resistance
47. Carboxylated SBR (carboxy content 0.5–2%) Alkali resistance nylon nonwoven
fabrics for elastic rolls
48. SBR latex, U.F. resin, ethylene glycol, Na CM- General adhesives for nonwovens
cellulose
49. Carboxylated SBR latex Carpet backing adhesive
Contd...
Contd...

50. Copolymer latex of butadiene, styrene and Hydrophobic nonwoven fabrics
acrylamide suitable for use as diaper
coverstock, prepared by bonding
polyester fibers with the binder
51. SBR latex Nonwoven fabrics for floor
covering with good pilling and wear
resistance (carpet water proofing
siloxane)
NBR Binders
52. Butadiene aerylonitrile latexes Impregnating heat sensitive binder
for nonwoven fabrics
53. Carboxyl containing butadiene acrylonitrile latex Polyester fabric nonwoven polishing
and a dispersion of chloroprene-Me methacrylate material
copolymer
54. Different binder layers of vulcanised nitrile rubber Laminated floor covering (Floor
and plasticised PVC covering consist of a base of
nonwoven needle punched fabric,
a layer of vulcanised nitrile rubber,
and a layer of plasticized PVC)
55. Nitrile rubber phenolic blend Abrasive nonwoven polyester
fabrics with high tensile strength
56. Carboxylated nitrile rubber latex crosslinked with Nonwoven fabric lining and filtering
hexamethylol melamine material with high strength
Natural rubber
57. Natural rubber Adhesive tape coated on both sides
with adhesive
Other types
58. Phenol formaldehyde resin Laminates of carbon fleece and
graphite foil with improved flexural,
compressive strength, thermal
conductivity and permeability
Nonwovens glass wool or rock wool
for thermal insulation
59. Water soluble phenolics, urea resins and Thermosetting adhesive sheets
optionally ureas
60. Powdered adhesive containing hydro-quinone Impregnating compositions for
diglycidyl ether polymer, phenolic novolak, nonwoven glass fabric with high
2-methyl imidazole flexibility, elasticity and improved
deformation properties
61. Bisphenol-A epoxy resin Waterproof sheets are prepared
by forming a nonwoven fabric from
blends containing melt-resistant
synthetic fibers with low softening
temperature and vinyl fibers on a
paper making machine and then
impregnating the web with melted
asphalt
62. Asphalt binder Water resistant felt of nonwoven
cloth
Contd...
Contd...

63. Coal tar and coal pitch 100, PVC 8–14, calcium Filter media are prepared by
stearate and tribasic lead sulfate 0.S-2, plasticizer dispersing inorganic micro-fibers
4–12, talc 50–70 having negative zeta potential in
the binder
64. Thermosetting polyamine-epichloro-hydrin resin. Glass fiber, polyester fiber (SO: 50)
A precipitating agent is added to precipitate the laminates with improved bendability
binder and coat the fibers
65. Bisphenol-A epoxy resins containing 30% Aramid fiber nonwoven laminates
epoxidised polybutadiene and 20% Br for printed circuit board
66. Epoxy resin modified with phenol or cresol Adhesives for interlinings with
novolak improved softness, shear strength,
flexibility, peel strength
67. Epoxy modified silicone emulsion, polyether Insulating nonwoven fabric
modified silicone oil
68. Epoxy resin Filtering material (laminated
with bulky nonwoven fabric from
polyester fibers and nylon fibers)
69. Emulsion copolymer of epichlorohydrin, Useful for bonding acrylic nonwoven
bisphenol-A modified with amino polyamide and fabrics to polystyrene (Laminates
glass beads having good bonding strength)
70. Polyesters or epoxy resins modified with cis-3- Luminescent nonwoven textile
methyl 4-cyclohexane, cis 1,2-di-carboxylic add or
its anhydride are grafted with styrene
71. Acrylic or vinyl binder Products (e.g. carpets, wall
coverings) for improving orientation
and safety in dark rooms, are
prepared by adding a luminescent
material having a long after glow,
such as Cu-activated Zns, to
binder or dyeing the fibers with a
luminescent dye because of poor
wet adhesion
72. UV curable binder, i.e. binders, are emulsion These binders are used in pp
polymers (do not contain solvent, monomer, nonwoven fabric. UV light or UV
HCHO or other toxic materials) irradiation induced reaction between
binder and pp by cross-linking
73. Polyurethane Leather substitutes or leather-like
materials
1.6.2.3 Evaluation of properties and testing of binders

Evaluation of binder adhesives is essential, (i) to assist in selecting an adhesive
for a particular use, (ii) to monitor the quality of an incoming product, and (iii)
to confirm the effectiveness of the bonding process.
The most commonly used tests for properties of adhesive materials
measure viscosity, shelf life, pot life, tack, cure rate, per cent solids and applied
weight per unit area. Besides, to evaluate the performance characteristics of
the binders, the following tests may also be carried out:
• Adhesion (peel, shear, tensile cleavage)

• Impact resistance
• Resistance to environmental effects (heat, condensing humidity, salt
spray, temperature cycles)
• Flexibility
• Strength retention
1.6.3 Additives
Many materials apart from the constituent fibers are used in the manufacture,
bonding and finishing of nonwoven webs. Some additive materials form an
integral part of the nonwoven and added to the fiber or filament structure during
web laying. Examples of such additives are thermally active powders and
absorbents. But many of the additives are applied in one form or another to the
preformed web usually after bonding and are treated as an auxiliary process.
1.7 Product properties and applications of

nonwovens
The properties and application of nonwoven products based on different web
formation technique and web-binding methods are given in Tables 1.7 and
1.8, respectively.
Table 1.7 Properties and application of nonwoven based on web formation methods
Web forming Web bonding Properties Applications

Drylaid nonwoven
Carded parallel laid Latex Saturation, Print • High MD strength • Headrest covers
• Low CD strength • Interlinings
• Wet strength • Cable insulation
retention • Fabric softeners
• Reasonable softness • Filtration
(binder selection) • ‘Pop-up’ wipes
• Low cost
Carded crosslaid Latex Saturation, Print Better MD / CD tensile • Wipes
ration than parallel laid • CD liners
• Dusters
• Table covers / Table
napkins
Carded Mechanically Latex Saturation, Print • Flexural strength • Dry and wet wipes
randomized Hydroentangled • MD / CD approaching • Filtration
isotropic • Medical fabrics
• Good wet strength
• Low lint
• Binder free
• Absorbent substrate Contd...
Contd...

Carded and airformed Latex Spray, Foam; • Low density • Thermal insulation
highloft Thermal Through-air stabilized web • Automotive liners
• Layered structures • Filtration
Wet-laid nonwoven
Wet laid • Cellulose (hydrogen • High web uniformity • Surfacing veils and
- Rotary former bonding) • Isotropic webs tissues
- Inclined wire • Wet end addition of possible • Filtration liquid and
latex • Moderate to high MD air
• Thermal bonding / CD strength • Very high
through the addition • Wide web weight temperature
of fusible fibers range 8 g/m² to 1000 insulation
• Inorganic binder g/m² and higher • Low temperature
systems • 100% inorganic webs cryogenics
• Wall coverings
• Coating substrates
• Window curtains
• Shoe components
• Flocking substrates
• Battery separators
• Electrolytic layers
• Roofing – glass /
polyester
• Teabags
• Surgical wrap
Short Fiber Airlaid • Hydrogen bonded • Lower strength but • Food contact
(point pressure) no added binders absorbent products
• Hydroentangled / • Web produced • Feminine Hygiene
thermal with bicomponent products
fibers initially • Acquisition layers
hydroentangled and
• Wipes
then thermally set
• Top end of market
product – reduced
(zero) linting
• Improved strength
Spunbond nonwoven
Spunbond Thermal • Improved strength • Medical gowns
Polypropylene – breathability • Shoe covers
lightweight • Resistance to fluid • Sterilizable packs
penetration
• Baby diaper
Lint free coverstock
• Sterilizable (some • Feminine hygiene
systems)
• Adult incontinence
• Can be made
• Composites –
impervious to
protective clothing
bacteria
Contd...
Contd...

Spunbond • Thermal • Chemical / Physical • Building wrap
Polypropylene – heavy • Needlepunch stability • Geotextile – drainage
weight • High strength / cost • Stabilization
ratio • Erosion control
• Automotive trim
• Carpet backing
Spunbond Polyester – • Thermal / Thermal • High temperature • Roofing substrates
heavy weight set stability • Geotextiles (some
• Needlepunch • Porosity / strength soil types)
Spunbond Bicomponent • Thermal • High strength / low • Coverstock

web weight very soft
with low temperature
bonding
Meltblown nonwoven
Meltblown • Thermal • Microfiber structures • Oil absorption
Polypropylene • Electric charging 10–20 microns • Barrier (composite)
1–5 micron layers
L
ess than 1 micron • Filtration HEPA and
• Microfiber structure ULPA artificial leather
• High opacity • Thermal insulation
(clothing)
• Acquisition layers
sanitary napkin and
panty shields
Meltblown Elastomeric Stretch bonded Elastic structures • Side panels in
Training pants
• Feminine hygiene
products
Meltblown Poly vinyl Thermal Water dispersible Flushable products
alcohol
Table 1.8 Properties and application of nonwoven based on web bonding methods
Bonding Binder type Application Positive Negative Applications

technology method aspects aspects
Mechanical Bonding
Mechanical – • Uses web • Use of • Strong bonded • Not very • Geotextiles
needlepunch matrix fiber purpose fabrics without suitable for • Roofing
• Sometimes built needle additional low web • Automotive
combined with looms such binders weights • Carpet
latex and/or as DILO, particularly backings
thermal FEHRER, suitable for
ASSELIN heavy weight
etc. and high
denier fabrics
Mechanical – • Uses web • Use of • High • Low • Furniture/
stitchbonding matrix fiber purpose built productivity output rate furnishings
• Most machines compared to compared • Automotive
stitchbonded such as knitted fabrics to other • Shoes
fabrics are MALIMO, nonwoven • insulation
made with ARACHNE, processes
added threads MALIWATT
etc. Contd...
Contd...

Mechanical •U
ses web • Use of • Binder free • High cost • Medical fabrics
– hydro- matrix fiber purpose build materials (slowly • Wipes
entanglement •C
an be machines • Very good reducing) of
• Coating
combined with with high strength/ process and
substrates
thermal and/or energy water stiffness equipment
jets such • Furnishing
latex bonding relationship • Significant
as REITER fabrics
• Lint free webs ‘learning’
PERFOJET, curve • Protective
FLEISSNER • High clothing
etc absorbency
Chemical Bonding
Chemical - • Acrylics • Impregnation • Web saturated • Loss of • Roofing
latex •S
tyrene/ • Spray with binder porosity and polyester and
butadiene – maximum absorbency glass
• Foam
strength • Stiffness • Flooring
•E
thyl vinyl • Print bond
acetate • Useful for high • High drying • Batts
• Precipitation loft webs
•N
itriles energy • Highloft
(wetlaid only)
• Economical requirement nonwovens
•E
lastomers
Surface only • Good • Short fiber
•P
VC
effect housekeep- airlaid
• Much lower ing essential
• Battery
energy to avoid
separators
required contamina-
tion • Medical
• Penetrates
• Modern • Wall coverings
web without
blocking strength • Ceiling tiles
• Bonded area • Loose • Flooring
controlled by fibers in substrates
print pattern non-bonded • Wipes
areas
• Absorbency • Medical
maintained • Can be
difficult to • Gaskets
• Incorporation • Book covers
control
of colours and
other chemical • Loose • Ceramics
treatments surface fibers • Battery
• Deposits separators
binder in web
formation
stage
• Good strength
per unit of
binder
Chemical - •H
ydrated • Wet • High • Stiffness • High
inorganic aluminium deposition temperature • Low (but temperature
hydroxide binders adequate) insulation
•H
ydrated strength
silicic acid
Chemical - •U
ses the • High intensity • No added • Bonding only • Feminine
hydrogen ability of heated binder at densified hygiene
cellulose to calender points • Food contact
form hydrogen absorbents
bonds when
water is
present
Contd...
Contd...

Chemical - •U
ses solvation • Gas/liquid • No added • Partly • Building wrap
solvent of surface treatment binder solvated nylon spunlaids
layer of matrix usually surface
fiber at raised
temperature
Thermal Bonding
Thermal – •P
olyethylene • Matrix • Chemical • Bonded • Point bonded
fusible fibers •P
olypropylene • Used with nature of area can be spunlaid and
polyester ‘binder’ same destroyed meltblown
•C
opolyesters
calender, as main under tensile webs
through-air component stress (point • Point bonded
or ultrasonic fiber bonding) carded web of
application of • Physical polypropylene
heat properties • Coverstock
maximised for • Leg cuff
a given bond materials
area • Wipes
• Protective
clothing
• Cloth-like
backsheets
Thermal – •P
olyethylene • Sprinkle bar • Open bonded • Some powder • Clothing
fusible powder •C
opolymers addition onto structure binders insulation
pre-formed (highloft) difficult to • Filtration
•C
opolyesters
fiber web • Re-loftable retain in web • packaging
• Fused by fabrics
application
of heat in flat
oven
Thermal – •P
P/PE • Fiber added • Range of • Surface fiber • Pre-formed
bicomponents •P
ET/CoPET at web bicomponent linting absorbent
forming stage fibers now • Relatively products
•P
P/PA
available low strength by short
•P
VALC/PE etc • Good bond fabrics fiber airlaid
strength produced technology
• Bond cellulose • Thermoforma-
fibers ble webs
effectively
• Absorbency
largely
retained
Thermal – high •G
lass • Melted by • Useful for • Brittle bonds • Ceramics
temperature heat bonding • Requires • Silica
fusible fibers • Fibers added inorganic fiber additional • Alumina
at web webs ‘green • High
forming stage strength’ temperature
binder insulation
References
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2
Web formation
Abstract: This chapter discusses about the various methods of web formation
such as dry laid, wet laid and spun laid for nonwoven production. The details of
raw material requirements, working mechanism and characteristics of dry laid
and wet laid process have also been provided. The fibre preparation methods,
card and various kinds of web stacking process such as parallel lay, cross lay,
perpendicular lay and random lay have been discussed in detail. The raw material
requirements and product characteristics of polymer-laid processes such as spun-
bond and melt-blown are discussed in detail.
Key words: batt, dry lay, wet lay, air lay, spunbond, melt blown
2.1 Introduction
Nonwoven manufacturing is basically a continuous process in which the web
laying and web bonding are performed by two consecutive machines. A web is
nothing but a thin layer of fiber distribution. In the web laying process, several
webs are laid on top of each other to form a batt, which is taken directly to
bonding. Nonwoven can be classified based on web formation techniques as
shown in Figure 2.1.
Web formation from
Staple fiber system Polymer system
1. Spunbond
1. Dry Laid 2. Meltblown
• Carding
• Aerodynamic (Air lay)
• Centrifugal dynamic
(Random carding)
2. Wet laid
Figure 2.1 Classification of nonwoven based on web formation techniques

Web formation 35
Wet and dry laid technologies are the main methods of batt formation.
Alternative methods of batt formation like the spunbonding and meltblown
technologies were developed later. The contributions of each web laying
technology to the entire nonwovens market are: Wet laid nonwovens – 16.0%;
dry laid nonwovens – 44%; air-laid – 3%; spunbonding and meltblown about
– 37% (Russel 1997, Balasubramanian 2009). Versatility, process flexibility
and ability to produce wide range of products make the dry lay systems more
popular. The wet lay technology has been adapted from the paper-making
industry, which processes very short fibers into highly even web structures
with good flow through properties.
The polymer-based web forming system is based on the polymer
extrusion technology. This system is similar to the synthetic filament and
yarn manufacturing process. It has two major subdivisions: the spunbonding
process and the meltblown process. In the spunbond process, the polymer
chips are converted into a molten form and forced through the small holes
in the spinneret (Balasubramanian 2004). The web structure is formed
by collecting and condensing the extruded individual filaments from the
spinneret on a forming apron. The second system is the meltblown process.
The molten polymer being extruded at the spinneret is subjected to hot,
rapidly moving air at the extrusion point. This causes the extruded filament
to be blown into very fine fibers of variable length which are received on the
collecting surface.
2.2 Staple fiber web formation system

2.2.1 Dry-laid process
The staple-fiber-based web laying process involves three major steps. They
are fiber preparation (by opening and mixing processes), web formation
(by carding or by air-lay processes) and finally web stacking (by parallel-
lay, cross-lay, and perpendicular-lay processes). Hence, the staple fibers are
processed into a uniform web or batt structure with the required weight per
unit area (Balasubramanian 2009). All staple fibers which are capable of being
carded or dispersed in air or water can be used in this process. The sequence
of operations in the dry-laid process is highlighted in Figure 2.2.
The nonwoven processing sequence is similar to the short staple yarn
manufacturing process to some extent. Yarn manufacturing requires greater
levels of fiber opening and has more processing stages after the carding stage
to achieve uniformity in the final product. However, nonwoven manufacturing
does not involve extensive fiber opening and the scope for improving the
product levelness is limited. The nonwoven line must be designed with intense
opening and blending stages before carding and the card should be capable of
achieving higher level of opening.
Raw material
(Natural fibers, man-made fibers, inorganic fibers)
Preparation
(Opening to loose material, blending)
Web forming
1. Carding process (Parallel laid, cross laid)
2. Aerodynamic process (Random laid web)
Web bonding (Mechanical bonding/thermal bonding/

chemical bonding)
Processing (Finishing, dyeing, printing, coating)
Product (Fiber nonwoven)
Figure 2.2 Dry-laid manufacturing process
The nonwoven lines can utilize either the short-staple revolving flat cards
or long-staple roller cards on a theoretical basis. The short-staple revolving
cards have certain advantages like higher production rates and higher opening
power (especially in terms of per unit of floor space occupied). The major
drawback pertaining to short-staple cards is their very narrow operating
widths. This drawback is overcome by the long-staple cards which are many
times wider, making them much more suitable for nonwoven manufacture.
Since many end applications require wider width nonwovens, the long staple
cards are highly preferred in most cases (Russel 1997). A typical nonwoven
Web formation 37
line comprises of automatic fiber opening and blending machines followed

by automatic feeding to one or more wide long staple cards. Autolevellers are
installed in the cards to control the mass per unit area of the output web.
2.2.1.1 Fiber preparation

The initial stage in the batt preparation process is fiber opening. Depending
upon the nature of the fiber i.e., cotton or synthetic fiber, the opening line
installation is varied. In case of synthetic fibers, the blending line generally
comprises a hopper bale opener or a pair of bale openers feeding to a cross
lattice. The delivery end of hopper bale opener is provided with autolevellers
to achieve uniform material throughput to the next machine (www.dilo.de).
Typical fiber opening line for processing of nonwoven is shown in Figure 2.3.
Figure 2.3 Typical blowroom line for processing of nonwoven

[Source: http://www.laroche.fr/]
Fiber opening machine

The fibers, which are the raw materials for the nonwovens line, are supplied
in the form of dense press-packed bales. These bales must be opened prior to
carding. In high production installations, it is necessary to ensure sufficient
reduction in tuft size to provide consistent fiber feeding to the card. The
volume of opened fiber is influenced by the fiber type, fiber fineness, crimp
and stiffness. Hence the same machine settings cannot be used to process
fibers having different specifications.
The need for opening
• The fibers must be reduced to the smallest aggregate form in order
to clean, mix and blend them. This process of re-opening the baled
material into small tufts becomes essential as only well-opened

material can be effectively cleaned.
• The fibers must be thoroughly opened to enable blending.
• The fibers must be prepared for the carding operation by opening to
the extent where there will be minimal fiber damage.
The need for cleaning
For effective nonwoven fabrication, the trash and other impurities contained
in the cotton received must be removed as completely as possible. Synthetic
fibers do not require intensive cleaning as in the case of cotton fibers. The
factors influencing cleaning are:
• Trash and other impurities are separated from cotton by the action of
centrifugal force.
• The material is moved at high speed in a circular motion.
• The trash particles which are heavier than the fibers tend to sling out
from the fiber surface.
• Grid bars facilitate the trash to escape and separate from the fibers
that pass over the grid bars.
• The grid bars settings namely grid bar angle and spacing influences
the quantity of trash removed.
• Increasing the grid bar opening also increases the amount of good
fibers that are lost along with the trash.
• In general, the good fibers lost in the waste should be maintained at
a minimal level. However, in instances where maximum cleaning is
required, higher good fiber loss is inevitable.
• New tuft surfaces must be generated continuously to facilitate
cleaning.
• It is relatively easier to remove larger and heavier trash particles from
the fibers.
• Beating devices tend to break large trash particles causing
fragmentation of the trash particles. These smaller particles make the
cleaning process more difficult. For this reason, large trash particles
should be removed at the beginning of the cleaning process.
• The transport air carries the extremely small trash particles along
with the fibers and it is difficult to separate them. These dust sized
particles are removed by condensers and fiber separators.
The conventional machines developed for the processing of cotton
and wool fibers have been customised for the purpose of fiber opening in
nonwoven production lines. For most of the applications, the multi-roller
Web formation 39
openers, the tearing machines or the small openers serve the purpose. Fibers
of staple length up to 100 mm can be sufficiently opened by the small openers.
For opening of polyester fibers, the single roll openers are more suitable.
Whereas cotton or viscose rayon fibers have more entangled tufts and require
multi-roller openers (Rupp 2012).
(1) Bale openers
The nonwoven industry incorporates a fiber preparation process which is very
similar to the process carried out in a conventional blowroom line. Figure 2.4
illustrates a bale opening machine. Several bales can be arranged on either
side of the wide bale opening machine according to the requirement. The
arranged bales may be composed of the same fiber or a combination of several
fibers to obtain the required blend. The bale opener opens the fibers from these
bales and mixes them to a certain extent (Rakshit et al. 1989).
Figure 2.4 Schematic representation of a Bale breaker

(Courtesy: Trützschler GmbH, Germany)
(2) Opening and cleaning machines

The fibers spanning up to about 100 mm in length can be opened efficiently
using fine openers. These fine openers are placed horizontally or vertically in
the nonwovens line and can also be accommodated in feeding units, chutes
and blending hoppers. Synthetic fibers like polyester are opened using single
roller openers whereas bleached cotton or viscose rayon fibers are heavily
entangled and make use of multi-roll openers for opening.
The Cleanomat Cl-C3 Cleaner (Figure 2.5) can be universally employed
as a fine cleaner in the cotton processing lines. This stand-alone cleaner has
been designed for processing cotton with medium soiling. The fibers from the
bale opener are transported over the feed lattice (1) and then to the pressure
rolls (2). The two feed rolls (3) uniformly transport the fibers to the needle
roll or fully spiked roll (4). The fully spike roll then transfers the fibers to the
coarse or medium saw-tooth roll (5), which is followed by the fine saw-tooth
roll (6). The exhaust unit (7) transports the cleaned fibers to the next machine.
Figure 2.5 Arrangement of beaters in Cleanomat

(Courtesy of Trützschler GmbH, Germany)
(3) Blending machines

The differences in varieties, countries, regions, climatic conditions, farming
methods, harvesting and storage techniques have a considerable influence
on the properties of the natural fibers. This variation of properties can also
be observed within the fibers of one cotton-boll. The fibers vary in all their
Web formation 41
basic properties like length, fineness, strength, colour and maturity. Impurities
of various kinds are also present in the baled cotton. Every production line
aims to produce nonwovens with high levels of uniformity and maximum
efficiency (Balasubramanian 1991). To achieve this, homogeneous and
consistent blending must be ensured. The price of cotton fibers also influences
the composition of the raw materials. Every quality of nonwovens has a
corresponding market value. Whenever some lower quality fibers are used
for reducing the manufacturing costs and enable, these fibers require careful
handling and blending to avoid processing problems.
The quality of blending is a crucial parameter influencing the web
characteristics. The blended fibers should have consistent proportion in all
instances to minimise product variations as the properties of a nonwoven
fabric are fundamentally the function of the blend composition. Inefficient
blending leads to various in process as well as quality oriented problems. An
example of a type of blending machine, the multimixer from Trutzschler is
shown in Figure 2.6. The multimixer is designed with a series of individual
silos into which fiber is alternately fed.
Figure 2.6 Multimixer blending machine (Courtesy: Trützschler GmbH, Germany)
The fibers enter through the connection for material feed (1) and fill
the trunks (2) by means of an external fan. The next machine in the line
is mechanically coupled with the conveyor belt of the feed lattice (10).
Depending on the material requirement by the subsequent machine, the fibers
are drawn out of the trunks by the delivery rolls (6) and the continuously
running opening rolls (7). These drawn out fibers are thrown onto the conveyor
belt (8). The feed lattice (10) and the pressure apron (9) receive the fibers
from the conveyor belt. The feed lattice transfers the fibers to the subsequent
machine. For trouble-free running, any accumulations of impurities are
continuously extracted via the waste tray (11) and are fed into the pipeline for
dust exhaust (12). During running, a least one trunk remains unobstructed and
receives fibers from the previous machine. The trunks are filled in sequence
until the set pressure is reached. In the instance of all top light barriers (4)
being obstructed when the flaps (3) are switched to the next trunk, the material
feed will turned off. To sustain the corresponding pressure on the fibers in the
trunks, the material transport fan is always kept in operation. When the mixer
is full, the flaps of the trunks (3) continue switching in a one minute cycle to
avoid turbulence disturbing the material in one of the trunks. As soon as one
of the upper light barriers (4) becomes free again, new fibers will be fed into
that trunk.
(4) Tuft blender (Dosing system)
The tuft blending installations as in Figure 2.7 provide flexibility in the
manufacturing process – 2 to 6 different types of fibers can be blended to
cover a wide application range including even the addition of smallest portions
(e.g. 1% black fibers / 99% white fibers). The blends can be reproduced
with consistent high-end quality. The continuous dosing system for accurate
blending of fibers is shown in Figure 2.8. The most widely-used dosing
systems are:
1. Weighing pan system
2. Roller weighing system
3. Scanfeed system
Figure 2.7 Tuft blender (Courtesy: Trützschler GmbH, Germany)

Web formation 43
Figure 2.8 Continuous dosing system (Courtesy: Trützschler GmbH, Germany)
Depending upon the production volumes, different types of dosing systems

are available. Blending systems with weighing baskets ensuring extremely
accurate weighing values (±1%) are utilized in the case of medium-low
productions (up to 350 kg/h). Weighing hoppers with special designs to lower
the ratio between the mass of the weighed fiber and the mass of the empty
hopper facilitates high levels of accuracy. Aerodynamic mixing systems are
preferred medium-high productions (up to 700 kg/h). These systems provide
precision levels of ±2.5%. The aerodynamic mixing systems finely open the
fibers of each component in the blend initially and then mix them in an air for
a homogenous distribution of the fiber blend. Continuous blending systems
with a precision of ±3% are preferred for high productions (up to 1000 kg/h).
In this system, the required quantities of fibers are accurately carried by
electronic weighing belts and are laid on a transverse conveyor mat to form
a homogeneous lay-up with the required fiber types. A final opener will open
and thoroughly mix this homogeneous fiber lay-up (Rupp 2012).
(5) Auxilliary systems
• Metal detectors: The fiber bales supplied to the industry may contain metal
particles in the form of wire, screws, card clothing, small machine parts,
spikes from conveyors, and any number of unusual objects sometimes
occurs. This makes it essential to install metal detectors in the processing
line to eliminate the risk of machinery damage and fire accidents. The
‘magnetic hump’ is the most basic version of metal detectors. In this case,
powerful magnets are placed at several points to catch the metal particles.
These magnetic hump units are fitted in-line within the fiber transportation
ducts. Microprocessor controlled diverting devices can also installed
along with the ductwork to detect metal particles. When metal particles
are detected, these devices open the duct to divert the contaminated fiber
to a holding bin where the metal is manually separated and the fiber can
be recovered.
• Fiber lubrication and spray systems: In most cases, the manmade fiber
manufacturers provide fibers applied with spin finish oil, and fiber
lubrication during processing is not required. However, to improve
blending some liquids can be added. As a general practise, lubricants are
added while processing natural fibers and anti-static agent are included
for synthetic fibers. In some cases, the water alone is added to facilitate
efficient processing. Spray systems accurately dose and apply the
required additives directly onto the fiber. Water can also be added using
an atomiser which sprays a fine mist prior to carding.
• Buffer zones: Buffer zones providing interim storage are essential to
ensure continuous material flow through the machine. These are usually in
the form of silos with delivery rolls at the base (Figure 2.9). Such storage
devices can be used within the blending machines and also between
blending and carding machines for supplying the materials continuously.
Figure 2.9 Storage trunk (Courtesy: Trützschler GmbH, Germany)
(6) Chute feeder

The chute feeder serves as material buffer between blending line and card
feeding (Figure 2.10). It features feed rolls and a pinned opening roller that
ensures uniform card feeding with small tufts. The speed of the feed rolls
is continuously adjusted (Contifeed) via a pressure monitoring system that
monitors the filling level in the downstream card feeder. This guarantees a
consistently high web quality in the finished product.
Web formation 45
Figure 2.10 Contifeed feeding system (Courtesy: Trützschler GmbH, Germany)
2.2.2.2 Card
The fibers after opening and cleaning are supplied to the carding machine.
The carding process aims at separation of small tufts into individual fibers and
parallelization of fibers and to produce uniform webs. The major functions of
the carding process are:
• Individualization of fiber tufts to almost single fiber
• Mixing of fibers to average out variations in fiber characteristics
• Forming a homogenous web of uniform weight per unit area
Roller and clearer type cards are widely used in the nonwoven industry.
The parallel laying process alone utilizes revolving flat cards. In contrast
to the revolving flat card, the roller card consists of a larger main cylinder,
ranging from 2.5 to over 5 meters in width. Spirals of sharp pointed and fine
gauge wire are used to cover the cylinder. A chute feeds the fibers from the
blending machine to the card. The primary function of the chute is to convert
the loose fiber into a compact mat of consistent density and to continuously
feed this mat to the card. The wire points on the main cylinder collect the
fibers from the feed rollers. Usually the main cylinder follows a breast roller.
The tandem type card with breaker and finisher cylinders can also be found
in the nonwoven industry. Figure 2.11 illustrates a roller top card. This card
is quite identical to the revolving flat card in its basic features with major
differences in the design of the main carding fields region.
Above the main cylinder are pairs of smaller wire covered rolls. The
largest of the pair is called the worker roll. The worker roll collects fiber from
the main cylinder. This process straightens the fiber and aligns it somewhat in
the machine direction. This action also creates some blending of the fibers
1 – Drawing in roller; 2 – Feed roller; 3 – Compacting roller; 4 – Licker-in; 5 – Worker at licker-

in; 6 – Clearer at licker-in; 7 – Transfer roller; 8 – Main cylinder; 9 – Worker at main cylinder;
10 – Clearer at main cylinder; 11 – Doffer; 12 – Stuffing roller; 13 – Take-off roller
Figure 2.11 Universal Roller Card (Courtesy: Spinnbau GmbH, Bremen)
which is a distinct advantage of the roller type card. The smaller roll behind
the worker roll is called the stripper roll. It is designed to take the fiber from
the worker roll and transfer it back onto the main cylinder where it is passed
forward to the next set of rolls. The action of worker and stripper against the
main cylinder is shown in Figure 2.12.
In front of the main cylinder, one or two additional wire covered rolls,
called doffer rolls, are positioned to remove a certain percentage of fiber
Web formation 47
from the main cylinder. The diameters of the doffer rolls are smaller than the
diameter of the main cylinder. As the fibers are deposited onto the doffer roll
from the main cylinder, a condensing action occurs. This condensing action
creates some fiber to fiber cohesion which is needed to hold the web structure
together as the web is transferred from the doffer roll. The use of more than
one doffer roll allows for faster removal of fiber from the main cylinder and,
therefore, more pounds per hour delivered.
Figure 2.12 Action of Worker and stripper in card

(Courtesy: Spinnbau GmbH, Bremen)
The wire points on the worker roller oppose the wire points on the cylinder
to establish a point-to-point relationship. As the cylinder rotates, it conveys
the fibers towards the worker. When the fiber passes below the worker teeth,
some of the fibers are trapped on the worker teeth owing to the lower surface
speed of the worker. The fiber tufts which are partly trapped on the worker
and also trapped on the cylinder undergo a separation or carding action. The
fibers trapped by the worker are carried around as the roller rotates. The
stripper removes the fibers from the worker and re-presents them back onto
the cylinder. On the whole, the ‘working’ action occurs initially between the
worker and the cylinder followed by the stripping action takes place between
the stripper and the worker (Russel 1997). This series of actions represent
the fundamental operational function of a carding machine. Hence, the fibers
are progressively ‘worked’ and ‘stripped’ within a carding machine for
individualisation and parallelisation of fibers to produce a homogeneous web.
The striking difference between the nonwoven card and roller and clearer
card is the presence of a randomising roller between cylinder and doffer. The
preferential longitudinal orientation of fibers in the web is altered to a more
random orientation by the action of the randomising cylinder. Randomising
roller rotates is shown in Figure 2.13.
The randomising cylinder is made to rotate in a direction opposite to that
of the main cylinder. The wires on this roller are wound in inclined angle
to facilitate the randomising effect. The aerodynamic forces are largely

responsible for transferring the fibers from main cylinder to randomising
roller. Part of the fibers on randomising roller is also fed back to main cylinder.
These actions tend to change the fiber orientation to a more random direction.
The speed ratio between randomising roller and main cylinder is the prime
factor controlling the extent of randomisation. The condensing rollers located
between doffer and take off roller also produce some randomising effects.
The randomising roller and condensing rollers improve the cross direction to
machine direction strength (denoted as CD/MD) from 5:1 to 1.5:1. When a
prominent longitudinal orientation of fibers is desired in the end product, the
condensing rollers can be detached and doffing is done directly (Rakshit et al.
1989).
1 – Delivery roller; 2 – Doffer; 3 – Random roller; 4 – Cylinder; 5 – Transfer roller; 6 – Breast

cylinder; 7 – Licker-in; 8 – Feed roller; 9 – Worker and stripper; 10 – Condenser rollers
Figure 2.13 Nonwoven single card (Balasubramanian 2009)
For achieving better opening and fiber individualisation of fibers, the

tandem type nonwoven cards are preferred. A typical nonwoven tandem card
is illustrated in Figure 2.14. Tandem card provide better individualisation of
fibers and neps removal efficiency. Machinery manufacturers have designed
double doffer cards to increase the web thickness and card productivity
(Figure 2.15). In the Bremen double doffer card, there is an option to turn the
top and bottom webs by 90°, using a web deflector to lay both the webs side
by side so as to get double the width.
Web formation 49
1 – Doffer; 2 – Random roller; 3 – Finisher cylinder; 4 – Transfer roller; 5 – Breaker cylinder;

6 – Breast cylinder; 7 – Feed roller; 8 – Worker and stripper; 9 – Worker and stripper
Figure 2.14 Tandem card (Source: Spinnbau, Germany)
1 – Conveyor lattice; 2 – Doffer; 3 – Random roller; 4 – Cylinder; 5 – Transfer roller;

6 – Breast cylinder; 7 – Licker-in; 8 – Feed roller; 9 – Worker and stripper; 10 – Random
roller; 11 – Doffer; 12 – Condensing rollers; 13 – Take-off rollers
Figure 2.15 Double doffer nonwoven card (Source: Spinnbau, Germany)
Batt uniformity
The critical parameter influencing the appearance, strength and all other
properties of nonwovens is the weight uniformity of batt produced. A
typical nonwoven is expected to have weight uniformity of ±2.5%. The batt
uniformity is directly controlled by the uniformity of the web from the card
and the number doublings in crosslapping. The following in feeding systems

contribute to web uniformity in the card:
1. Continuous volumetric feeding
2. Non continuous feed from weighing hopper and micro weighing
systems
3. Autolevelling
Continuous volumetric feed
The material inside the hopper feeder chute is always maintained at the set
weight by employing photo cells or pressure transducers in the feed trunk of
the chute feed system. The filling of fibers across the entire width of the trunk
gives rise to some variation, which is balanced automatically by adjusting the
material flow (Malkan 1989). The Hergeth and Spinnbau cards are provided
with vibratory arrangements to eliminate void spaces in the trunk and maintain
uniform filling height across the width (Figure 2.16).
Figure 2.16 Vibrating chute arrangment (Courtesy: Spinnbau GmbH, Bremen)
In the case of Thiebeau card and Hergeth, ultrasonic control sytem is

used. Ultrasonic signals monitor the density of the feed across the width
and send corresponding signals to control the frequency of joggle units to
maintain a uniform feed density in cross as well as longitudinal directions. In
addition to these technologies, Hergeth employs a gravimetric fiber metering
system in the blending line to ensure a constant flow of material. Trutzschler
has developed a different system known as web profile integrated tuft feeder
system to ensure web uniformity (Parikh et al. 1999).
Web formation 51
1 – Spring loaded sectional flap; 2 – Feed roller; 3 – Opeing roller; 4 – Feed trunk;
5 – Web thickness adjustment; 6 – Delivery roller; 7 – Spring loaded sectional measuring tray;
8 – Conveyor belt; 9 – Card feed roller; 10 – Licker-in
Figure 2.17 Scan Feed Tuft Feeder (Source: www.nptel.ac.in)
The tufts from opening roller section are drawn by a fan into an upper
trunk. The filling height is maintained constant by pneumatic pressure
controlled by combs covering air inlet. Feed roller at the lower end of trunk
feeds the material through a spring weighted feed plate to an opening roller.
Opened tufts are fed to lower trunk. The fibers are blown by air into lower
trunk and as air takes line of least resistance, uniformity across the width is
maintained. The fiber mass in lower trunk is pneumatically compressed and
the sheet is fed to a feed roller through a spring weighted segment. Material
thickness is automatically adjusted by the spring pressure on the segments
of feed plate. An optimal supplement is the web profile unit which improves
uniformity both in longitudinal and cross directions. Selective web profile
across the width can also be obtained with web profile unit (Rakshit et al.
1989).
Micro-weighing system
The micro weigh system, developed by Heigh chandwick and Temafa,
is designed to reduce variations in feed sheet to card (Figure 2.18). The
microprocessor controls the entire system comprising of a sensitive weigh
pan provided with pneumatically activated shutters solenoids, which inturn is
mounted on transducers. The small tufts are capable of being dropped into the
pan with an accuracy level of ±2 g. The actual weight of the pan is constantly
compared with the required mass and when the required weight is attained,
the microprocessor opens the weigh pan to drop the material into the chute
feed. Hence this configuration reduces the batch to batch variation to as low
as ±1%.
Micro weighing
Soilnoid pans
Figure 2.18 Micro-weighing system
Autoleveller
The following type of autolevelling (Figure 2.19) is commonly used in the
industry.
• The feed sheet to the card is passed over the balance and the thickness
is monitored by a sensitive load beam transducer. The force acting
on the beam generates a corresponding signal to control the speed of
feed rollers.
Web formation 53
Figure. 2.19 Scanning of feed weight
In the NSC Nonwovens line, the batt fed to the card is continually
monitored by 4 weighing gauges and front roller speed is altered in
accordance to the measured weight. An alternative system measures the batt
density with reference to a constant thickness and changes feed roller speed.
Spinbau controls the feed roller speed based on the weight of the batt which is
measured by an electronic belt weigher (Balasubramanian 2009).
Web monitor
The web from the card is passed through the WIRA Web monitor, which
consists of a pair of rolers. The small top roller acts as the measuring roller
i.e., the thickness variation in the web is assessed by the vertical movement of
top roller coupled with a transducer. The deviation from the set value is used
to adjust the speed of feed roller.
Apart from these feeding systems, the basic method of improving the batt
uniformity is to produce finer finer card webs accompanied with proportional
increase in the number of doublings in crosslapper.
Card clothing
The nonwoven roller and clearer cards are generally installed with Garnett
type interlocking wire. In the case of wire damage, it is sufficient to rework
the damaged strips alone which lowers the maintainance costs. Hence these
interlocking wires are preferred in the industry. Finer fibers require the use of
finer type of wire clothing for cylinder and worker rolls. Wire point density
details are mentioned in Table 2.1. While processing coarser fibers, the wire
height for cylinder, worker and doffer should be higher than that for finer
fibers. For easy transfer of fibers, doffer wire has greater front angle and
height than that of the cylinder and random roller wires (Crook 1993).
Table 2.1 Wire point density for various parts of card (PPSI) (Balasubramanian 2009)
Card part 8–30 den 1.5–6 den

Feed Roller 25–30 35–45
Breast Roller 90–120 150–250
Worker 175–250 300–350
Stripper 80–120 200–250
Cylinder 300–350 400–450
Doffer 200–250 300–350
Random roller 400–450 500–550
Condensing roller 100–120 130–180
Take off roller 85–95 100–110
Dust removal
The carding room can be made dust free by setting up securely sealed air
cleaning dust removal systems. The mordern cards do no not require frequent
cleaning as in the traditional cards.
Production rates
The production rates of different cards utilized in the nonwoven industry has
been analyzed in Table 2.2.
Table 2.2 Card Width and Production rates (Balasubramanian 2009)
Manufacturer Make Width (mm) Production rate

Spinbau Universal Super servo double 1000–3500 150 m/min
doffer card
Delta Card 1000–3500 200 m/min
High capacity Random Card, 4000–6000 400 m/min
Hyperspeed card
Alpha Card 2500 80 m/min
Oerlikon Neumag Injection card with 2 doffers Up to 3500 250 m/min
Injection card with 3 doffers Up to 3500 250 m/min
Card mm 2+2 Up to 3500 300 m/min
Contd...
Web formation 55
Contd...
Manufacturer Make Width (mm) Production rate

Erko Truetzschler EK 150 single doffer 1000–4200 120–240 kg/hr
for 1m width
Ek 150 double doffer 1000–4400 80–400 kg/hr for
1 m width
EWK413 Random Card 1000–4500 300 kg/hr/m
NSC CA 21 2500 100 m/min
Excelle Card 2500–3500 250 m/min
Befama CV641 1800–2400 350 kg/hr/1m
CV661 1800–2400 600 kg/hr/1m
CV691 2200–2500 1000 kg/hr/1m
CV791 2500–3500 1250 kg/hr/1m
The accurate production rate of the card can be determined only by

taking several factors into consideration. These factors include nature of
fiber, denier, wire type, condition of wire, humidity and temperature in card
room. Usually, polypropylene is processed with reduced production rates
when compared with polyester fibers. The heat generation will be more at
higher the production speed (Horrocks & Anand 2000; Balasubramanian
2009). Hence at higher production speeds, this heat is sufficient to form
globules in the case of polypropylene due to its low melting temperature.
These tend to get attached to the wire resulting in fiber loading. Finer
fibers also have to be processed slowly to avoid fiber loading problems.
Generation of static charges causes fiber loading which lowers the doffer
speed. Suitable wire profiles are to be selected according to the fiber denier.
Blunt wire points, as a result of over usage decreases the production rate.
The performance and productivity of the card depends on the humidity and
temperature. Hence humidification system is essential to effectively control
the humidity and temperature (Smith 1998). Inappropriate humidity levels
causes fiber lapping around the wires either due to stickiness or static charge
generation. The recomended conditions are: relative humidity of 55–60%
and temperature of 90–95°F.
Carding quality
The quality of final product depends largely on the carding quality. The
quality of carding is evaluated by the degree of fiber opening and nep removal
efficiency. The following factors are considered to improve carding quality:
• By selecting appropriate production rates for processing the fiber.
Increasing the card production rates beyond the optimum rates lowers
carding quality. The fiber characteristics, processing condition and

atmospheric conditions determines the optimum production rates.
• Proper settings at various points in the card can improve the carding
quality. The following settings are crucial in improving the quality.
1. Setting between feed plate and lickerin roller.
2. Setting between workers and main cylinder and between
worker and stripper.
3. Setting between main cylinder and doffer/randomising roller.
• The condition of the wire points also influences the carding quality.
The wire tips lose their sharpness and become blunt after certain
period of usage. Hence it is necessary to replace the wires as per the
maintainance schedules maintain quality.
• The feed weight variations, functioning of auto leveller and lapping
incidences Another important point to be controlled in carding is web
weight uniformity. Web weight uniformity is affected.
Process control and maintenance

• The raw material should be free of molten fibers, undrawn fibers and
other external substances.
• Scheduled checking of the lags and wire points in the Hopper Feeder
and opener and replacement of damaged and bent points.
• Random checking of spinfinish content in fibers to ensure uniform
application of spinfinish oil in the entire material lot.
• The cards must be thoroughly cleaned every week. The wire points
of breast roller, cylinder, stripper, worker, doffer and transfer rollers
should be cleaned using wire brush and petrol to remove embedded
materials. Interspaces of cylinder/doffer and framings should also
cleaned properly.
• Inspection of the card wires for damaged strips and replacement of
the damaged wire points once in 3 months.
• Inspection of card settings should be done atleast once in 3 months.
• The fiber quality, virgin or recycled fiber, card production rate and
maintenance practices determine the life of the wire. The general
practise is to replace the wires after a duration of 18–24 months.
Once in every week, webs are taken from different locations using a
template measuring of 25 × 25 cm and weighed to calculate the web linear
density and its variation. For the process to be under control, the calculated
CV% should be less than 5%.
Web formation 57
2.2.2.3 Web stacking processes

The important tasks of the web laying process are:
• Increasing the web mass – The web mass can be increased by a direct
multiple of the card web mass to the required product weight
• Increasing the web width – Web laying machines can produce webs
in widths (laying widths) of up to 7 m.
• Determining the web strength in the length and cross directions – The
orientation of the fiber layer determines the lengthwise/transverse
strength ratio in the end product.
• Improving the end product quality
– Distortions during web consolidation (mechanical, thermal,
chemical)
– Overall web width are not equal, but are concentrated more
strongly at the edge
– Areal density in the edge regions of the end product is higher
than in the rest of it.
The web coming out of the card can be formed into a batt by the following
methods:
• Parallel laying
• Cross laying
• Perpendicular laying
Parallel lay procecss

Parallel lay process makes use of several revolving flat cards (coton cards).
A conveyor lattice runs below all the cards for the entire length. The webs
from the cards are laid on the continuous conveyor lattice. By this way, webs
from successive cards are laid over each, one at a time other until the desired
batt weight is achieved (Figure 2.20). The conveyor carries the laid down batt
to the bonding process. The parallel laid batt is typically a layered structure
with fibers being oriented in the longitudinal direction predominantly. Due
to this the resulting nonwoven will have 8–10 times higher strength in the
longitudinal direction than in the cross direction. The major limitation of this
sytem is that the width of the batt is equal to the width of the carding machine
(Paschen & Wulfhorst 2001).
The direction in which the web is produced is called the machine-direction and
the other direction is called the cross-direction. Since the fibers are oriented
in the machine- direction, a bonded web will have more strength lengthwise
due to the bonds reinforced by the fibers. The strength in the cross direction
is very low since there are very few fibers in this direction. The strength in
the machine direction is substantially greater than in the cross direction,
the strength ratio may be about 10:1. Such nonwovens find applications in
different end-uses such as tapes, interlinings, cable winding, filtration, etc.
Figure 2.20 Parallel laying process
In some cards, for disorienting the fibers, a randomising doffer is used,

which runs in the opposite direction to a normal doffer, so creating more air
turbulence. Some fiber-disorientation is also obtained by the presence of two
small wire-covered scrambler rollers installed on the doffer delivery. The first
scrambler roller runs slower than the fibers and the second roller runs still
slower. The result is that the tail end of fibers are running faster than the
leading ends so that fibers are buckled, thus increasing the number of fiber
segments lying in the cross direction (Horrocks & Anand 2000). Naturally,
the weight per unit area of the card web is increased by the scrambler rollers.
The web is in an unstable stage, so care should be taken not to stretch it back
during bonding.
For parallel-laid webs, cards have normally two doffers, thus producing
two webs, which are layered. The web doubling improves the final web
uniformity and helps in increasing the line production. In certain cases, two or
three cards are installed in tandem and the webs are layered after each card.
Nonwovens from parallel-laid webs may be produced in the weight range
15–100 gsm. The web speeds on modern cards have increased considerably
and may reach values of 300 m/min. These speeds are used in the production
of thermo bonded cover stock material for baby diapers with very high
production efficiency.
Cross lay process
This is the most common batt formation process. The cross lapper, located at
the exit of the card, takes in the web from the card. The cross lapper consists
of a fast moving laying lattice which takes the web forward and deflects the
direction of the web by 90°. The deflected web is laid in a zig- zag manner
over a slow moving draw off lattice to form a batt (Adanur 1995). The desired
batt weight can be obtained by adjusting the laying width and the ratio of
Web formation 59
laying speed to draw off speed. The cross-lay process performs the following
functions:
• To produce batts with higher weight per unit area than that of the card
web
• To produce batts with higher width than that of the card web
• To obtain preferentially orientation of fibers in the transverse direction
• To obtain batt with a layered structure
The cross-laying process can be done in two methods namely, camel back
laying and horizontal laying. Figure 2.21 illustratres the camel back laying
process. In camel back laying, the web coming out of the card is carried
upwards to a pivot point by means of a conveyor. The lower conveyor system
is designed to reciprocate from the pivot point in order to lay the web onto a
cross conveyor below this arrangement. The machine height and the machine
throughput are the important factors influencing the width of the batt.
Figure 2.21 Camel back cross-laying process (Soure: www.nptel.ac.in)
The horizontal laying process is shown in Figure 2.22. This process

comprises of several conveyor belts operating in combination with traversing
carriages and drive rollers. The feed conveyor takes-in the web emerging from
the carding machine and transports it to the top sheet or belt assembly. The
web is reciprocated by this carriage assembly. As a result, web is layered in
a zig-zag pattern onto the delivery conveyor which runs perpendicular to the
feed direction (Horrocks & Anand 2000; www.nptel.ac.in).
The laying width does not change with the machine height in this process.
The resulting batt tends to be heavier at the edges.The lay-down width can be
set slightly narrower than required to minimize this problem. It can also be
partially compensated by increasing the layering speed in the edges as to the
layering speed in the middle region of the batt. The basic factors influencing
the laying speed are:
• web characteristic (fiber orientation)
• fiber type (synthetic fibers, viscose fibers, natural fibers)
• fiber dimensions (fineness and length)
• fiber elasticity (crimp)
• web mass
• spin finish and ambient conditions (temperature and relative humidity)
1 – Fibrous web; 2 – Feed conveyor; 3 – Lower conveyor belt; 4 – Delivery conveyor;

5 – Web; 6 – Upper conveyor belt
Figure 2.22 Horizontal laying process
The important aspect in cross lapping is the lapping angle and number of
layers (Figure 2.23), which are given by the formula:
vmb
α = tan–1
vcl
vcl
N =
vmb
Where
Α – Lapping angle with respect to cross-machine direction
vcl – Linear speed of the cross-lapper (m/min)
vmb – Linear speed of the moving belt in the machine direction (m/min)
N – Number of layers
Web formation 61
CD
B
α
vcl
A vmb C MD
Figure 2.23 Diagramatic representation of cross lapping angle
Any cross-lapper may be manufactured to lay any width even up to 16

m, used in paper felts. The number of laps is always even and the minimum
number of laps may be 2. The modern cross-lappers may run at speeds up
to 150 m/min. The high lapper speeds allow obtaining maximum card
production. Further, for a given batt weight, it is better to have as many layers
as possible for better batt regularity. In such cases, relatively lightweight webs
are produced by the card. After cross lapping, especially with parallel webs
coming out from the card, the fibers lie mainly in the cross direction and the
machine direction tends to be weak. It is a standard practice now to draw the
cross-laid batt in the machine direction using a web-drafting machine (Tanchis
2008). The drafting increases the machine-direction fiber orientation. The
drafter also permits to produce low weight cross-laid webs. The drafting also
helps to use better the card production even if the cross-lapper has a slow
speed. In this case, heavyweight batts are produced by the lapper, which are
then drafted to obtain the required weight increasing the productivity.
One of the problems of the crosslapped batts has been the lack of weight
uniformity across the entire width. Generally, the batt weight is lower in the
centre and higher at the edges because of inversion of crosslapper carriage and
due to the card web tension created by the carriage movement. In such cases,
it is a normal practice to slit almost 15 cm wide edges to eliminate heavy
borders. In most cases, these edges are recycled but they certainly create many
problems in reopening and transporting the fibers. The use of recycled fiber
has always a detriment effect on the felt quality and some fiber loss as felt
waste always takes place (Crook 1993). Further, in processes like synthetic
leather, the needle punched felts have to be impregnated and buffed. A fabric
with uneven thickness generates more dust waste. On the modern lappers, it
is possible to regulate the speed in a way that more web is laid in the middle
as compared to edges. During drafting and needling, the batt is stretched and
attains an uniformity in the cross section. It is possible to produce needled

felts with a regular weight profile in cross and machine direction. CV values
of around 1% are achievable. A critical comparison of the parallel and cross
laying process is given in Table 2.3.
Table 2.3 Relative merits of cross laying and parallel laying process
Cross laying Parallel laying

Width is restricted by card width. As
Very wide widths of nonwovens up to 30
a result widths beyond 2–4 m are not
m can be formed.
possible.
Greater uniformity in strength between Cross direction strength is very low in
longitudinal and cross direction. CD/MD relation to longitudinal direction. MD/CD
ratio up to 1 : 1.3 can be obtained by use ratio is 8–10 times.
of randomising and condensing rollers in
card and web drafting.
Investment is high as machinery costs are Investment is low and second hand
high. cards disposed by spinning mils are
easily available.
Pependicular laying process

The perpendicular-lay process is a unique process to lay batts with prominent
z-directional orientation of fibers. The reciprocating lapper (Struto©
technology) or rotary lapper (Wavemaker technology) can be used to produce
perpendicular batts (Desai & Balasubramanian 1991). The struto technology
is shown in Figure 2.24. In this system, the web from the card is consolidated
into a vertically folded batt by the action of a reciprocating lapping device.
The so formed batt is then take to through-air bonding machine.
1 – Carded web; 2 – Struto product; 3 – Forming comb; 4 – Pressure bar; 5 – Grid; 6 – Cover
plate; 7 – Conveyor belt
Figure 2.24 Struto perpendicular laying process
Web formation 63
2.2.2.4 Air laying

The airlaying process, which is also a part of dry laying, makes use of air as
the transportation medium in the web forming sequence. Perforated rotary
rollers or distribution systems are used to form the web and deposit it on the
delivery conveyor belt. Airlaid webs are isotropic in nature (at least in two
directions). Depending on the fiber specifications and machine parameters,
MD:CD ratios close to 1 can be achieved. Hence air laid webs are referred to
as ‘random-laid’. Additionally, airlay processes are highly versatile as they
can process different types of fiber with varied specifications. This versatility
is a result of the various design concepts, fiber transportation and deposition
principles used in airlaying (Kleppe 1990).
The air flow disperses the incoming fibers into single fibers and this air/
fiber mixture is conveyed towards a permeable net or forming screen, where
air is separated and the fibers are laid to form a web. The uniformity of the
final web largely depends on the separation of the fibers in the airflow. The
fibers can be transported from the opening unit to the web formation section
using the following methods:
• Free drop
• Compressed air
• Suction
• Closed air circuit
• A combination of compressed air and suction systems
1 – Pre-opened fibers; 2 – Feed rollers; 3 – Main cylinder; 4 – Air blower; 5 – Suction;

6 – Conveyor belt; 7 – Air-laid web
Figure 2.25 Principle of air-lay machine (Russel 1997)
Figure 2.25 illustrates the principle of an air-lay machine (the actual

machine designs may vary considerably from this outline). The three major
units of the airlay machine are: feeding, opening and mixing, and web
formation. The fibers are fed to an opening roller at a constant rate by means
of the feed rollers. Simultaneous gripping of fibers by the feed rollers and
beating by the opening roller opens the fibers. The sharp wire points in the
opening roller carry the fibers following which the fibers are removed by a
high-velocity stream of air directed over the wire teeth surface. Hence, the
fibers are carried by air onto a perforated conveyor where the fibers are laid
down to form a web.
The fibers or tufts of fibers are thrown down on the conveyor individually
and there is therefore no inter-fiber entanglement as in the case of carded
batts. This makes air-laid webs very weak and in lightweights there could
be processing difficulties. Another important characteristic of air-laid webs is
that fibers lie at a certain angle to the plane of the fabric. This property makes
the air-laid webs more resilient to compression and has more resistance to
delamination as compared to cross-lapped batts. The air-laid webs are quite
isotropic in structure, have a three dimensional formation and show a typical
cloudiness in their structure.
Figure 2.26 Danweb air-laying process

Web formation 65
The fiber webs are formed by drums in some air-lay systems. An example
for this system is the as Dan web system (Denmark). This system has been
illustrated in Figure 2.26. It consists of two perforated drums connected to
fixed pipes and rotating in opposte directions located transversely above
forming wire. A rotating brush roll is arranged transversely to the conveyor
belt inside the drums. It directs the fibers from the airstream and onto the
perforated drums (Adanur 1995). A vacuum located below the forming head
forms the web on the wire. This system can process fibers upto 15 mm in
length and reduces fiber accumulation inside the system. A highly uniform
distribution of fibers across the web can be achieved.
Machines used for air laying:
The two commonly used air-laying systems are
• Rando Opener
• Random Cards
Rando Opener
Rando Opener system was introduced by the Rando Machine Corporation.
A blowroom line opens the fibers. A hopper feeder and feed plate transports
the opened fibers to a saw tooth opening roller. The teeth of opening roller
carry the fibers almost individually. An air stream deposits the fibers on a
perforated lattice moving slowly for forming the batt (Figure 2.27). At the exit
of the opening roller, air is blown through a narrow duct by a powerful fan
arrangement. A suction system is provided underneath the perforated lattice.
This causes the fibers to randomly deposit on the lattice (Jakob 1989).
1 – Perforated lattice with suction; 2 – Opening roller; 3 – Feed roller; 4 – Blower fan
Figure 2.27 Rando Opener (Balasubramanian 2009)
The batt produced by the rando opener is isotropic in nature. This random
orientation of fibers significantly improves the insulation properties and
bulkiness of the batt. These batts are widely used for wadding, high lofts
used in winter clothing. Additionally, sound insulation material, absorbent
pads, wipes and hygiene products are manufactured using this system. In the
Schirp system, a similar principle is employed. A perforated drum connected
to a special air system forms the batt by laying down the webs. The drum
is provided with a pin or saw tooth wire profile (Desai & Balasubramanian
1990). Batts ranging from 100 to 200 gsm can be produced using this system
with production rates up to 14 m/min.
Random Card
The random card was introduced by Fehrer. This card is based on aerodynamic
principles. In this card, small carding cylinders along with worker and stripper
rollers are arranged sequentially. The first card delivers some portion of the
fibers into a duct while the remaining fibers are transferred to the next card.
Individual ducts provided in each card carry the delivered fibers and deposit
on a common perforated surface and the fiber layers are taken forward by a
conveyor belt (Figure 2.28).
Figure 2.28 Random Card (Balasubramanian 2009)
One over another deposition of fiber layers from the individual ducts on
the conveyor, results in excellent doubling and randomisation of fibers. This
significantly improves the batt uniformity. The working width of these cards
ranges from 1 m to 2.5 m. The technologically advanced batt forming line
from Fehrer utilizes a prior machine called pre web former V21/R decreases
the tuft size using opening roller arrangement to form batts with 300–500
gsm (Singh 2007). The output of the pre-web forming machine is fed to the
Random card K12 (Figure 2.29) comprising of a cylinder fitted with a pair
of workers and strippers. A transversal blower carries fibers delivered by the
card to a perforated conveyor lattice. Suction systems are provided in the
high loft device at the delivery section to increase the batt height and volume
(Chapman 2010). ‘High Loft’ material suitable for insulating applications can
be produced in this system. This “high loft” device is optional.
Web formation 67
(a)
1 – Deliver conveyor; 2 – K12 card; 3 – Pre-web former; 4 – Weighing belt; 5 – Worker and
stripper; 6 – Transversal blower; 7 – High loft device
(b)
Figure 2.29 Random Card K12 (www.nptel.ac.in)
K21 high-performance random airlaying machine was developed to

produce lighter-weight webs ranging 10–100 g/m2. The K21 card is shown
in Figure 2.30. In comparison with the K12 card, this card is designed with
four carding cylinders, each cylinder is fitted a pair of worker-stripper rollers.
Each cylinder lays down a certain quantity of the incoming fibers onto a
common conveyor belt. The combination of the centrifugal force arising
from the rapid rotation of the cylinders (30–40 m/s) and the suction systems
under the conveyor belt causes the airlaying of the webs. The four cylinders
deposit the fibers in four different positions of the conveyor belt and hence
thorough doubling is required in the collection zone to minimize the localised
variations. Unlike the K12, the K21 card has a closed web forming system
(Lin & Tsai 2001). Synthetic and viscose rayon fibes of fineness ranging from
1.7 to 3.3 dtex can be processed with a throughput rates of 300 kg/h.
Figure 2.30 Random card K21 (Russel 1997)
Comparison of card cross lapping and air-laying process

The advantages and disadvantages of the carding – cross-lapping process and
the air laying process are mentioned in Table 2.4.
Table 2.4 Merits and Limitations of Card Cross-lapping and Air laying process
Carding cross-lapping Air laying

Very wide widths of fabrics up to 15–20 Width is limited up to 2–3 metres.
metres are possible.
A wide range of fabric weights from 75 GSM lower than 150 are not normally
to 2500 gsm are possible by varying possible.
take-off speed of laying lattice in
relation to speed of delivery lattice.
Highly uniform fabrics can be made It is difficult to achieve good uniformity
in respect of weight per unit length. in weight/unit length particularly in low
Variations in weight per unit length in weight nonwovens.
longitudinal and lateral directions are
within ±2.5%.
Contd...
Web formation 69
Contd...
Carding cross-lapping Air laying

Ability to process a wide range of staple Mainly suitable for short fibers. With
lengths. long fibers it is difficult to get satisfactory
uniformity.
There is no randomisation between Fiber orientation is random in all the
lateral and vertical planes. Anisotropy 3 dimensions though longitudinal
in strength is also present in the lateral direction strength is slightly higher than
plane. Strength is generally higher cross direction strength. The isotropic
in cross direction than longitudinal distribution gives a high degree of
direction though this is minimised to insulation properties. But strength is
some extent by the use of randomising reduced as fibers in the vertical direction
rollers in carding and web drafting prior do not contribute to strength. Further
to bonding. anisotropic material cannot be made.
Advantages and limitations

The main advantages of the air laying process are:
• Isotropic properties of the web.
• Three-dimensional structures can be obtained if the basis weight is
above 50 g/m2.
• Producing voluminous, high-loft structures than compared to any
other web formation technology.
• Compatibility with a wide variety of generic fiber types including
natural fibers, synthetic polymer fibers and high-performance fibers.
The limitations of the air alying process are:
• Fabric uniformity is highly dependent on fiber opening and
individualisation prior to web forming.
• Irregular air flow adjacent to the walls of the ducts leads to variability
across the web structure.
• Fiber entanglement during transportation by the air stream can lead to
web faults.
In general, the pneumatic processes are not easy to handle and may
present the following difficulties:
• Compared to a card, these processes have little fiber opening capacity,
so the fibre must be well pre-opened before working.
• It is difficult to produce very light weight webs at high speeds.
• The process is subject to static build-up problems and needs controlled
room conditions.
• Addition of antistatic oils is troublesome in processing.
• The process is not very suitable for very fine, long or highly crimped
fibers.
• The air flotation tends to separate fibers of different deniers or
densities.
• In general, such plants are not very flexible to raw material changes.
• Pneumatic laying machines generate more noise.
• It is not possible to produce such nonwovens in large widths, at least
not as wide as crosslapped battings.
For the above-mentioned reasons, these machines are less popular as
compared to roller cards and are used mainly for processing high denier and
waste fibers or in those cases where random webs are required (Lin & Tsai
2001).
Applications of air-laid nonwoven products
Based on the choice of fibers and the bonding methods, air-laid nonwovens
are utilized in numerous applications. Some of the application are high-loft
products for the clothing and furniture industry, wadding, medical and hygiene
fabrics, geotextiles and roofing felts, filters, insulation and barrier materials,
wall and floor coverings, moulded products, wipes, preformed automotive
components, absorbent cores, acquisition and distribution layers, etc.
2.2.2 Wet lay process

The wet laid technology is essentially based upon the paper making process.
The wet lay process is suitable for fibers which can be dispersed in fluids. Like
in the paper making process, very short fibers dispersed in water are laid on
a traversing perforated lattice. The wet laid nonwoven is different from paper
by any one of the following criterions as defined by INDA.
• More than 50% of the material is made of fibers (excluding chemically
digested vegetable fibers) with a length to diameter ratio greater than
300.
• If the above condition does not apply and if the following condition
is fulfilled. More than 30% of material is made of fibers (excluding
chemically digested vegetable fibers) with a length to diameter ratio
more than 300 and density is less than 0.4 g/cm3.
The typical applications of the wet laid technology includes disposable
fabrics like tea bags, baby diaper cover, sanitary napkins, surgical clothing,
table cloths, bed linen and liners, household cloth, filters, shoe uppers,
protective clothing and sterile packs in medical fields. The characteristic
features of the wet laying technology:
Web formation 71
• Excellent product homogeneity

• Versatility in the product scale
• Higher production rates
Figure 2.31 illustrates the various processes involved in the manufacturing
of wet laid webs.
The basic process stages include:
• Dispersion of fibers in water,
• Continuous web forming on a wire cloth through filtration,
• Consolidation, drying and batching up the web.
Raw material
(Short fibers, cellulose)
Preparation
(Blending, manufacturing of fiber-water suspension)
Web forming
(Spreading of suspension into a screen belt)
Web bonding (mechanical bonding/thermal

bonding/chemical bonding)
Processing (Finishing, dyeing, printing, coating)
Product (Fiber nonwoven)
Figure 2.31 Wet-laid manufacturing process
2.2.2.1 Raw materials

The main factor to be considered for the wet lay process is the dispersability
of fibers in a fluid. Easy individualization of the raw fibers in the preparation
stage is essential. Then, the dispersed single fibers should be capable of

remaining uniformly distributed in the suspension until web lay down.
Lower costs and ease of application makes wood pulp as one of the preferred
components. Other components include cotton, viscose, manila, hemp or bast
fibers. Synthetic fibers and glass fibers are very rarely used for specialised
applications. Fibers of shorter lengths (2–10 mm) can only be processed in
order to maintain uniform fiber dispersion. Dilution, nothing but the weight
proportion of fibers in suspension should be kept at 0.005–0.05%. The problem
of flocculation arises with increase in dilution.
The dispersing behaviour of the fiber largely depends on the following
factors:
• Fineness ratio, based on the fiber length and the fiber fineness
• Fiber stiffness in a liquid medium (wet modulus)
• Type of crimp
• Wettability
• Fiber staple quality (fiber length)
An increase in the fiber fineness ratio accompanied by a decrease in fiber
stiffness decreases the fiber dispersability. Additionally, the type of fiber
also influences fiber processing. Generally, it is easier to form homogeneous
suspensions using non-crimped fibers rather than long, fine, fibrillated or
crimped fibers. These fibers tend to form clumps. Other factors influencing
wet laying are the fiber surface profile, fibrillation, the viscosity of the liquid
and the type of mechanism employed in the production the suspension. In
the case of synthetic fibers, the wettability can be improved by either adding
wetting agents to the suspension or by applying suitable spin finishes.
2.2.2.2 Manufacturing of wet-laid process

The first step is to prepare a homogeneous suspension with wood pulp and
water in the ratio of 0.003–0.007 (w/w). This suspension is pumped to the
headbox provided with an opening called slice. From the slice in the headbox,
the fiber-water suspension is deposited onto the moving perforated wires
through a regulator (Figure 2.32). The vacuum arrangement underneath the
screen drains the water leaving behind the fibers on wires to form the web.
Any residual water can be removed from the resulting web by applying
suction pressure. The dried web is then bonded by applying latex binders
like polyacrylate or styrene butadiene rubber (Meierhoefer 1989). The spray
printing or dot printing process can be adopted for web bonding. The pilot
wet-laying machine is shown in Figure 2.33.
Web formation 73
Figure 2.32 Wet-laid nonwoven process (Source: Glens Falls Interweb. Inc. New York)
Figure 2.33 Pilot wet lay machine (Source: www.andritz.com)
2.2.2.3 Factors influencing the web formation

The important process factors are known to be the ratio of fiber-to-water weight
or volume, dispersion time, and impeller speed. The higher is the relative
volume occupied by the fibers as compared to that occupied by the water

results in more crowding of fibers at the time of dispersion that ultimately
results in poor quality of webs (Safavi et al. 2009). This can be explained by
the following expression of fiber crowding factor as shown below
2 l
nf = cv
3 d
Where
cv – Volume fraction (ratio of the volume occupied by fibers to the volume
of water)
l – Fiber length and
d – Fiber diameter
The velocity of water in relation to the velocity of wire determines the
structure of the web. When both the velocities are equal then the fiber lay-
down is found to be practically random. When the velocity of wire is higher
than the velocity of water then fibers are found to be preferentially orientated
in the machine direction, but when the velocity of wire is lower than the
velocity of water then fibers are found to be preferentially orientated in the
cross direction.
It is known that the fiber–water dispersion quality primarily dictates the
quality of the wet-laid nonwovens. The important fiber characteristics that
determine this dispersion are fiber length, fiber aspect ratio, and fiber bending
rigidity. The higher fiber length, fiber aspect ratio, and fiber bending rigidity
result in more fabric defects and vice-versa. The wet-laid process involves
suspension of fibers in water and nonwoven is made by draining the water
solution through a forming mesh. At this step, the preponderance of fibers is in
the form of clumps and which has to be split into individual fibers in a mixing
tank by means of shear applied on them by the flow field. To produce uniform
nonwoven structure, fibers must be well dispersed prior to be laid-down; or
else they remain as clumps and appear as defects (log defects) in the final
product. Logs are characterized by bundles of fibers with aligned cut ends that
are not dispersed, which happen mainly due to fiber supply problem or can be
the result of low under agitation of the initial dispersion. Rope formation is
another main concern particularly when fibers with varying degree of stiffness
are mixed. Ropes are characterized by assemblages of fibers, with unaligned
ends, that are clearly more agglomerated than in the general dispersion. They
are formed when fibers are encountered a vortex that facilitates in entangling
the fibers to form ropes. In this case, the more flexible fibers will twist and
wrap around the stiffer fibers.
Web formation 75
2.3 Polymer lay process

Polymer-laid or spunlaid nonwoven fabrics are based on the polymer
extrusion principle. But instead of forming tows or yarns as in the traditional
process, the filaments are directly collected and condensed into a web. The
elimination of the intermediate processes increases the production rates and
lowers the manufacturing costs (Adanur 1995; Russel 1997). Spunbonding
(spunbond) and meltblowing (meltblown) are the two major types of
polymer lay process.
2.3.1 Spun-bonding process

The spunbonding process is quite identical to synthetic filament spinning.
This process involves the extrusion, drawing and laying of the filaments on a
moving conveyor belt to form the nonwoven.

Synthetic fibers such as polypropylene, polyester, nylon, polyethylene and
polyurethane are used as raw materials.
• The most widely used fiber is polypropylene (constitutes about 80%).
The most important characteristic of polypropylene is its low density.
Additionally, the availability of polypropylene in many forms like
virgin fiber, dope dyed form, recycled makes it more popular (Moore
1996). The limitations of the fiber are low UV stability, low creep
resistance and lower melting point.
• Polyester follows polypropylene as the next widely used fiber.
Polyester is used in applications requiring higher strength and UV
resistance. However, polyester has low resistance to alkali.
• Nylon 6 and 66 are also used in spunbonding. The higher moisture
regain values of nylon make it suitable in certain applications. The
major limitation is the higher energy costs involved in processing.
• Polyethylene is also used due to its low cost. The use of polyethylene
is limited by its lower strength and low melting point.
• Polyurethane finds application in apparels and other products where
higher stretch and recovery is required.
• Core/sheath and side by side bicomponent fibers can also be used in
this process. These fibers can be bonded thermally without addition
of any low melt fiber by using a combination of low melt polymer on
the surface and high melt fiber in the core of the fiber. Manufacturing
of eco-friendly fabrics is feasible using bicomponent fiber made of

polylactic acid (PLA) fiber in the core and polypropylene on the
surface.
Raw material parameters:

• Melt index MFI : 20–40 g per 10 min (with spunlaid nonwovens)
100–1,600 g per 10 min (with meltblown
nonwovens)
• Polydispersity (MW/MN) : 3.5–7 unit to measure mole weight
distribution
MW – mol weight average weight
MN – mol weight arithmetical average
• Atactic share : < 2.5%
• Intrinsic viscosity : < 0.64
• Water content : < 0.004%
• Low share in COOH-groups
• High crystallinity
2.3.1.2 Batt manufacturing process

The spunbonding sequence is shown in Figure 2.34.
Polymer melting Cooling & filtering Spinning Drawing
Winding on roll Bonding Laying on the formation net
Figure 2.34 Spunbonding process
The melt, dry or wet extrusion spinning techniques can be adapted in

a spunbonding process. However, melt spinning is the prominently used
technique (Figure 2.35). The hopper feeds the polymer chips to an extruder
where they are melted. The molten polymer is filtered and is extruded through
the spinneret to form the filaments. Depending upon the fabric width, two or
three spinnerets are laid side by side to increase the number of filaments. The
extruded filaments are quenched by a stream of cold air and are subjected to
either mechanically or pneumatically attenuation for orienting the molecules
thereby increasing the strength (Malkan & Wadsworth 1992).
Web formation 77
(a)
1 – Winder; 2 – Calendar; 3 – Guide roller; 4 – Edge guide; 5 – Forming belt; 6 – Extruder;
7 – Extruder drive; 8 – Compaction roller; 9 – Attenuation; 10 – Quench air; 11 – Spin pack;
12 – Pump; 13 – Filter; 14 – Polymer hopper
(b)
Figure 2.35 Spunbonding process with a belt collector (Source: www.reicofil.com)
• Polymer melting: The polymer pellets or granules or chips are

transferred into the extruder hopper. The hopper feeds chips to the
screw rotating inside the heated barrel by means of gravity. The

polymer melts gradually in the barrel owing to the heat and friction
of the viscous flow and the mechanical forces between the screw and
barrel. The screw has three sections: feed, transition, and metering
zones (Malkan & Wadsworth 1993). The screw is designed with a
decreasing depth channel so as to compress the polymer chips and
facilitate homogeneous melting. The function of the feed zone is to
preheat the polymer chips and convey them to the transition zone.
The chips undergo complete melting in the transition zone. The
molten polymer is conveyed to the metering zone.
• Metering of the melt: A uniform flow of the molten polymer mix with
the required process parameters of viscosity, pressure, and temperature
is essential for proper filament extrusion. For this purpose, a positive
displacement volume metering device is used to deliver the polymer
to the die assembly.
• Die block assembly: The die assembly is the critical element in
the spunbond process. The die assembly can be divided into the
polymer feed distribution section and the spinneret section. The feed
distribution supplies the polymer delivered by the metering device to
all the spinnerets evenly and eliminates the dependency on the shear
sensitivity of the polymer. Both the T-type (tapered and untapered)
and the coat-hanger type feed distribution systems can be used. From
the feed distribution channel the polymer melt goes is directed into
the spinneret (Lim 2010). A spinneret is typically a single block of
metal with several holes orifices or holes drilled into it corresponding
to the number of filaments required. In commercial spunbonding
processes, many spinnerets are placed side by side to produce a wide
web (of up to about 5 m). These grouped spinnerets are often referred
to as block or bank.
• Filament spinning, drawing, and deposition: This involves filament
spinning, drawing, and deposition of the filaments. The drawn
filaments are entangled and deposited onto an air-permeable conveyor
belt or collector. Fanning or entangler units based on aerodynamic
principles are adapted for proper filament deposition. Additionally,
the fanning unit crosses or translates adjacent filaments to increase
cross-directional integrity of the web.
There are two variants in the batt formation process:
• Partial orientation
• Full orientation
Web formation 79
For most of regular use products like cover stock for diapers and hygiene
materials, partial orientation is sufficient to provide the required strength.
Partial orientation also permits higher production rates. An air generation
unit is required to achieve partial orientation. The products like geotextiles,
carpet backing, roofing and industrial products require full orientation of the
polymer (Fourné 1992; Smorada 1992). For full orientation, the filaments are
drawn over heated godet rollers, with draw ratio of 1: 3 or 4 followed by
pneumatic acceleration. Following this, the uniformity and cover is improved
by passing the filaments through a pneumatic air gun where high velocity air
is forced through a constricted area of low pressure. Electrostatic charges are
applied to avoid filament entanglement during the drawing process. These
filaments are deposited on a moving conveyor belt in a random and uniform
manner. This batt is then bonded. In both the partial and full orientation, the
lay down can also be done in the cross direction depending on the end use.
The randomisation can be additionally enhanced by using suction systems
underneath the conveyor (Gilmor 1992).
The complex spunbonding process involves many operating variables such
as polymer throughput, polymer and die temperatures, quench environment,
bonding conditions and material variables as polymer type, molecular weight,
molecular weight distribution and many others. All these variables affect
the fiber diameter, fiber structure, web-lay down and physical and tensile
properties of the web (Brenk 2004; Lim 2010). The major performance
characteristics of spunbond fabrics such as strength, chemical and thermal
resistance are controlled by the characteristics of the polymer systems used.
The structure and properties of the final fabric are determined by the polymer
and the processing conditions (Rupp 2012).
• The Production rate of spunbonding machine per metre working
width in kg/hr
m × n × n × 60
PSP =
1000
m = throughput per nozzle (g/min)
n = number of nozzles per metre of spinning width (m–1)
• The mass per unit area of the web created on the perforated belt
PSP
mv =
VT
mv = Mass per unit area of the nonwoven (g/m2)
PSP = kg/h·m
VT = Speed of belt (m/min)
2.3.1.3 Comparison of filament bonding and staple fiber bonding

system
The relative merits of filament bonding and staple fiber bonding are highlighted
in Table 2.5.
Table 2.5 Relative merits of filament bonded and staple fiber bonded nonwovens
Filament bonding Staple fiber bonding

Higher strength Lower strength
Lower elongation Higher elongation
Higher uniformity in thickness and GSM Lower uniformity in thickness and GSM
Lacking in textile character and feel Has good textile character and feel
Higher tear strength Lower tear strength
Products are normally of low to medium Wide range of products from low to
GSM (20–250) medium to high GSM are available (20–
1500)
Less flexibility in regard to raw material. All types of raw material can be processed
Generally line is suitable for either in the same line.
polypropylene or polyester or Nylon or
bicomponent fiber. Some latest models
however claim flexibility in regard to fiber
High plant capacity in terms of production Low to medium capacity in terms of
production
High capital investment Low to medium capital investment
Two stages of manufacture Single stage of manufacture
2.3.1.4 Major applications

• Cover stock for diapers and hygiene products
• Surgical materials
• Carpet backing
• Bedding and furniture
• Geotextiles
• Roof Materials and other construction material
• Filters
• Industrial products
2.3.2 Meltblowing process

Meltblowing is a process for producing fibrous webs or articles directly from
polymers or resins using high-velocity air or another appropriate force to
attenuate the filaments. This is the latest technique developed in nonwoven
Web formation 81
manufacturing. The major advantage of this process is its ability to produce

microfiber webs. Meltblown microfibers have diameters ranging from 0.1 mm
to 15 mm but diameters of 2–4 mm are widely used. The degree of softness,
cover or opacity, and porosity are controlled by the filament size (Elsharkawy
2008).
The typical meltblowing process involves extrusion of thermoplastic
fibers through a linear dies. Convergent streams of hot air (exiting from the top
and bottom sides of the die nosepiece) rapidly attenuate the extruded polymer
filaments to form extremely fine fibers. The attenuated fibers collected on a
conveyor belt to form a fibered self-bonded nonwoven meltblown web.

Unlike the spunbond process which requires high orientation, the meltblown
process has no or little orientation after extrusion. Hence many polymers apart
from PP and PET can be processed:
• Polyethylene of high density (HDPE)
• Polyethylene of low density (LDPE, LLDPE)
• Polyamides (PA 6, PA 6.6, PA 10)
• Polystyrene (PS)
• Polytrifluorochloroethene (PCTFE)
• Polycarbonate (PC)
• Polyurethane (PUR)
The meltblown nonwovens are usually characterized by very fine fibers
of low strength compared to spunbonded nonwovens.
2.3.2.2 Meltblown process

Meltblowing is single stage process in which high-velocity air blows a molten
thermoplastic resin from an extruder die tip onto a conveyor or take-up screen
to form a fine fibrous and self-bonding web as shown in Figure 2.36.
The components of the meltblowing process are:
1. Extruder – From the hopper feeder, the polymer chips are feds to the
Archimedean screw, which rotates inside the cylinder. The rotation of
the screw pushes the chips forward along the hot walls of the cylinder
and the melts the polymer by heat and frictional forces. The screw is
divided into feed, transition, and metering zones.
• The feed zone preheats the polymer pellets
• Transition zone compresses and homogenizes the melting
polymer
• Metering zone serves to generate maximum pressure for

extrusion.
(a)
1 – Winder unit; 2 – Collector; 3 – Blower; 4 – Air compressor; 5 – Resin tank; 6 – Barow
tank; 7 – Resin bag; 8 – Vacuum pump; 9 – Extruder; 10 – Polymer filter; 11 – Gear pump;
12 – Static mixer; 13 – Meltblown die; 14 – Embossing unit
(b)
Figure 2.36 Meltblown web formation process (Source: www.kasen.co.jp)
2. Metering pump – It controls the delivery of the melt to the die

assembly ensuring consistent flow of polymer with the required
viscosity, pressure, and temperature. The metering pump is generally
designed with two intermeshing and counter-rotating toothed gears.
Web formation 83
3. Die assembly
• Feed distribution: It distributes the flow evenly to all the
spinnerets flow and ensures constant residence time across
the width of the die in all instances. The two types of feed
distributions are T-type (tapered and un tapered) and coat
hanger type (widely used due to better balancing of flow and
residence time)
• Die Nosepiece: The web uniformity depends upon the design
of the nosepiece. The spinneret used in spunbonding process
is replaced with the die nosepiece. This nosepiece is typically
a hollow and tapered piece of metal having linear arrangement
of several hundred orifices along its width. The polymer melt
is extruded through these holes and the emerging filaments are
quenched using hot air. The usual dimensions of the nosepiece
include a diameter of 0.4 mm and the number of orifices per
mm ranges from 1 to 4. Figure 2.37 shows the design of the
die.
Figure 2.37 Die design for meltblowing process (Source: www.nippon-nz.com)
• Air manifolds: The die nosepiece is designed with slots through

which the air manifolds supply the high velocity hot air. The
air from a compressor is passed through a heat exchange unit
to heat the air to desired temperatures. The general process
parameters are air temperatures of 230°C to 360°C and air
velocities of 0.5–0.8% of the speed of sound.
4. Web formation – Immediately after the extrusion of polymer from
the die holes, hot air streams of high velocity exiting from the die
nosepiece attenuate the polymer filaments to form micro fibers
(Tanchis 2008). The hot air stream directs the microfibers to a
collecting screen. On the way to the collecting screen, the secondary

air cools and solidifies the fibers (Figure 2.38). The solidified fibers
deposit randomly and entangle themselves on the screen. Hence the
air turbulence forms a self-bonded nonwoven web (Figure 2.39).
Figure 2.38 Web formation process
Figure 2.39 Schematic diagram of Meltblowing Process

(Source: www.nonwoventools.com)
Different types of meltblowns can be produced by varying the collector

speed and the distance of the die nosepiece from the collector screen.
The hot air laying the fibers can be withdrawn by applying vacuum
inside of the collector screen.
5. Winding – The melt-blown web is usually wound onto a cardboard
core and processed according to the end-use requirement.
6. Bonding – The meltblown web may be subjected to additional bonding
process such as thermal bonding to improve the fiber adhesion and
web characteristics. Either overall (area bonding) or spot (pattern
bonding) techniques can be adapted. This essentially improves the
web strength and abrasion resistance.
Web formation 85
7. Finishing – Although finishing treatments are not mandatory, finishing

treatments such as calendaring, embossing, and flame retardant
treatments can be performed at the end of the production line.
2.3.2.3 Process variables in meltblowing process

The process variables can be classified into two categories: operational/on-
line variables and off-line variables. The type of polymer and its throughput,
polymer/die design and air temperature, die-to-collector distance, and quench
environments are the on-line variables (Lokesh 2013; McCrum 1988). The off-
line variables are hole size, die setback, air gap, air angle, web collection type,
and polymer/air distribution (Sun et al. 1996). The variables in meltblown
production are listed below.
• Polymer type
• Polymer characteristics: molecular weight, melt viscosity, melt
strength
• Extruder conditions: temperature, shear, polymer degradation
• Filtration
• Die tip geometry: hole diameter, air gap, die tip position
• Hot air conditions: volume, temperature, velocity
• Polymer conditions: temperature, flow rate, shear rate
• Die conditions: temperature profile, gas flow rate profile, polymer
flow rate profile
• Ambient air conditions: temperature, lack of turbulence
• Distance from the die to the forming drum or belt
• Laydown conditions
Basically any fiber forming polymer that has an acceptable melt viscosity
at a suitable processing temperature and can solidify before landing on the
collector screen can be processed by spunbonding. A wide range of polymers
has been spunbond (Shambaugh 1992). In general, high molecular weight and
broad molecular weight distribution polymers such as PP, PET, Polyamide,
etc., can be processed by spunbonding to produce uniform webs (Tsai 1998;
Butler 1999). Isotactic polypropylene is the most widely used polymer for
spunbond nonwovens production as it provides the highest yield of fiber per
mass and covering power at the lowest cost because of its low density (Lee &
Wadsworth 1992; Milligan & Haynes 1998).
2.3.2.4 Web characteristics and properties
Uniformity: The distribution of fiber in the air stream and the vacuum settings
below the collecting screen determine the web uniformity. Non-uniform
distribution of fiber in the air stream can be caused due to poor die design and
improper airflow in the air stream. The vacuum under the collector should
be capable of withdrawing the entire air stream through the perforations and
randomly lock the fibers in place (Choi et al. 1988; Wehamann 1992). Usually,
as the distance between the die and the collecting screen decreases, the web
uniformity increases.
Product characteristics
The main characteristics and properties of melt-blown webs are as follows:
1. Random fiber orientation in the web.
2. Lower to moderate web strength, the strength is a result of the
mechanical entanglement and frictional forces.
3. Generally meltblown products have high opacity due to a high cover
factor.
4. Unique method to produce low GSM material.
5. Fiber diameter ranges from 0.5 to 30 m, but typically 2–7 m.
6. Basis weight ranges from 8 to 350 g/m2, but typically 20–200 g/m2.
7. Microfibers provide a high surface area for good insulation and
filtration characteristics.
8. Fibers have a smooth and soft surface texture and are circular in
cross-section.
9. Most melt-blown webs have a layered structure, the number of layers
increases with basis weight.
2.3.2.5 Applications of meltblown nonwoven
• Medical fabrics: Disposable gown, drape market, sterilization, wrap
segment, Sanitary products etc.
• Adsorbents: Sorbents to pick up oil from the surface of water, such as
encountered in an accidental oil etc.
• Filtration media: Filter media, cartridge filters, clean room filters and
others
• Apparel: Thermal insulation, disposable industrial apparel and
substrate for synthetic leather.
• Electronic specialties: Liner fabric in computer floppy disks, battery
separators and as insulation capacitors.
• Miscellaneous applications: Manufacture of tents, elastomeric
nonwoven fabrics etc.
2.3.2.6 Comparison of melt-blown and spunbond process
The spunbond and melt-blown processes are quite identical from machinery
and operator point of view. But the two major differences are:
Web formation 87
• The temperature and volume of the air used to attenuate the filaments
and
• The point of application of filament drawing or attenuation force.
Higher temperatures and higher volumes of air are used for attenuation
in meltblown process. The air temperature is close to the melting temperature
of the polymer. Conversely, the spunbond process generally uses a smaller
volume of air close at ambient temperature to for drawing the filaments
(McCulloch et al. 2003).
A melt-blown process uses large amounts of high-temperature air to
attenuate the filaments. The air temperature is typically as higher than the
temperature of the polymer. In contrast, the spunbond process generally uses
a smaller volume of air close to ambient temperature to apply the attenuation
force (Dhoke 2015).
In the melt-blown process, the attenuation force is applied at the tip of
the nosepiece for forming microfibers. This inhibits the polymer orientation
to build good physical properties. In the spunbond process, the polymer is
subjected to the drawing force after cooling. As a result the polymer is well
oriented but is not suitable to form microfibers. A critical comparison of
spunbond and meltblown process fabrics is given in Table 2.6.
Table 2.6 Comparison of spunbond and meltblown fabrics
Meltblown Spunbond
Developed 1950s
Opacity Opaque
Color Typically white, can be colored
Finishing Calendar, laminating, point bonding
Pleatable (Y/N) Yes, when heavy enough
Basis weight avg. 20–200 gsm 10–200 gsm
Basis weight range 8–350 gsm 5–800 gsm
Fiber diameter avg. 2–6 μm 15–35 μm
Fiber diameter range 0.5–15 μm 1–50 μm
Fiber length Discontinuous Continuous
Fiber orientation Random Random somewhat aligned
Fiber attenuation typical Strong air, at die exit Less air, away from die
polymers PP, PE, PBT, etc. PP, PET, PBT
Economics Less capital Faster, cheaper production
Binders Self-bonding, binders Chemical binders, needling
optional
2.4 Comparison of different web forming techniques (Table 2.7)
88
The comprehensive comparison of different web formation methods are given in Table 2.7.
Nonwoven: Process, structure, properties and applications

Table 2.7 omparison of web formation techniques (Source: www.acaemia.edu)
Process Name Technology Structure & Raw material Mixture Production Fabric weight Considerations Products & ap- Benefits/disad-
origin fiber orien- rate (m2/min)1 plications vantages
tation
Dry-laid Carded Opening, clean- Random with Most fiber types 125 ~ 600; New cards allow disposables Since carding
(Staple ing, removing some MD can be carded; Cards pro- the fiber arrays to for hygiene, begins with staple
Fiber) short fibers; direction- PP and PET duces be randomized; medicals, fibers,
Separation and ality: staple fibers high quality High-quality wipes, or durable one of the benefits
rearrangement most used; webs at products require a products for is the ability to
of fibers by Bicomponents relatively high constant apparel and blend
main cylinders, as binder fibers speeds climate during all shoe interlinings, different fiber
strippers, work- are common for production support types together to
ers, and doffers; thermally bond- stages; Webs for plastics, pack- produce
Converting the ed nonwovens; must be pre- ages, tea bags, a nonwoven.; In
individual fibers Recycled fibers bonded etc.; addition, depend-
into a uniform are also used or bonded just High-loft products ing
fibrous web if length is long after web forming for mattress, upon how many
enough; Very to transport them insulation, high cards
short fibers (pulp filter media, etc. are used, multiple
or fluff) cannot using layers can be
be processed by by new carding made to
carding equipment achieve different
performance
characteristics.
Carded + Somewhat Very low speed Web weight: Diverse applica- Randomize the
cross- random and and output, it at least 80 g/ tions is filters, ap- ODF; Create
lapping sometimes still existing m2 to 1,000 g/ parel, insulation, uniform
bimodal because: It m2 or more; carpets, etc. heavy weight
can be in Web width: webs for needle
continuous 2.5 m to 16 m, punching
process with usually, web or thru-air bonding
needle punch- of 2.5m to
ing, thermal, 6.0m
stitch bonding,
spunlacing
and chemical
bonding.
Contd...
Contd...
tation
Air-laid Opening, clean- Isotropic; short 3 – 4 mm Percentage of 75 ~ 250 Lightweight Maximum Composite are
ing, removing Random with (pulp) to long longest fiber and heavy and minimum easily achieved,
short fibers; some MD (flax fibers) must be kept to high loft fibrous web The basis weight
Fibers are direction- fibers; very low a minimum value nonwovens average weight, range flexibility
suspended in air ality: to very heavy because those are possible - characteristics of is high, as is the
within a forming dtex fibers; can gather into ~ from 100 g/ the raw material ability to produce
system then Woollen fibers big “lumps” that m2 to 8,000 g/ processed, special various densities
deposited them only for some can block some m2 made from properties of the being very low
as a batt/web special products; parts of the standard or nonwovens such and very high,
in a random Natural fibers; equipments in coarser fibers as high loft, absor- Stiffness and
orientation on a Man-made fibers motion such as bency, fiber web softness easily
moving forming especially PET, rollers, belts, etc; uniformity, delivery controllable over
screen or rotat- PP and PAN; For some fibers, speed range, a wide range,
ing perforated Recycled fibers; except those of output in kg per Diversity of raw
cylinder Superabsorbent pulp and fluff, hour, power con- materials, High
powders; the percentage sumption, machine capital costs. Can
Particles; of fibers less dimensions and use the intermedi-
than 5 – 10 mm production related ate process
must be kept to the floor space stacking
to a minimum unit the number
because they of operatives
can be removed involved, working
in air suction as width, noise level,
waste the environmental
task, equipment
price, etc.
Wet-laid Wet-laid Made by sus- Random with Long fibers; Synthetic Fibers 750 ~ 3000 Web structure Limited by cost Special papers Very capital
pending short some MD Any natural or Offer uniformity is closer, and availabil- (synthetic fiber intensive, Flexible
fibers in water direction- synthetic fibers, and consistency stiffer and ity; Important paper, dust filters, in weight, and
and processing ality: etc. (Wood pulp, of supply, More weaker than properties: Aspect filters for liquids, composition
them into a glass, polyester, difficulty in get- dry-laid webs, ratio (Length); etc.); Industrial but inflexible
fabric using a polyolefins, ting good disper- Fibers in the Tensile properties (waterproof in scheduling,
modified paper- Nylon, Metal) sion for crimped web can be (Shrinkage); sheeting roof, Energy intensive,
making process; fibers, 20 to 50% random or Flex resistance shingling, separa- High fiber qual-
Produce struc- more expensive, longitudi- (Density); Special tors, filters, etc.); ity requirements,
tures with textile Less compatible nally oriented, Fabric Features: Clothing (surgical, Draining large
fabric charac- with water Broad range Web structure is bed-linen, table volumes of water
Web formation
teristics (flex- of weights, closer, stiffer and cloths, etc.) from the web as it
ibility, strength) High produc- weaker than dry- is forming, Control
at speed tivity laid webs; of fiber orienta-
associated with tion during web
making paper formation
89
Contd...
Contd...
90
tation
Polymer- Spunbond Small volume of Web Polymers Multicomponent: 30 ~ 300 Open Versus Disposables: Various
laid air at ambient Formation: (Polypropylene, Non-splitting Closed System: Hygiene, Medical fiber shapes and
temp. to quench Air transport Polyethelene, ( Sheath/Core, Open (High fabrics, Wipes, sizes (Single layer,
& attenuate, of fiber to Polyester, Side-by-Side, Filament Speed, Filtration, Multiple layers),
Ambient air moving po- Polyamide); mixed filaments, Finer Fibers, Crop covers, Composite with
temperature, rous screen, New polymers etc), Splittables Flexible, Most Disposable other technologies
Drawing force Many propri- (Bio-Polymers, (Pie, Islands-in- Polymers, Shorter clothing, Fabric (example spun-
applied after etary devices Elastomers, Co- a-Sea, Tipped Height), Closed softener sheets, bond / meltblown
polymer cooled, are used Polymers, etc.) Trilobal, etc), (Better Bonding, Synthetic paper, / spunbond) ,
Allows polymer (Spreader Self Bulking ( Good Uniformity, Battery separa- Second step com-
orientation; plates, Side-by-Side) Well Defined tors; Durables: posites (example
Technologies: Coanda Process, Mostly Furniture, -film/spunbond
Creel Fed devices); PP, Not affected Bedding, laminate)
Laydown, Electrostatic by room air) Clothing interlin-
Typar, Original charging, ings, Shoes/
Reemay, Uniform air Leather goods,
Lurgi Process, veloc- Geotextiles,
Tyvek, Curtain ity through House wrap,
Spinning: collection Roofing, Carpet
Open vs. screen backing, Car
closed system, or belt is covers, Coating
Coathanger vs. critical to Substrates, Wall
multipump spin laying down coverings.
beams uniform web;
Multiple lay-
ers get tricky
(must lay
down without
disturbing
incoming
layer),
Compaction
of Web pro-
vides some
integrity,
Compaction
roll set and
Heating
Contd...
Contd...
tation
Meltblown Extrude low Meltblown Produce fine fi- Combination of Typical PPMB “Shot” formation, Filtration,
viscosity process is ber (2-8 microns) PP meltblown fabric Fibers colliding Sorbents and
polymer melt a one-step for applications fibers with other together while still Wipes, Coform,
through fine process that where small materials greatly in melt state, Fiber Adhesive,
capillaries; High converts fiber, large fiber enhance the util- break occurs and Apparel, Acoustic
velocity hot air resin to fine surface area ity of meltblown the newly formed insulation, Battery
is blown to the diameter and pore size product fiber has an separator,
molten polymer fiber non- are required. undrawn fiber end
and attenuates woven web PP, PES (high (droplet), usually
the polymer or structure, temperature is caused by partially
melt; The Key at- required), and obstructed capil-
molten polymer tributes of PA. Majority of lary, lower than
is cooled by meltblown the meltblown normal output rate
the turbulent process: product uses PP (gram/hole/min)
ambient air to Produce fine because of ease for the process
form fine fiber; fiber (2-8 of processing, air, can be traced
The fiber is microns) for chemically to the same CD
deposited on a applications inert, safety, and location; Dirty die
collecting device where small attractiveness tip, fibers bending
to form useful fiber, large cost/benefit to one side
articles (web, fiber surface ratio;
tube, etc.) area and
pore size are
required
9,075 + 5,930 = 15005

Web formation
91
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3
Nonwoven bonding techniques
Abstract: This chapter deals with different types of bonding techniques used in
the nonwoven manufacturing. The first part of the chapter details the mechanical
bonding methods like needle punching, stitch bonding and hydro entanglement.
The second part discusses different chemical bonding method. In this process,
the methods like saturation, spray and etc were detailed. As a final, the thermal
bonding methods used in nonwoven manufacturing, like hot calendaring, belt
calendaring, ultrasonic bonding and etc., are detailed with clear illustration.
Key words: bonding, needle punching, hydro-entanglement, chemical bonding,
thermal bonding
3.1 Introduction
Nonwovens are characterized as fabrics formed by the assembly of fiber
structures and the adjustment, or bonding, of these filaments utilizing
mechanical, compound or warm routines. Nonwoven webs, whether made
from staple fiber by the dry process or from filaments, lack structural integrity.
The only exception is paper made from wood pulp, where hydrogen bonding
holds the fibers together. Consequently, the fibers have to be held together
either by entangling them or by incorporating a bonding agent such as a resin,
solvent, or a polymer melt. Besides the characteristics of the fiber (length,
fineness, crimp, fiber surface, cross-sectional shape, etc.), the method of web
making, the bonding type has a great influence on the mechanical (strength,
elongation, recovery from deformation, stiffness, tear, etc.) and the physical
properties (handle, drape, abrasion, softness, bulk, surface characteristics, etc.)
of the product. There have been a number of developments in the technology
of bonding. All these technologies, singly and in combination, have given
versatile tools in the hands of industry to tailor-make a product to meet the
end-use requirements.
The filaments in the fiber structure can be adjusted essentially in the
length bearing, basically in the width course or similarly in both directions.
The estimation of the procedure is that by utilizing the highlight of fiber
arrangement and shifting the type of bonding process, the product attributes
can be changed, consequently yielding a really engineered product. The
production of a nonwoven fabric includes a progression of individual steps.
The principal step is to focus the desirable product end use properties and
choose the right fiber to match those necessities. The selected fiber must be
appropriately arranged for the kind of procedure to be utilized. The fiber is
then framed into a web structure with the right fiber arrangement, weight and
measurements. The following step is to choose the bonding system expected
to get the sorts of structure stabilization required for the end product. A
flat stiff structure requires a different bonding method than a lofty or soft
flexible product. Finishing of the product may be as simple as cutting the wide
delivered fabric into to narrower widths. It might likewise include applying
chemical or mechanical finishes, or it might be printing or colouring certain
sorts of these nonwoven fabrics.
Mechanical bonding Chemical bonding Thermal bonding
Needle punching Saturation Hot calendering
Stitch bonding Spray Belt calendering
Hydro
Print Through-air
entanglement
thermal bonding
(spunlace)
Foam
Ultrasonic
Powdered bonding
Radiant heat
bonding
Figure 3.1 Classification of bonding techniques used in nonwoven bonding process
The structures shaped in the web framing procedures are frequently

feeble and temperamental. To get the strength and stability, the structures must
undergo some form of bonding. Major methods of bonding can be divided
into three categories-mechanical, chemical, and thermal. The discussion of
mechanical bonding includes needle punching, stitch bonding and hydro
entangling or spunlacing technologies (www.aatcc.org). Chemical bonding
includes saturation, printing and spray bonding techniques. The thermal
methods are air bonding and calendar bonding. The ultrasonic method uses
Nonwoven bonding techniques 97
high frequency sound waves to create molecular motion in the fibers. This
motion creates heat in the structure which reacts with the thermoplastic
polymer to create bonds between fibers. The powder bond process uses
thermoplastic polymer powders sprinkled into the fiber webs and heated to
form the bonds. Figure 3.1 explains the classification of different bonding
techniques used in the bonding of nonwoven web.
3.2 Mechanical bonding

3.2.1 Needle punching
Needle punching can be characterized as a physical system for mechanically
interlocking strands networks by utilizing spiked needles to reposition a
percentage of the fibers from a flat to a vertical introduction. A large number
of needles interlock fibers in a web. Needle punching is the most utilised
method for delivering nonwoven products.
The needle punching framework is used to bond dry laid and spun laid
networks. The needle-punched fabrics are delivered when pointed needles are
pushed through a stringy cross-laid web driving a few filaments through the
web, where they remain when the needles are withdrawn. The principle of
needle puching process is shown in Figure 3.2. A needle-punched nonwoven
is a fabric made from webs or batts of fibers in which some of the fibers have
been driven upward or downward or both by barbed needles. This needling
action interlocks fibers and holds the structure together by friction forces.
Figure 3.2 The basic principle of needle punching process
3.2.1.1 Working mechanism of needle punching technology

In needle punching the bonding of the fiber web is the result of intertwining of
the fibers and of the inter fiber friction caused by the compression of the web.
The entire setup of needle punching line and the phases of needle punching
process are shown in Figures 3.3 and 3.4, respectively.
Figure 3.3 Needle punching line
Figure 3.4 Process flow in needle punching
Needle-punched nonwovens are created by mechanically orienting and

interlocking the fibers of a spun bonded or carded web. This mechanical
interlocking is achieved with thousands of barbed felting needles repeatedly
passing into and out of the web. The cross-lapped batts are needle punched
to make a felt. A versatile material for industrial and apparel uses, felt is
characterised by intimate, three-dimensional fiber-entanglement. The resultant

high frictional forces confirms fabric integrity and particularly high resistance
to de-lamination. The three-dimensional nature of fiber entanglement
distinguishes a needled felt from felt-like nonwoven structures where the
entanglement is mostly two-dimensional (woollen felts). It is possible to cut
articles of any shape. The cut edges are not subject to raveling, since they
are not woven. Figure 3.5 outlines the fundamental parts of needle punching
machine (Jangala & Huang 2011).
1 – Fiber layer 2 – Input device 3 – Stripper plate

4 – Bed plate 5 – Needle board 6 – Needles
7 – Main drive
Figure 3.5 Needle punching technology (Source: www.dvc500.com)
After the preparation of fibers by opening and blending, the web

formation has been done on a nonwoven card and then webs are laid by
a cross-lapper to produce a batt to the required width and basis weight.
Drafting operation to reduce the basis weight of fabric could takes place
before, during or after pre-needling operation. Generally, the needle loom
comprises three main components, namely, needle board, bed plate and
stripper plate as shown in Figure 3.5.
The web passes through two heavy and substantial frames, a bed plate
at the bottom and a stripper plate at the top. Corresponding holes are located
in each plate and between each hole, the barb needles which are fixed on
needle board passes thought the web in and out. The bed plate provides the
platform for the fibrous web to passes through the loom while, the stripper
plate strips the fibers from the needle so the material can advance through
the needle loom. The needle board carrying the needles is driven with some
simple harmonic motion so that the needles will move up and down through
the web. The fibrous webs are normally guided between two conveyor belts
or aprons to prevent fiber slippage in the sheath and core part of the web. The
distance between the stripper plate and base plate can be adjusted to control
the web compression during needling. Most of the needle loom comprises
two needle boards i.e. pre-needling and final needling for effective needling
operation and to reduce the thickness of the batt. After final needling, the
fabric is transported away from the needling zone by take-up rollers, the
movement of which may be intermittent or continuous.
On the off chance that adequate strands are suitably dislodged the web is
changed over into a fabric by the consolidating impact of these fibers plugs
or tufts. This activity happens in needle punching machines where a board
normally containing a few thousand spiked needles, in responded at pace of
around 2000 strokes every moment, contingent upon the machine width. This
activity normally occurs in vertical course and a few machines may have two
arrangements of needles, one working downwards and different upwards, so
that both sides of web are needled. Fabric properties are dependent on number
of factors, the two main ones being punch density and needle penetration. The
operation consists of pre-needler, drafter and a finish needle loom.
During needle punching, the webs are subject to stretching particularly in
the pre-needling machine. In the case of lightweight webs, the draft creates
thick and thin areas due to weight variations and the borders become heavier
because of width shrinkage. For producing lightweight felts, it is advisable to
work on larger widths and then slit the material after needling.
The needle punch webs offer a wide range of product characteristics such
as (Milin Patel & Bhrambhatt 2011),
1. Unique physical property, i.e. elongation in all (x, y, & z) directions
for moldable applications.
2. Ability to attach layers of different types of fiber webs to produce
nonwoven composite as well as reinforcement in composites.
3. High opacity per unit area.
4. High strength makes them overwhelming choice for geotextiles
fabrics.
3.2.1.2 Types of looms

There are three basic types of needle looms in the needle punching industry.
They are (Anwer 2014),

1. The felting loom
2. The structuring loom
3. The random velour loom
• The felting looms are the sort simply depicted earlier. These needle
looms have one to four needle boards and needles from the top, base
or top and base. The essential capacity of this sort of machine is to
do interlocking of strands bringing about a level, one measurement
fabric. The type of products made with this process and needle loom
are different and multifaceted. They exist in mixture of industrial
products, geotextiles, automotives, interlinings, home furniture, and
so forth.
• Structuring looms use what are called fork needles. As opposed to
conveying strands into bedplate opening, the fork needles convey
fiber tufts into lamella bars that stretch out from the section to the
way out of the needle loom. These fork needles convey huge tufts
of strands into parallel lamella bars. These bars convey the tuft of
fiber from the passage to the way out side of the loom. Contingent
upon the introduction of the fork needle, a rib or velour surface is
presented. The most popular products made with structuring looms
include home and commercial carpets and floor mats, automotive rib
and velour products, wall covering and marine products.
• Random velour looms are the type of needle looms, having only
been available since the mid 1980s. The random velour looms are
used to produce velour surfaces. Unlike the structuring looms, the
velour products produced by this loom are completely isotropic. It is
almost impossible to distinguish the cross direction from the machine
direction. Unique to this type of needle loom is the bristle-brush, bed-
plate system. Special crown type needles or fork needles are used in
this loom design. The needles push fibers into a moving brush bed
plate. The fibers are conveyed in this brush from the passage to the
way out of the loom with zero draft. This takes into consideration
the totally nonlinear look, ideal for shaped items. Random velour
sort items have been exceptionally prevalent in the European and
Japanese auto industry. While all U.S. car makers have the arbitrary
velour machine, this sort of item has yet to end up well known in this
nation. The most prevalent items made with this sort of needle loom
are all more popular around the automotive industry.
3.2.1.3 Parameters influencing the properties of needle-punched

fabric
Factors which influence the properties of needle-punched fabrics are given
below:
Raw material variables
• Fibre type
• Fibre length, fineness, cross-section, crimp, contour
• Mechanical properties of fibres
Web characteristics
• Orientation of fibre in the web (parallel-laid, cross-laid or random-
laid)
• Web weight and uniformity
• Presence of scrim
Machine variables
• Needle punching density
• Needle penetration
• Entry and exit speed
Machine design parameters
• Needle density on board
• Pattern arrangement of needles in the needle board
• Type of needle/needle shape, size, number of barbs
• Single or both sided needling
• Pre-needling/finish needling
• Straight/inclined punching/elliptical needling
• Special arrangement for pattern fabric
Finishing
• Heat setting
• Calendaring
• Chemical bonding
• Coating
• Lamination
Needle punch density:
The punch density defines the number of needle penetrations per unit area
(punches/cm2) and directly affects fabric properties and dimensions. It
depends on following parameters
• The density of needles in the needle board (Nd)

• The rate of material feed
• The frequency of punching
• The effective width of the needle board (NbT)
• Number of runs
The puncture density per run Edpass = [n*F] / [V*W]
Where, n = number of needles within a needle board
F = Frequency of punching
V = Rate of material feed
W = Effective width of the needle board
The puncture density in the needled fabric EdNV depends on the number of
runs Npass;
EdNV = Edpass * Npass
The needle punching density influences the compactness of fibers in the
web due to the higher number of penetration of needles. The punching density
normally expressed as number of punches per square centimeter is the product
of machine strokes per centimeter of web advance and the number of needles
per centimeter of working width of machine (Midha & Mukhopadhyay 2005).
The punch density could be determined as,
nn
Pd =
A
Where, A is the advance per stroke (cm) which is given by A = P/Sf

P = Fabric production speed (cm/min),
Sf = Punch (stroke) frequency (punches/min).
nn is the number of needles per cm width of the needle board and
Pd is the punch density (punches/cm2).
Effect of needle punching density
The influence of needle punching density on fabric characteristics are given
below:
• With increase in needling density, the tenacity of fabric increases
initially due to better entanglement of fibers and then decreases
sharply at higher needling density due to the occurrence of fiber
breakage.
• Higher needling density restricts fiber mobility during bending and
this in turn results in higher bending length. An excessive needle
depth and/or needling density results in severe fiber breakage, which
leads to poor stiffness.
• Basis weight of a needle punched nonwoven decreases with increase

in needling density due to the increase in drafting and spreading of
fibers during needle punching.
• Owing to the higher fiber locking with increase in needle density, the
thickness of fabric for the same basis weight decreases. So when the
needle is withdrawn from the web structure, it resists the fibers to
bounce back to their original position. Further increase in needling
density may increase the thickness of fabric. The protruding fibers
on the surface of fabric due to fiber breakage at excessive number of
needling density exhibited greater thickness.
• With initial increase in needling density, the fabric density increases
due to better interlocking of fibers and then decreases with further
increase in needling density due to the increase in number of pegs and
spreading of fabric.
• Thermal insulation properties of the fabrics increase initially and then
decreases with increase in number of needle penetrations. At higher
needle penetrations, due to increase in density of fabric, holding
capacity of fabric to the air will be less leading to decrease in thermal
insulation properties.
• As like thermal insulation, the air permeability of fabric decreases
with initial increase in needling density due to better entanglement of
fibers and compact structure but air permeability increases at higher
needling density due holes in fabric due to fiber damage at higher
needling density.
• As the number of penetrations increases, the abrasion resistance
increases linearly and the softness decreases. The fabrics with soft
handling properties have poor abrasion properties and vice versa.
• Initially the modulus, tenacity and breaking extension increase with
the increase in amount of needling, but at high needling the modulus
and tenacity begin to decrease. The initial increase is due to the
increase in entanglements, while the fall must be due to web tearing
and breaking of fibers.
• Along the machine direction, the bending length and bending modulus
reduces, as amount of needling density is increased (Kamath 2004).
Depth of needle penetration
The distance or gap between the top surface of the bed plate and the tip
portion of the needle is known as needle penetration depth, when the needles
are positioned at the bottom dead center. The important property influenced
by the depth of needle penetration during the needling process is the fabric
stretch. During needling operation, the fabric tends to stretch and the amount
of this stretch increases with increase in penetration depth. Further, needle
penetration decides the number of fibers carried by the needle barbs during the
travel as well as the extent of fiber movement. The structural changes occur
during the needle punching process are given below.
• Fiber breakage could happen at higher depth of needle penetration as
the fabric is stretched.
• With increase in depth of penetration, the reorientation of fibers
and the more pressure exerted on fibers leads to decrease in fabric
thickness.
• At lower depth of needle penetration, the punched loops do not
protrude from the bottom surface of fabric.
• With increase in needle penetration, number of barbs penetrating
the web also increases which leads to better consolidation of fibers
resulted in higher density of fabric. The increase in fabric density
could exhibit the following characteristic on a fabric.
– The thermal resistance of fabric decreases due to increase in
fabric density.
– Air permeability decreases with the increase in needle
penetration due to increase in density.
• Owing to the reorientation of fibers into the vertical structure at higher
needle penetration, the initial modulus of fabric could increase.
• The bending length of fabric increases initially with increase in needle
penetration up to a certain level and then decreases.
• The compressibility of fabric decreases and recovery increases
with increase in depth of needle penetration owing to the higher
entanglement of fibers and web consolidation.
Effect of needling directions
• As the needles penetrate through a longer path and there is a possibility
of better entanglement of the fibers, oblique needling gives better
strengthening of the fibers in the web structure.
• Fabrics produced from double-sided oblique needling technique
gives higher tenacity.
• The fabric produced from the oblique needling method gives lower
extensibility, higher density and lower air permeability compared to
fabrics produced by single-sided perpendicular punching.
• Longitudinal extensibility and air permeability decrease and the
fabric density increases with an increased needle inclination.
3.2.1.4 Selection of fibers for needle punching process

Virtually all types of fibrous material can be used to make nonwoven bonded
fabrics, the choice being dependent on:
• The required profile of the fabric
• The cost/ use ratio (cost effectiveness)
• The demands of further processing
Since nonwoven-bonded fabrics are almost always developed to meet
specific requirements, the correct choice of fiber is of supreme importance. It
is not only a question of finding the best kind of fibers, but of taking special
fiber properties (fineness, length, crimp%, cross sectional shape, finish) into
consideration. It is essential for the development and production of nonwoven
bonded fabrics for a comprehensive study to be made of the properties of
different fibers. This can be done by comparing the requirements to be met by
the particular fabric with results obtained from the various individual fibers.
Mainly the following fiber properties are taken into the consideration (Kamath
2004; Hearle & Purdy 1972; Igwe 1988; Hearle & Sultan 1968).
Crimp – Highly crimped fibers tend to form more uniform web which will
retain its original structure during the subsequent process. The amount and
type of crimp may be determined by the requirements of the finished product.
Denier – The use of the finer fibers results in great density, strength
and softness and at the same time a more opaque sheet (fine fiber has more
“covering” power). Heavy deniers are easier to open for production of a
uniform web at higher speeds than fine deniers.
Length – The staple length of the fibers to be used depends on the type
of web forming equipment. But low production rates and poor quality fabrics
usually result from the use of fibers that are too long.
Finish – The finish on the fiber surface is usually designated as “bright”,
“dull”, or “semi-dull” and the selection is arbitrary depending on the lecture
or appearance desired in the end product.
3.2.1.5 Needle punching needle
Needles are the core of the needle punch process. There are a great many,
which make diverse impacts in the needled fabric. The needle itself contains
different parts, all of which can be changed, yielding particular properties in
the fabric. The needle sharpened steel shape can be changed. The number,
shape and profundity of the points cut into the sides of the needle-sharpened
steel can be modified. Furthermore, the point can be changed too. The
course of action of the needles in the board likewise has an impact on the
fabric appearance and properties (http://www.fosterneedleusa.com/tch_pprs/
designs.html).
Parts of a needle
The different parts of barb needle and its structure are shown in Figure 3.6.
Figure 3.6 Needle punching needle barb structure

(Source: Senthil Kumar et al. 2010; Russel 2006)
1. Point – Sharp or ballpoint depends on the felted textile (ballpoint is

more fine for fibers).
2. Working blade – Length: 20–30 mm, diameter 0.33–2.5 mm;
3. Barbs – The barbs are the most important part of the needle. It is the
barb that carries and interlocks the fibers. The shape and sized of
the barbs can dramatically affect the needled product. The theoretical
number of fibers that may be collected in the barbs of a needle can be
calculated as follows: (Kamath 2004)
2bd
nf = × nb
df
Where bd is the barb depth, df is the fiber diameter, nb is the number of

acting barbs on the needle and nf is the number of fibers collected by
the barbs.
4. Intermediate blade – The intermediate blade is put on fine gauge
needles to make them more flexible and somewhat easier to put inside
the needle board. This is typically put on 32 gauge needles and finer.
It is used to obtain smaller holes in felted textile, to obtain lower
weight of the needle board and to obtain better mechanical properties
of the needle.
5. Shank – The shank is the thickest part of the needle. The shank is that
part of the needle that fits directly in the needle board itself.
6. Crank – The crank is the 90° bend on the top of the needle. It seats the
needle when inserted into the needle board. For needle with the tear
drop shape of working blade is important the orientation of crank on
the needle board.
Figure 3.6 demonstrates the real barbs cut or framed into the needle blade.
The outline underneath demonstrates a side perspective of the needle point in
more detail. Each of the named parts can be modified and are imperative to the
activity given to the fabric by the needle. The point kick-up is the separation
measured from the needle surface to the highest point of the spike point after
it is cut into the needle edge. This can be changed from no kick-up to high
kick-up. The higher kick-up expands the fiber conveying capacity of the
needle thorn however can likewise bring about some fiber harm. The kick‐up,
while expanding fiber conveying capacity, does not expand interlocking of
the filaments. It improves the web however causes fiber harm. For fabrics
requiring high elasticity, kick‐up ought to be very less. The thorn edge is
the quantity of degrees the fiber connecting with surface is dislodged from a
vertical position. The edge can be fluctuated from zero to 20 degrees. Lower
point permits fiber to slip from the thorn as the needle infiltrates the web. This
yields loftier, less snared structures. For fabrics obliging high rigidity, higher
spike edges ought to be utilized. The throat depth is additionally a vital figure
for fiber conveying limit. The depth is the separation the thorn is cut into
the needle. A more profound throat depth brings about more fiber conveying
limit. An open throat allows the fibers to enter the barb easier and can increase
the effectiveness of the needling.
Types of needles
Felting needles
The felting needles are mechanically compact fibrous material. These needle
looms may have one to four needle boards and needles from the top, bottom or
top and bottom. The primary function of this type of loom is to do interlocking
of fibers resulting in a flat, one dimension fabric. The structure of felting
needle is shown in Figure 3.7.
1 – Point 2 – Working blade 3 – Barb

4 – Taper 5 – Intermediate blade 6 – Cranked shank
7 – Crank
Figure 3.7 Structure of a felting needle
The types of products made with this process and needle loom are diverse
and multifaceted. They exist in variety of industrial products, geotextiles,
automotives, interlinings, home furnishings, etc.
Structuring needles
1 – Fork 2 – Working blade

3 – Intermediate blade 4 – Crank
Figure 3.8 Structure of structuring needle
Depending on the orientation of the fork needle, a rib or velour surface is

introduced. The most popular products made with structuring looms include
home and commercial carpets and floor mats, automotive rib and velour
products, wall covering and marine products.
Special shape of working parts
Vario barb needle – Barbs are smaller towards the point. The needle is
deflected to a lesser extent – reduced risk of breaking. Suitable for natural
fibers and waste.

Conical needle – Working part smoothly passes into the reduced part
as shown in Figure 3.9. Thus the fibrous material is penetrated with less
resistance. Suitable for waste materials and for heavy products with area
density higher than 1000 g/m2.
Figure 3.9 Conical needle
Working blade cross-sections

• Triangular – standard for the most of applications
• Tri star or cross star – more efficient fiber holding – more efficient
needling proces with the same needle density (suitable for manmade
fibers); Cross star is suitable for high density materials (geotextiles)
• Tear drop shape – for woven fabrics (to obtain special properties –
adhesion for subsequent fixing, roughened appearance) (www.groz-
beckert.com)
Direction of needling
At the point when the needle sheets are orchestrated “inverse to one another”,
two needling modes “synchronized” and “rotating” are conceivable. The
needling “synchronized” mode implies that both loads up enter the felt in the
meantime. In this manner just a large portion of the needles can be embedded
in exchanging lines in every board to counteract encounter of the needles. To
achieve certain and higher pressure, the necessary total penetration density is
shared between a few needle looms. The needle looms are orchestrated one
behind the other in supposed needling lines.
Selection and maintenance of needles
The felt density must be kept constant in time. As the needles wear out, there
is less fiber transport and the felt density a decrease, if the needles are worn
more on one side of the machine, the felt rolls will have a conical shape. Such
rolls create problems during impregnation and post treatments. It is evident
that the batt weight and tension must be equal on both sides of the machine.
After a certain quantity of felt production, the new ones must replace the worn
needles. If the whole board is changed in one time, the felt will be dense and
highly marked. It is a general practice to change the needles of a part or half of
the board, keeping the new needles at the entry side. If a partial re-needling of
a board is made necessary because of an accident, it is advisable to replace the
broken needles with used ones to avoid needle marks. New generation needle
looms can be equipped with complete suction devices system, in order to
avoid dust accumulation and reduce to the minimum the times of maintenance
and needle board changing during working time.
For a given fiber blend, the type of felting needle has great influence on
the felt quality, needle wear and needle breakage. Presently, the felting needle
styles are in the range of 32–42 gauges, which are suitable for processing
fibers in the range 1–18 denier. Coarse needles like 20 and 25 gauges are
predominantly used to needle waste fibers. The use of finer needles indicates
that the industry is processing finer denier and virgin fibers for producing
higher quality felts.
Needle breakage in heavyweight felts is a problem. Certain types of fiber
finishes are used to reduce fiber–metal friction, to reduce static electricity and
increase wetting properties in case there is a post-chemical treatment. The
needle marks are often visible on the felt surface. Three types of patterns
may be seen: machine direction lines, horizontal lines and inclined lines.
The formation of horizontal lines is due to a high output speed as compared
to needle punching strokes. This pattern is seen especially in low weight
materials. This type of felt has poor bending characteristics. The presence of
longitudinal lines means intensive needling and that the material speed is too
slow compared to strokes. If the needle gauge, penetration, number and type
of needle punching machines are not suitable, such lines are highly marked.
Hence, during needle punching, the machine stroke should be adjusted to
have uniform surfaces. Machines with high density needle boards are helpful
in producing smooth surface felts.
3.2.1.6 Characteristics of needle-punched nonwovens

Needle felts have a high breaking tenacity and also high tear strength but
the modulus is low and the recovery from extension is also poor. In order to
improve the recovery, it is conventional include yarns, nets or fabric scrims in
the structure. A typical example is the production filtration felts where some
type of scrim fabric is introduced during needle punching. In case injected
shoes, the insole material is a nonwoven reinforced with a polypropylene
raffia fabric with GSM of about 105.
Their unique physical properties like elongation in all (x, y & z)
directions for mouldable applications is good. High strength makes them
an overwhelming choice of geo-textiles. The principal advantage is that the
nonwoven is practically homogeneous in comparison with a woven fabric so
that the whole area of a nonwoven filter can be used for filtration, whereas
in a woven fabric the yarns effectively stop the flow, leaving only the spaces
between the yarns for filtration. Generally important characteristics of needle
felts are the degree of felt compression, the strength-elongation ratio and
the permeability characteristics (Wilhelm Albrecht et al. 2003). For highly
entangled fiber felts for synthetic leather, the punching density may vary
between 500 and 1200 punches/cm2. Due to high needle punching intensity,
the production of synthetic leather needs 4–6 machines installed in tandem.
For filter felts, it may be up to 650 punches/cm2.
• Longer fiber lengths result in higher strength, higher felt density and
less air permeability.
• Finer fibers lead to smaller felt thickness and to lower air permeability.
The needling of finer fibers requires inevitably also the use of finer
needles to achieve sufficient strength characteristics
• Higher crimp results in a higher tear resistance and elongation and a
better dimensional stability of the needle felts.
• The characteristics and the structure of needle felts also depend on
the web structure and the area mass. Machine-oriented web results in
a high strength in the longitudinal direction and predominantly cross-
oriented webs result in a high strength in cross direction.
• The web area mass has a great influence on air permeability.
• The area ratio of the fiber plugs in the needle felt is in the range of
2–12%. The fiber length of the plug is 6–20% and the fibers are more
densely packed in the fiber plug than in the needle felt.
3.2.1.7 Applications of needle-punched fabric

Needle-punched structures have a wide range of applications in both domestic
and industrial markets. The applications of needle-punched fabrics are
extensive and listed as follows (Rupp 2008):
• Geotextiles
• Automotive
• Filter media
• Floor coverings
• Blankets
• Insulation padding
• Tennis court surfaces
• Wall coverings
3.2.2 Stitch bonding

A stitch-bond nonwoven fabric is made on a weaving machine that bonds
the web, or holds the web set up, with longitudinal yarns. While other basic
fiber-bonding techniques utilized as a part of the creation of nonwoven
fabrics, needle-punch, thermal bond or chemical bond have the downside of
solidifying the surface of nonwoven fabrics, the stitch-bonding system gives
nonwoven fabric a composition as delicate as that of the original web. (http://
www.nonwovensindia.com)
Stitch bonding is a half and half innovation utilizing components of
nonwoven, sewing and weaving procedures to create an extensive variety of
fabrics that are utilized as a part of home decorations and modern fabrics,
including composite basic applications. The introductory chip away at stitch
bonding occurred in Czechoslovakia and East Germany amid the 1960s
utilizing short-staple fibers to deliver fabrics for modern and utilitarian non-
styled family employments. These fabrics were made utilizing creel-bolstered,
spun stitching yarns. As the utilization of stitch bonding spread to the United
Kingdom and different nations, nylon and polyester fiber yarns turned into the
favored materials for the stitching part
Malimo Stitch bonding Systems, the Mali system of stitch bonding was
initiated during the late 1940s by Heinrich Mauersberger of East Germany.
His US Patent #2,890,579 was issued on June 16, 1959. Mauersbergers first
fabrics were based on joining warp and filling yarns with a stitching yarn to
produce a woven-like fabric. The first product produced by the Malimo stitch
bonding process was a toweling, made in 1952 (Mansfield 2002).
Stitch bond is a nonwoven development where the fabric is framed by
stitching or knitting the fibers to frame a fabric with the presence of a knit fabric.
In the most well-known cases it includes warp knitting of yarns through a fibrous
mat. It can likewise be knitting of fibers without yarns or knitting of yarns around
laid twist and filling yarns which don‘t interweave with one another.
3.2.2.1 Manufacturing method

As per the maliwatt method in the German Democratic Republic [GDR] and
the Arachne procedure in Czechoslovakia, stitched nonwoven materials are
made by joining fibers into the fabric, which is traveling through a knitting-
stitching machine, stitching with strings set and joined like foundation stitches
on a knitting machine. (http://www.nonwovensindia.com). Such nonwoven
materials are utilized as warm protection or pressing material or as the
establishment in the production of coverlets, covers and coats. The stitch
bonding process is shown in Figure 3.10.
1 – Needle motion 2 – Knock over and support combs

3 – Guide bar 4 – Device for transport of the web
5 – Fabric draw-off from the needle motion and fabrics take-up
6 – Device for feeding and guiding the warp threads
Figure 3.10 Stitch bonding process (Source: Batra & Pourdeyhimi 2012; Gupta 2013)
Figure 3.11 The basic types of stitch structures (Source: Albrecht et al. 2003)
Stitch-bonding Maliwatt means bonding fiber webs or spun bonded webs

incline toward capably transverse fiber webs, utilizing strings to accomplish
the bonding. The fibers are bonded into the loops however don’t add to loop
formation. The essential sorts of structure are pillar-stitch and tricot-stitch as
3.2.2.2 Stitchbond stages

The loop formation process based on threads is shown in Figure 3.12. The
web- bonding process with its main elements compound needle, closing wire,
compound needle hook and guide can be seen in process steps. The various
steps in stitch formation process are shown in Figure 3.13.
1 – Compound needle 2 – Closing wire

3 – Knocking-over sinker 4 – Support rail
5 – Guide 6 – Counter reacting pin
7 – Warp yarn 8 – Fiber web
Figure 3.12 Stitch-bonding point and loop-formation cycle of Maliwatt stitch-bonding
machine (Source: Albrecht et al. 2003)
The level of bonding accomplished with web stitch-bonded materials

relies on upon the quantity of loops of strings every unit zone. This number
is comprised of the density of loop wales (number of wales every length
unit) and course density (number of courses every length unit). Wales in
the nonwoven keep running in machine-heading, courses run across. The
density of wales is controlled by machine gage, e.g. the quantity of knitting
components in every 25 cm of working width. With respect to stitch-bonding,
it is at present conceivable to place a most extreme of 22 loop wales with in 25
cm of working width. Course density is controlled by stitch length (Cotterill
1975).
1. Penetration, 2. Lapping, 3. Closing, 4. Knocking-over, 5. Take-down

Figure 3.13 Steps in Stitch formation (Source: Batra & Purdeyhimi 2012)
Equipment available allows stitch lengths of 0.5–5 mm. Machine gauge

and stitch length are process values depending on the product to be made.
The basic tools applied in the stitch bonding process are compound needle,
closing wire and knocking-over sinker. Compound needles, for instance, may
be coarse, medium, fine or very fine. For better stability, it is common practice
to combine two different needle gauges, such as fine/very fine. The length
of the compound needle corresponds with lower gauge whereas its width
corresponds with higher gauge. Except for the basic knitting tools, further
types of tools are available, which are used in the different variants of the
stitch-bonding process. A large variety of patterned stitch-bonded materials
are achievable (Albrecht et al. 2003) by means of
• change to bonding
• change to the initial position of the cam discs (turning the cam discs
round their axis)
• change to the direction of rotation of the cam discs (turning around
the cam discs)
• change to the initial position of the guide bars
• change to the thread insertion and
• use of coloured warps of coloured yarn
3.2.2.3 Types of stitch bonding system

The different types of stitch bonding systems were given in Table 3.1.
Table 3.1 Different types of stitch bonding process (Source: Mansfield 2002)
S. no. System type Description

1. Malimo Uses crossed layers of the warp and filling threads, which
are knitted together by a sewing yarn to form the structure
2. Maliwatt Uses a nonwoven batting that is knitted together by a
stitching yarn. The unit has only one guide bar
3. Arachne Similar in principle to the Maliwatt, except that it has two
gude bars for better pattern capability
4. Malipol Similar in principle to Malimo. It forms a single-face pile or
loop by stitching a yarn through a substrate. The substrate
can be nonwoven, woven or knitted. The loop is formed by
the use of sinker bar.
5. Voltex Essentially, a Malipol unit used with woolen yarn. Stitching
yarns are not needed to form the pile. The fiber from the
batt is stitched through the base fabric to form a pile.
6. Malivlies Similar to Maliwatt. However, stitching yarn is not used.
Stitching needles catch fibers from the web and knit them
into the web structure.
7. Arabeva Similar to Arachne, but it does not use a stitching yarn.
Fibers are taken from the web and stitched into web.
8. Araloop An Arachne-type unit used to stitch loops into a nonwoven,
woven or knitted substrate. It is analogous to the Malipol
unit.
9. Araknit Produces a warp knit tabbed fabric. The fabrics are similar
to a two-bar raschel fabric.
10. Malifol Basically a Malimo unit, but the warp direction yarns are
split from a roll of polyester or polypropylene case oriented
film. Recycled polymers can be used in the making of film.
The fill-in is formed on a separate but attached, film former.
Maliwatt
The stitch formation process in Maliwatt machine and the resultant fabric
is shown in Figure 3.14. The horizontal compound needle and closing wire
framework, which works in conjunction with the knock-over sinker and the
supporting rail, enters through the substrate which is typically a cross-laid web.
The sheet of stitching yarn, which is embedded through the aides away from
any confining influence open hooks of the compound needles, frames stitches
that enter the web. The Maliwatt system consists of following components:
• Stitch bonding unit with a control system for the working elements
• Web feeding system
• Yarn feeding and monitoring systems
• Winding and storage system for the stitch-bonded fabrics
• Cutting unit with a control system for the machine
Figure 3.14 Maliwatt stitch formation process and stitched nonwoven sample
The flat needle structure and the bonding arrangement of the yarn, which
works together with the instrument to evacuate officially shaped stitches so as
to make space for those to be framed, and the support guide, enter through the
substrate which is a web put across to the machine. The stitching yarn is strung
through the guides into the open needle hooks and forms the stitches, which
penetrate the web. Pillar and tricot stitches can be created by a cam shogging.
By modifying the needle framework and the bonding arrangement of the yarn,
it is conceivable to fuse in the meantime the fibers inside the stitches and keep
the withdrawal of the stitches from the limit of last shaped stitch. With tricot
weave, a yarn system parallel to warp can be arranged inside the web and later
on fused into the stitch bonded fabric. (Wilhelm Albrecht et al. 2003; Russell
2006)
Maliwatt – applications
• Soft furnishings, upholstery fabrics for mattresses and camping
chairs, blankets,
• Transportation cloth,
• Cleaning cloths, fabrics for hygiene and sanitary purposes,
• Secondary carpet backing,
• Lining fabrics, interlining for shoes and apparel,
• Adhesive tapes (e.g., those used for harnessing electric cables in

automobiles),
• Velcro-type fasteners,
• Laminating fabrics, coating substrate,
• Insulating materials,
• Geotextiles, filter fabrics,
• Composites and flame-retardant fabrics
Malivlies
The stitch formation process in malivlies machine and the resultant fabric is
shown in Figure 3.15. The laying-in sinker averts web movements amid the
infiltration process. When the needle framework moves back to the knocking
over position, the fibers which are in the front of the web hold tight the hooks
of the needles, are conveyed to within the hook of the end wire and drawn
through the thickness of the web. When these fibers are drawn through the
stitches shaped by the fibers on the former course, while they are as yet
hanging at the needle hooks, new stitches are framed through the current
stitches, which are skipped by the shut snares of the needles.
1 – Stitching needle 2 – Closing wire

3 – Knocking-over sinker 4 – Support rail
5 – Stitch bonded fabric 6 – Laying-in sinker
Figure 3.15 Malivlies stitch formation process and the stitched fabric
(Source: Albrecht et al. 2003)
The laying-in sinker averts web movements amid the infiltration process.
When the needle framework moves back to the knocking over position, the
fibers which are in the front of the web hold tight the hooks of the needles, are
conveyed to within the hook of the end wire and drawn through the thickness
of the web. When these fibers are drawn through the stitches shaped by the
fibers on the former course, while they are as yet hanging at the needle hooks,
new stitches are framed through the current stitches, which are skipped by the
shut snares of the needles.
The Malivlies fabrics made completely out of fibers are mechanically
reclaimable. The principle sorts of fiber being used are polyester, polypropylene,
viscose and recovered fibers and the created fabrics have an area mass going
from 120 to 1200 g/m2. The primary applications are auto inside spreads,
felts for material blankets, sponges, cleaning fabrics, geotextiles and channel
materials, covering substrates and covers, items for therapeutic, hygienic and
clean utilize, rug sponsorships.
Malimo
1 – Compound needle 2 – Closing wire

3a – Guide, 1st guide bar 3b – Guide, 2nd guide bar
4 – Knocking-over sinker 5 - Reacting pin
6 – Backing rail 7 - Old loop
8 – New overlaps 9 – Weft threads
10 – Warp threads 11 – Fiber web
12 – Malimo fabric
Figure 3.16 Malimo stitch formation process (Source: Russell 2006)
Figure 3.16 shows the relative positions of a Malimo stitch-bonding unit. The
needle system (1) infiltrates the yarn layers (in weft and in warp), the webs,
the support fabrics, the films, the paper and whatever other layer of material,
which can be presented. The guide (3a–3b) spots the fabrics to be stitched in
the open hooks of the needle framework. The already shaped stitches let the
stitched material slide, while closing the stitches. The needles start to come
back to their knocking over position (4), the hooks of the needle system with
the new overlaid stitched yarns are presently shut by the end yarn so that the
old stitches can slide over the highest point of the needles. The old stitches
are secured over the highest point of the needles and new loops are attracted
through the stitches to finish the new course. Also, the guides shock to place
the stitching yarns in the right position for the resulting machine cycle, which
relates to another course.
Areas of appilcation
• Industrial textiles: Composites for high-tech areas (fiberglass, carbon,
Kevlar, HD-PE), sandwiche nonwovens, geotextiles, insulating
materials, laminating substrates, packing textiles
• Furnishing fabrics, home and household textiles: Furnishing fabrics,
upholstery fabrics, textile wall coverings, cleaning and polishing
cloths.
Based on the Malimo platform, different versions and auxiliary devices
have been developed. These developments enable:
• Non-continuous and continuous parallel weft insertion
• Multiaxial constructions
• Cross weft insertion
• Glass fabric manufacture
Malipol
Malipol stitch bonding systems have the following main elements:
• pile yarn
• ground fabric
• stitch bonding head
• fabric take-down and batching
The stitch formation process in Malipol machine is shown in Figure 3.17.
The compound needles penetrate the ground fabric and the stitching or pile
yarn is overlapped in the needle hook. The pile yarn is also laid on top of the
pile sinker at the same time so that a tricot movement is used to create the
pile and knit the yarn into the ground structure. The needles enter the fabric
ground, and the stitching yarn is embedded into the needle hook. The loop yarn
is put over the knock over sinker in the meantime, so that a tricot racking, for
example 1-0/1-2, is utilized to make the pile and to stitch the yarn inside of
the essential structure. The machine is accessible in the gages 10,12 and 14
(number of needles/25 mm), with pile sinker tallness somewhere around 1 and
11 mm and stitch lengths somewhere around 1 and 3 mm, realistic through gear
controls. The machine rate ranges from 900 to 1300 stitches every moment.
1 – Compound needle bar 2 – Closing wire bar 3 – Guide bar for pile yarn
4 – Knock-over sinker bar 5 – Pile sinker bar 6 – Pile yarn
7 – Ground fabric
Figure 3.17 Malipol stitch formation (Source: Albrecht et al. 2003; Russell 2006)
The decision of the feeding system is depends upon the quality and
qualities of the item. Any substrate, which can be gone through by needles, can
be utilized as ground fabric, on condition that it stays undamaged. Concerning
weaves, sateens and twills are the most suitable, albeit likewise level, not
exceptionally conservative but rather wavy fabrics are good with this sort of
procedure. The options are the stitch bonded fabrics, latex, sews and movies.
Cotton or viscose fabrics ranging from 100 to 200 g/m2 are the most common
materials for blankets and waddings, whereas fabrics made of polyester and
polyamide continuous filament weighing between 50 and 200 g/m2 are to be
preferred for the production of plush and imitations fur.
Application
• blankets
• cleaning textiles (wiping mop)
• pile fabric for velcro fastening stripes
• lining plush and soft-toy plush
• bathroom sets
• one-sided terry fabric
Voltex
Voltex fabrics are high-pile fabrics or plush fabrics based on two pre-formed
main elements: a ground fabric and a web. No preparation for stitching
yarns, as cone-winding or warping is required. The main elements of a voltex
machine are indicated in Figure 3.18. High pile or high plush fabrics based
on two principal reformed elements, a ground fabric and a web, which are
continuously introduced. No stitching yarn or yarn preparation, such as
winding or warping are required. The voltex stitch bonded fabrics are mainly
used in lining fabrics, imitation furs, soft-toy plush, shoe uppers and shoe
lining, floor coverings and upholstery fabrics.
1 – Compound needle bar 2 – Closing wire bar 3 – Fiber web

4 – Knock-over sinker bar 5 – Pile sinker bar 6 – Ground fabric
Figure 3.18 Voltex stitch formation process (Source: Russell 2006)
3.2.3 Hydro entanglement/spun lacing system

The ‘spunlace’ technology developed by du Pont, where a nonwoven web is
impinged by very fine jets of water at high pressure, up to 250 bars, thereby
whirling the fibers that results in their entanglement. Because the only bonding
that is achieved between the fibers is due to the entanglement of the fibers, the
fabric thus produced is highly flexible and has a supple hand. Precursor webs,
made by either carding, wet laying, spun-bonding, whether from one type
or blends of fibers including wood pulp, may be used (Suzuki 1984). The
principle of hydroentanglement process is shown in Figure 3.19.
Hydroentanglement (spunlace) the fibers are mechanically entrapped
together by high-speed velocity of water that are coordinated onto the web
(White 1990; Relich 1988). The water weight can be 20–600 bar. The jet
tangles, twists and improves the fibers to make bonding and at times to present
designing impacts. Examples and gaps in the fabric are delivered by adjusting
the outline of the transport sleeve surface.
Figure 3.19 Principle of hydro entanglement process (Source: www.tikp.co.uk)
Various important steps in the hydro entangling process are shown in

Figure 3.20 and the hydroentangling equipment and the resultant fabric is
shown in Figure 3.21. While some of them are typical in a nonwoven process,
some of them are unique to the process of spunlacing.
1 – Winding 2 – Dewatering system 3 – Belt with suction 4 – Water purification 5 – Fibrous

web 6 – Water jets 7 – Drying system
Figure 3.20 Working of hydro entanglement process
Figure 3.21 Hydroentangling equipment and spunlace fabric
The shaped web (for the most part air-laid or wet-laid, however in some
cases spun bond or melt-blown, and so on.) is initially compacted and pre
wetted to kill air pockets and after that water-needled. The water pressure
for the most part increments from the first to the last injectors. Pressures as
high as 2200 psi are utilized to direct the water planes onto the web. This
pressure is adequate for most nonwoven fibers, albeit higher weights are
utilized as a part of specific applications. It has been contended that 10 lines
of injectors (five from every side of the fabric) ought to accomplish complete
fabric bonding. Injector opening diameters range from 100 to 120 micro meter
and the gaps are orchestrated in lines with 3–5 mm dividing, with one line
containing 30–80 openings per 25 mm (Allen 1997). The impinging of the
water streams on the web causes the snare of fibers. The jets debilitate a large
portion of the active vitality fundamentally in revamping fibers inside of the
web and, also, in bouncing back against the substrates, dispersing vitality
to the fibers. A vacuum inside of the move expels utilized water from the
product, counteracting flooding of the item and decrease in the viability of the
jets to move the fibers and bring about ensnarement.
The main entanglement move follows up on the first side various
times with a specific end goal to bestow to the web the fancied measure of
bonding and quality. The web then ignores a second entanglement come in
a converse bearing to treat and, in this way, solidify the opposite side of the
fabric. Hydroentanglement did at standard conditions oblige 800 pounds of
water every pound of item. Hence it is important to add to another filtration
framework ready to successfully supply clean water with this high throughput;
generally, water jets openings get to be clogged up. This framework comprises
of three stages: chemical mixing and flocculation, dissolved air flotation and
sand filtration. Spunlaced fabrics have led to a lot of speculation regarding
their manufacture because most of the manufacturing process details are
considered as proprietary (Elsharkawy, 2014).
3.2.3.1 Elements in hydroentanglement process

Spunlaced fabrics are alternately called water-jet-entangled, hydroentangled
or hydraulically-needled nonwovens. The spunlace or hydroentanglement
process involves the following elements:
• Fiber
• Web forming
• Water jets
• Needling substrate
• Water system
• Drying
• Finishing
Fiber
The choice of fiber will have a great effect on the productivity, amount of
entanglement, and final product characteristics. The fiber used in spunlaced
nonwoven should think about following fiber characteristics (Jürg Rupp,
2008 b).
• Modulus – In general, fibers with low bending modulus entangle
more easily than fibers with high bending modulus. Thus, cotton
and rayon entangle with much less energy input than polyester. The
temperature of the high pressure water is generally kept as high as
possible because warm water reduces bending modulus and increases
entanglement. Bending modulus also decreases as the filament size
(denier) is decreased.
• Fineness – For a given polymer type, larger diameter fibers are more
difficult to entangle than smaller diameter fibers because of their
greater bending rigidity.
• Cross section – Since the fiber cross-section affects bending modulus,
fibers of the same polymer type with a ribbon cross-section entangle
more easily than trilobal fibers. For a given polymer type and fiber
denier, a triangular shaped fiber will have 1.4 times the bending
stiffness of a round fiber. An extremely flat, oval or elliptical shaped
fiber could have only 0.1 times the bending stiffness of a round fiber.
• Length – The number of tie points or entangled areas is directly
proportional to the number of fiber ends present in the web; therefore,
short fibers will produce more tie points than long fibers. However,
fabric strength is also directly proportional to fiber length; and a
balance between fiber ends for more tie points and fiber length for
increased fabric strength is necessary. Wood pulp fibers are short
and create many tie points but are not long enough to provide fabric
strength.
• Crimp – Crimp is required in staple fiber processing systems and
contributes to fabric bulk. Too much crimp can result in lower fabric
strength and entanglement.
• Fiber wetability – Hydrophilic fibers entangle more easily than
hydrophobic fibers because of the higher drag forces.
Hydroentanglement could be carried out using dry-laid (carded or air-
laid) or wet-laid webs as a precursor. Most commonly, precursors are mixtures
of cellulose and man-made fibers (PET, nylon, acrylics, Kevlar (P84, (imide)
etc). In addition, Asahi Chemical Industry has used very fine fibers produced
from splittable composite fibers to produce hydroentangled substrates for
synthetic suede leather products. As a rule, cellulosic fibers are favored for their
high quality, flexibility, plastic deformation resistance and water insolubility.
Cellulosic fibers are hydrophilic, chemically stable and generally dry. Another
favorable position is that cellulose has an inborn holding capacity created
by a high substance of hydroxyl gatherings, which draw in water atoms. As
the water dissipates from the fabric, the hydroxyl gathers on fiber surface
connection together by hydrogen bonds.
For the most part, low micronaire cotton is not prescribed for
hydroentangled nonwovens due to higher number of neps and little packages
of entrapped fibers, bringing about unattractive seeming fabric. Despite this,
fabrics made with lower micronaire fiber show higher quality, likely created
by a higher number of fine fibers and more prominent surface region. In
addition, greige cotton has been used in spunlacing technology. It has been
shown that the absorbency rate increases with increasing hydroentangling
energy. This is the result of oil and wax removal from the fiber surface. These
nonwovens can be subsequently bleached, which should raise the strength of
the fabric (Chellamani et al. 2013).
Web forming
Both dry and wet laid systems are employed to prepare precursor webs for
spunlace processes. When cards are used to prepare the web, the final product
has much higher machine direction strength than cross direction strength.
These non-isotropic products are acceptable for some of the spunlace market;
however, when balanced Machine Direction (MD) / Cross Direction (CD)
properties are required, they are not acceptable. The two major producers,
Chicopee and du Pont, have developed proprietary high speed air-lay systems
that produce isotropic webs. These products have MD/CD ratios of as
low as 1.2–1.5 as produced on the spunlace machine. More recently, wet-
laid processes have been used to prepare the webs. These systems have the
capability of producing very uniform webs with balanced MD/CD properties.
Water jets
The objective of the high pressure water system is to create fine, high velocity
columnar streams of water. Small holes are placed in a jet strip in one or
two rows with a density of 10–20 per cm. The holes range in diameter from
0.08 mm to 0.25 mm but usually are either 0.12–0.18 mm. The holes are
highly finished to smooth surfaces and produce columnar jet streams. Small
imperfections in a hole will cause the jet stream to break up and be less
efficient. The jets arc placed as close to the web as possible to assure that
the jet streams do not break up and dissipate their energy. The usual jet to
substrate or screen distance is 2 inches (50 mm) or less. Special care must be
taken in designing the manifold or water distributing system to assure that

each hole is supplied with adequate water with minimum turbulence.
Each jet strip is placed perpendicular to the direction of web travel with as
many as ten strips in series making up an entanglement station. Water pressure
is increased step-wise from the first to the last jets. Occasionally, the last
jet will have lower pressure to provide for improved surface integrity. Two
types of substrate configurations are used in spunlac production: a travelling
screen or belt and a rotating drum fitted with a perforated cover. Under some
conditions, the drum entangling units give higher entangling efficiency,
better machine efficiency, and longer life than belt units. Vacuum is applied
underneath the needling substrate to remove water. If sufficient water is not
removed, the excess absorbs some of the energy provided by the water jets
and reduces entangling efficiency. Entangling can be achieved with a single
needling station, or multiple stations can be employed. Also, a fabric may be
needled on only one side, or both sides may be needled.
Hydro entanglement is an energy transfer process where the system
provides high energy to water jets and then transfers the energy to the
precursor. In other words, the energy is delivered to the web by the water
needles produced by the injector. Therefore, we can calculate the energy
from the combination of the water velocity, and the water flow rate (Hsu-Yeh
Huang & Xiao GAO 2004).
Flow rate = P½ × D2 × N × 2572 × 10−8 m3/hour/injector/meter
Energy = P3/2 × D2 × N × 7 × 10−10 kWh/injector/meter
Where
P = Water pressure (bar)
D = Hole diameter (μm)
N = Number of holes (per injector per meter)
In general, the diameter of water needle ranges from 100 to 170 μm. The
highest number of needles is 1666 needles per meter of injector, corresponding
to the smaller diameter. The water pressure ranges from 30 bars to 250 bars
and it is increased stepwise from injector to injector. The factors controlling
the entanglement in spunlacing process are water pressure, water jet and
diameter of holes, line speed, vacuum and forming surface.
Needling substrate
Needling substrates play an important role in hydro entanglement process.
In addition to holding the web in place, substrates are designed to increase
needling efficiency and to create either non-patterned or patterned products.
Joining the belt, screen, or drum sleeve together in the right length is a
particularly complicated process. Substrates can be constructed to produce

virtually any design desired. However, with the moving belt or screen systems,
patterns are limited by the physical constraints of that system. A drum sleeve
is much more versatile because very coarse screens and metal plates can be
used as substrates.
Water system
The high pressure water system requires a large amount of water that has a
nearly neutral pH, contains almost no particulate matter, is low in metallic
ions such as Ca, is at a prescribed temperature, and contains no bacteria or
other organic materials. Because of the large amounts used, water must be
filtered and reused. This requires a complicated and efficient water filtration
system. Depending on the raw materials, a combination of the following
filtration processes is employed: air/water separators, bag filters, settling
ponds or clarifiers, precoat-filters, cartridge filters, and deionization units.
In addition, at some point, bacteria and other organic organisms must be
eliminated. Centrifugal pumps have been installed on virtually all of the
large commercial installations. Reciprocating pumps are often used in small
laboratory or prototype units. For a typical high pressure system, pressure
at the pump is usually maintained at approximately 150 bar. At the needling
station, this pressure is reduced for individual jets where pressures range from
15 to 150 bar.
Drying
Thorough air and drum drying are used in spunlace operations. For 100%
fiber products, the fabric is not affected by the drying method. For wood pulp/
polyester products, thorough air drying will produce a softer, loftier product
than drum drying.
Finishing
Although most nonwovens are considered finished when they are rolled up at
the end of the production line, many receive some other chemical or physical
treatment to provide special characteristics. Some of these treatments can be
applied during production, while other must be applied in separate finishing
operations. Examples of finishing treatments are as follows:
• Flame retardant
• Rewet agents
• Hydrophobic agents
• Coloration
• Printing
• Antistat agents
• Bonding
• Stretching
3.2.3.2 Properties of spunlaced fabrics

• Good dimensional stability, which is likewise responsible for drape,
non-abrasiveness, and great quality/weight properties of the fabric,
pilling and abrasion behavior (Connolly & Parent 1993).
• Wash strength is extensively lower than that of woven or knitted
fabrics.
• The softness of the fabric is clarified by the way that the caught
structures are more compressible than fortified ones, and also having
versatility and fractional arrangement of fibers in the thickness
direction.
• Spunlaced fabrics demonstrate high drape, non-abrasiveness and
agreeable handle (in light of the fact that more fiber entanglement
prompts expanded quality without an increment in shear modulus).
Shear modulus stays low and is essentially free of the level of
entanglement. (Chellamani et al. 2013)
3.2.3.3 Advantages of spunlace fabric

• Replaces chemical binders
• Softer/drapeable fabric
• Absorbency, strength, flexibility
• Allows for designs/patterns
• Lint free
• No binder/easier to recycle
• Light weights: Faster & lower cost vs. Needle punch
3.2.3.4 Applications (Vaughn 1978)

• Spunlace fabrics can be further finished, usually dyed and/or printed,
treated with binders to allow for wash durability, or fire retardants can
be applied to resist burning.
• The fabric can be treated by antimicrobial agents to enhance resistance
against microorganisms.
• Surgical packs and gowns.
• Protective clothing as chemical barriers to wipes.
• Towels and sponges for industrial, medical, food service and

consumer applications.
• The main reason for wide use of these fabrics in medical applications
is based on relatively high absorption abilities. Another important
criterion is absence of a binder in the fabric allowing sterilization of
the fabric at high temperatures.
• Bacteria-proof cloth.
3.3 Chemical bonding

Chemical or resin bonding is a generic term for interlocking fibers by the
application of a chemical binder. The chemical binder most frequently used to
consolidate fiber webs today is water-borne latex. Most latex binders are made
from vinyl materials, such as polyvinylacetate, polyvinylchloride, styrene/
butadiene resin, butadiene, and polyacrylic, or their combinations. Latexes are
extensively used as nonwoven binders, because they are economical, versatile,
easily applied, and effective adhesives. The versatility of a chemical binder
system can be indicated by enumerating a few factors that are considered
when such a system is formulated.
Chemical binders are applied to webs in amounts ranging from about
5% to as much as 60% by weight. In some instances, when clays or other
weighty additives are included, add-on levels can approach or even exceed the
weight of the web. Waterborne binders are applied by spray, saturation, print,
and foam methods. A general objective of each method is to apply the binder
material in a manner sufficient to hold the fibers and provide fabric properties
required of the intended fabric usage (Sakthivel & Ramachandran 2012). The
chemical bonding process is shown in Figure 3.22.
Figure 3.22 Chemical bonding of nonwoven (Source: www.edana.org)

3.3.1 Chemical binders

In the early phases of nonwovens improvement, diverse sorts of natural resins
and glues were utilized to bond nonwovens. While they passed on some integrity
and strength these webs, they likewise had numerous clear inadequacies.
Hence, engineered binders were produced to meet the auxiliary and execution
necessities of nonwoven fabrics. Polyvinyl acetic acid derivation was the
first effective manufactured binder utilized as a part of generous volume.
This material had unmistakably prevalent adhesive properties, quality, and
execution contrasted with the early regular adhesives. This binder is adaptable
and it can be connected to fiber networks by numerous ways including print
bonding.
The industry was faced with the inevitable compromise in fabric properties
of nonwovens bonded with synthetic materials. In order to build strength
in the fabric, increasing amounts of resin must be applied, which results in
more stiffness. If softness is necessary, it can be achieved, but primarily by
sacrificing strength. A significant change in this exchange of and softness
was accomplished with the presentation of acrylic-based latex binders in the
1950s and 1960s. By fitting determination of co-monomers, it is conceivable
to manufacture enhanced softness properties with satisfactory quality.
Consequently, these binders turned out to be broadly utilized by a large portion
of the nonwovens business, regardless higher expense. As polymer innovation
for producers of engineered binder frameworks enhanced, a more noteworthy
mixed bag of chemical building blocks got to be accessible with much more
flexibility regarding binder quality, strength, and different properties. The
presentation of cross-linkable and self-crosslinking binder polymers turned
out a totally new scope of fabric properties. This was especially vital in solid
nonwovens where such toughness includes as launderability and cleanability
were important. (Meazey 1971)
3.3.1.1 Properties desired in a binder

The following list are some general considerations required for an ideal
binder. The required properties can be varied depending on the end-uses
(Kannadaguli & Kotra 2004).
• Strength: The strength of a nonwoven fabric is more closely related to
the strength of the applied binder.
• Adhesion to fibers: Even though the mechanism of adhesion is not
completely understood, the adhesion strength of the binder-to-fiber
bond and binder-to-binder strength has to be considered.
• Flexibility/handle: The some movements of fibers should be allowed,

especially when a soft hand is desired.
• Elastic recovery: To avoid the permanent deformation of fabric, good
elastic recovery is required under strain.
• Resistance to washing/ drying cleaning: Some nonwoven products
need durability in cleaning processes according to their end-uses.
• Resistance to aging: The binder should be stable and not be degraded
in the fabric during storage and use.
• Good color and color retention: Diverse ranges of colors are required,
and the colorfastness and yellowing problems should be considered.
• Economical: Minimizing the cost is an ongoing requirement.
• Other special requirements: Such as flame resistance, resistance to
chemicals, air, oxygen, light, heat, etc.
3.3.2 Methods of binder application

The most common methods of applying a binder to a dry-laid web are
saturation, foam, spray, and print bonding methods. For wet-laid nonwovens,
most of the same methods can be used but bonding must be applied after
partial drying. For printing, the web must be dry.
Saturation bonding process
Saturation chemical bonding includes complete drenching of the nonwoven
web in a shower containing binder. The abundance binder can be uprooted
by a couple of nip rolls. Figure 3.23 demonstrates the essential routines for
immersion utilizing horizontal padding (a) and vertical padding (b).
Figure. 3.23 Saturation bonding process (Source: http://www.nptel.ac.in)

The nonwoven web is guided through the immersion shower by rollers

and afterward presses between a couple of nip rolls to press out overabundance
fluid. The measure of binder taken up by the nonwoven relies on upon
the premise weight of the nonwoven, time allotment spent in the shower,
wettability of the fibers and nip weight. This technique can give higher
binder to fiber levels consistently all through the nonwoven. Anyhow, as it
incorporates short wetting time, the strategy is more suitable for lightweight
and very penetrable nonwovens.
3.3.2.2 Foam bonding process

Foam bonding is intends to apply binder at low water and high binder-
solids focus levels. The fundamental idea utilized includes utilizing air and
also water as the binder diluents and transporter medium. Foam-reinforced
nonwovens require less vitality in drying, following less water is utilized
(Parsons 1999). The foam is created by bringing air into the planned latex
while mechanically disturbing the binder arrangement. Air/latex dilutions or
blow proportions in the order of 5:25 are practiced for various products. With
the expansion of a stabilizing agent to the binder arrangement, the foam can
oppose collapsing during application and curing, and the reinforced fabric
will show upgraded space, hand, and strength. Non-stabilized out foams are
alluded to as froths; foam reinforced fabrics are comparable in properties
to some immersion bonded nonwovens (Horrocks & Anand 2000). Sample
of this bonding is delineated in Figure 3.24. The favorable circumstances
incorporate less energy needed to dry the web, less binder movement and
controllable softness by decisions and measure of binders. The weaknesses
are challenges in controlling procedure and satisfactory foaming.
1 – Vacuum slot 2 – Screen 3 – Web feeding

4 – Pressurized application head 5 – Foam feed
Figure 3.24 Foam bonding process (Source: Patel & Bhrambhatt 2011)
3.3.2.3 Spray bonding

In spray bonding, binders are sprayed onto moving webs. Spray bonding is
utilized for fabric applications that which require the upkeep of high loft, for
example, fiberfill and air-laid pulp wipes (Kannadaguli & Kotra 2004). The
binder is atomized via pneumatic force, pressure driven weight, or divergent
compel and is connected to the upper surfaces of the web in fine bead frame
through an arrangement of spouts. Lower-web-surface binder expansion is
refined by switching web heading on a second transport and passing the web
under a second spray station. After every spraying, the web is gone through a
heating zone to evacuate water, and the binder is cured (set/cross-connected)
in a third heating zone. For uniform binder appropriation, spray nozzles are
deliberately designed. Typical spray bonding is illustrated in Figure 3.25.
Figure 3.25 Spray bonding method for nonwovens (Source: www.aatcc.org)
3.3.2.4 Print bonding

Print bonding applies binder only in predetermined areas. It is used for fabric
applications that require a part of the area of the fabric to be binder-free, such
as wipes and cover stocks (Pangrazi 1997). Many lightweight nonwovens are
print bonded. Printing patterns are designed to enhance strength, fluid transport,
softness, hand, absorbency, and drape. Print bonding is most often carded out
with gravure rolls. Binder addition levels are dependent on engraved area and
depth as well as binder-solids level. Increased pattern versatility can be achieved
with the use of rotary screen rolls. Drying and curing are carried out on heated
drums or steam-heated cans.In print bonding, high viscose binders are applied
to limited, patterned areas (Russell 2006). A prewet/prebond step is required for
enough strength of webs, and typical steps in this bonding are in Figure 3.26.
Figure 3.26 Print bonding technique for nonwoven (Source: www.aatcc.org)
3.3.2.5 Powder bonding

In powder bonding, the adhesive powder of thermoplastic polymers is applied
onto webs by heat and pressure. Polyesters and polyolefins with low Tg’s
and low molecular weight can be used as powder binders. A typical bonding
line is illustrated in Figure 3.27. The advantages are the bulky structure of
dense nonwovens and the applicability of polyester or polypropylene webs.
The disadvantage lies in difficulties of suitable particle sizes and ranges, and
their distribution (Kalinova 2015).
1 – Infrared energy 2 – Infrared oven 3 – Rotating brush

4 – Powder metering 5 – Unbonded batt 6 – Adhesive powder
Figure 3.27 Powder adhesive sprinkling method (Source: Kannadaguli & Kotra 2004).
The fabric property is represented by the flexible nature of the fiber and the
resin. Thus the fabric modulus is of the request of the fiber modulus that is
greatly high. A high modulus in a spatially uniform material implies that it
will be solid, which clarifies why saturation bonded fabrics are hardened with
respect to ordinary materials. In the meantime elasticity is low, in light of the
fact that the bonds have a tendency to break before most strands break.
Print-bonded fabrics are much milder in feel furthermore considerably
more flexible to solid impact of the free fibers in the unbounded regions.
They are significantly weaker than saturation-bonded fabrics attributable to
the fiber slipping in unbounded ranges, but knowing the fiber length and the
fiber orientation it is possible to plan a print design which will minimize the
quality misfortune. Every spray application adjusts the thickness of the matt
somewhat, however it is still left generous lofty, the drying and curing stage
additionally causes some little dimensional changes. Finally the product is a
thick, open and grand fabric utilized generally as the filling as a part of knitted
fabrics, for duvets, for some upholstery furthermore for a few sorts of filter
media. (Dhanabalan 2013)
Applications
Nonwoven products in which binders are utilized:
• Wipes and towels
• Medical nonwovens
• Roofing products
• Apparel interlinings
• Filter media
• Coating substrates
• Automotive trim
• Carrier fabrics
• Bedding products (high loft)
• Furniture applications (high loft)
• Apparel
• Pillows (high loft)
3.4 Thermal bonding

The advancement of the previous couple of years has demonstrated that the
offer of thermally bonded webs is becoming consistently. The first thermally
reinforced nonwovens were delivered in 1940s. Starting items utilized rayon
as the bearer fiber and plasticized cellulose acetic acid derivation (polycaproic
acid – PCA) or polyvinyl chloride (PVC) as the binder fiber (Hoyle 1990). The
suitability of the thermal bonding procedure is established in the value point
of interest got by lower energy costs. In any case, the thermal bonding process
additionally addresses the requesting quality necessities of the commercial
center. The advancement of new raw materials, better web arrangement
innovations and higher production speeds have made thermal bonding
a reasonable process for the production of both durable and dispensable
nonwovens.
3.4.1 Binders
Many materials that can be used as a binder for thermally bonded nonwovens.
• Binding fibers
• Binding powder
• Binding web
3.4.1.1 Binding fibers

Single-part and bi-segment fibers, as binder fibers, are most generally utilized
as a part of thermal bonding of nonwovens. Single-segment fibers are the
slightest complex and most sparing in light of the fact that the filaments are
regularly as of now in presence and low in expense. The short bond that is
formed is subject to a few elements including fiber chemistry, morphology,
linear density, staple length, crimp, and processing conditions. The significant
weakness experienced when utilizing 100 percent single-part filaments is the
limited temperature, that is essential when thermal bonding. In the event that
the temperature is too low, there is insufficient bond quality. In the event that
the temperature is too high, the web will liquefy too much and lose its way of
life as a web.
At the point when bi-part strands are utilized to deliver thermal bonded
nonwoven, the adequate temperature range for bonding may be as great as
25°C. At the point when thermal bonding, the high dissolving bit of the fiber
maintains the uprightness of the web, while the low liquefying point bit
dissolves and will bond with different strands at the fiber crossover points.
The product produced tends to have bulk and exceptional softness.
3.4.1.2 Binding powder

Powdered polymers are here and there utilized as a part of thermal bonding of
nonwovens. The most predominant utilization is powdered polyethylene. The
powder can be connected between layers of filaments when cross-laying, air
laying, or as an after treatment. A short introduction in an oven is adequate to

liquefy and circuit the powder. It is regularly utilized when a light weight and
open structure is needed with a delicate hand or when a strengthened, formed
item is essential.
3.4.1.3 Binding web

A very open-structured, low-melting-point thermoplastic fabric is set between
the webs and, during thermal bonding between the calender rolls, the fabric
melts totally bonding the webs together. The nonwoven created by this strategy
is delicate and bulky. Thermoplastic coatings and hot melt print bonding
have been utilized to a restricted degree in controlled porosity channels,
impermeable films and different things. In any case, the utilization of this
strategy for bonding is not anticipated that would accomplish an abnormal
state of significance.
3.4.2 Methods of thermal bonding

• Hot calendering
• Belt calendering
• Through-air thermal bonding
• Ultrasonic bonding
• Radiant-heat bonding, etc.
3.4.2.1 Hot calendering
A heat calendar should fulfill two basic processing conditions:
• Precise temperature control of the two heated rollers. The value of
thermal delta must not be higher than ±1°C. This precision must be
kept with or without material.
• Constant nip pressure over the calendar width
Pressure
Within the roller gap, required heat to reach the fiber melting point is
transferred to the web. For this heat transfer, a special gap pressure is applied.
The nip pressure needs to be adjusted according to the web weight, type
of engraving and the end product. General line pressure ranges from 20 to
120 N/mm2; in certain models, it may be up to 250 N/mm2 (high pressure
type). The pressure causes a substantial increase in the number of fibers in
contact, thereby affecting the strength and other properties of the bonded web.
Pressure also forces flow of the molten polymer and modifies the temperature
and time requirements for bonding. The pressure required will depend upon
the following factors:
• Type of web: In the same weight range, a staple fiber web will require
less pressure than filament because of its softness.
• Web weight: Heavier webs need higher pressures. A 75–150 gsm
spunbonded webs may require pressures in the range 80–110 N/mm2
while lower weights (15–70 gsm) need pressures in the range 50–80
N/mm2.
• Contact time: This is influenced by the machine speed. In case the
speed is increased, the contact time decreases. It means that the nip
pressure must be increased.
Temperature
When the web reaches the entrance cone created by the roll diameters, the air
at room temperature is dragged in which tends to cool the roll surfaces. But
the material is heated rapidly due to the following reasons:
• The movement of the rolls creates the formation of hot air rings
around their circumferences. This hot air is pulled in by the rolls and
the material gets preheated by convection.
• In the cone area, the fabric is also heated by radiation heat waves
emitted by the hot rolls.
• In the nip, the material is in direct contact with roll surfaces and is
heated by conduction.
• The heating and bonding of the inner layers is also due to the flowing
of the molten polymer from outside to inside caused by pressure.
The working temperature will depend upon the type of polymer, for
example:
• Polypropylene – 140–170°C
• Polyethylene – 85–115°C
• Homopolymer polyester – 230–260°C
• Bicomponent polyester – 120–200°C
• Nylon 6.6 – 220–260°C
• Nylon 6 – 170–225°C
The temperature has a direct influence on the fabric handle. Keeping other
parameters constant, with the increase of temperature, the fabric strength
increases up to a certain maximum value, after which strength declines.
Types of calendaring
There are three main types of hot calendaring (Russell 2006).
• Area bonding
• Point bonding
• Embossing
There are two kinds of calender rollers namely embossed and flat
calender rollers as shown in Figure 3.28 where point, stick and grid bonding
are embossed one and area bonding is flat roller. It is generally known that
the point bonding results in softer fabric and the area bonding results in stiffer
fabric.
Figure 3.28 Types of calendar roller
Area bonding
This procedure includes the utilization of a calender with a hot metal roll
contradicted by a fleece felt, cotton or special composition roll. Two, three or
four roll calenders can be utilized; contingent upon the heaviness of the web
to be bonded and the level of bonding heated roll on the top and base, with
the two compositions come in the center. The formless or co-polymeric binder
fibers utilized as a part of this procedure give holding at all cross-over points
between the carrier and binder fibers. The resultant item – normally utilized
as a part of electrical protection and covering substrates – is smooth, slim and
hardened. The material is constantly two sided; however, this impact is most
evident in material prepared through two and three move calenders.
The utilization of heat from the outside creates a material whose
inward range is less reinforced than its external surface. This turns out to
be more declared as the item weight increments past 35 g/m2 and can get
to be unfavorable unless restorative measures are taken. These incorporate
increasing heat, slowing speed, or increasing the binder/carrier fiber ratio. The
two-roll calender is utilized for low-to-medium weight items with light-to-
medium bonding. The three-roll calender is utilized for special bonding and
finish effects on a single surface. The four roll calender creates the amplest
weight range of materials on the grounds that it gives more adaptability in the
use of heat (Gao & Huang 2004).
Point bonding
Point-bond hot calendering is the main method of thermally bonding in
disposables as diaper, sanitary products, and medical products. This method
involves the use of a two-roll nip consisting of a heated male patterned metal
roll and a smooth or patterned metal roll. The profile of point bonded calendar
rollers are shown in Figure 3.29.
Figure 3.29 Point bonding rollers (Source: Steve Gunter 2002)
For light and medium weight fabrics, 10–200 GSM, a 2-roll heat calendar
is used. Heavier weight nonwovens, therefore having high thickness, are
difficult to be bonded with a heat calendar because of de-lamination problem.
One roll is engraved while the other one has a smooth surface. The type of
engraving influences the properties and quality of the final product. Engraving
pattern is usually of geometrical type having square, rectangular, rhomboidal,
circle or oval section. The number of points determines the fabric softness
and the melting area influences the mechanical properties. The bond area is
generally designed in 5–25% range. For example, for a lightweight fabric
(15–35 GSM), a 20% contact area may be necessary whereas for heavier webs
(70–100 GSM), a 10% contact surface is sufficient. In a 2-roll heat calendar,
the two operating rolls are designed with an outside diameter which is
“almost” equal, and which grants a similar rotation speed. Roll diameters are
not identical in order to allow that the contact of the engraving point against
the smooth roll, at each rotation is joggled, granting a homogeneous wear of
the smooth roll, which does not become spotted.
In a typical production line, the web is fed by an apron leading to a
calender nip and the fiber temperature is raised to the point at which tackiness
and melting cause fiber segments caught between the tips of engraved points
and the smooth roll to adhere together. The heating time is typically of the
order of milliseconds. The fabric properties are dependent on the process

temperature and pressure and other parameters like the contact time, quench
rate and calender pattern. Experimental results show that for a given nip line
pressure and calendering speed, the breaking strength reaches a maximum
at a critical bonding temperature; on keeping the nip line pressure constant,
the critical temperature was found to be a function of the calendering speed
(Dharmadhikary et al. 1995).
Embossing
The embossing method is a figured or sculptured area-bond hot calendering
as shown in Figure 3.30. In this case, though, the area bonding is three
dimensional. A “bulky but thin” product can be made in any pleasing or
functional construction, depending on the faces of the embossing rolls. The
calender roll combination has a male patterned heatable metal roll and a
matching female patterned felt roll.
Figure 3.30 Types of embossing calendaring
3.4.2.2 Belt calendering

Belt calendering is a changed type of hot roll calendering. The two principle
contrasts are the time in the nip and the level of pressure applied. In belt
calendering, time in the nip is 1–10 seconds. The pressure applied is around
1/10th of the weight connected in the hot calendering procedure (Russell
2006). The belt bonder comprises of a warmed roll and an elastic cover as
Figure 3.31 Belt calendaring process (Source: www.klieverik.com)
The nonwoven fabric is heat bonded by running it between the roll and
the cover
Pressure is applied by varying:
(a) The tension on the blanket against the heated roll
(b) The pressure on the exit guide roll inside the rubber blanket
Belt calendered products are much less dense and papery compared to
hot roll calendering. The belt bonder facilitates the use of binders with sharp
melting and flow properties. Such binders can present difficulties in a hot roll
calendering process.
3.4.2.3 Through-air bonding

Through-air thermal bonding includes the utilization of hot air to the surface
of the nonwoven fabric. The hot wind currents through openings in a plenum
situated simply over the nonwoven. Nonetheless, the air is not pushed through
the nonwoven, as in like manner hot air ovens. Negative weight or suction,
pulls the air through the open transport smock that backings the nonwoven as
it passes exhaustive the broiler. The through-air bonding with horizontal belt
type and rotary drum type are shown in Figure 3.32 and 3.33 respectively.
Pulling the air through the nonwoven fabric permits significantly more fast
and even transmission of warmth and minimizes fabric contortion (Randall
1984).
Figure 3.32 Through-air bonding with horizontal belt
Figure 3.33 Through-air bonding with rotary drum
Binders utilized as a part of through-air thermal holding incorporate

crystalline binder fibers, bi-segment binder fibers, and powders. At the point
when utilizing binder fibers filaments or powders, the binder melts completely
and structures liquid beads all through the nonwoven’s cross-area. Bonding
happens at these focuses after cooling (Randal 1985). On account of sheath/
core binder fibers, the sheath is the binder and the core is the carrier fiber.
Items made utilizing through-air ovens have a tendency to be bulky, open,
soft, strong, extensible, breathable and absorbent. Through-air holding took
after by prompt cool calendering results in thicknesses between a hot roll
calendered item and one that has been however air bonded without pressure.
Indeed, even after cold calendering, this item is milder, more adaptable and
more extensible than area bond hot-calendered material. Kim et al. (1997)
investigated experimentally the formation of bond and the bonding time for
different fiber diameters between two fibers laying orthogonal to each other.
Kim et al. (1999) in a follow up article investigated the bond formation and
development between two fibers by using a simple computational model and
predicted the characteristics shape.
3.4.2.4 Ultrasonic bonding

This process involves the application of rapidly alternating compressive forces
to localized areas of fibers in the web. The stress created by these compressive
forces is converted to thermal energy, which softens the fibers as they are
pressed against each other (Figure 3.34). Upon removal from the source of
ultrasonic vibration, the softened fibers cool, solidifying the bond points.
This method is frequently used for spot or patterned bonding of mechanically
bonded materials.
Figure 3.34 Ultrasonic bonding process
No binder is necessary when synthetic fibers (thermoplastic) are used

since these are self-bonding. To bond natural fibers, some amount of synthetic
fiber (thermoplastic) must be blended with the natural fiber. Fabrics produced
by this technique are soft, breathable, absorbent, and strong. This bonding
method is used to make patterned composites and laminates, such as quilts
and outdoor jackets (Watzi 1994; Russell 2006).
3.4.2.5 Radiant heat bonding

Radiant heat bonding happens by uncovering the web or mat to a source of
radiant energy in the infrared extent. The electromagnetic energy transmitted
from the source is consumed by the web, expanding its temperature. The use
of radiant heat is controlled so it softens the binder without influencing the
carrier fiber. Bonding occurs when the binder re-solidifies upon removal of
the source of radiant heat. Figure 3.35 shows the infrared bonding machine.
Lower energy and shipping expenses make this a favored strategy for
handling powder-bonded nonwovens. Adaptability and lower delivery
expenses are additionally considers. Post-calendered rolls can be sent in
slight, compacted shape and re-bulked by reapplication of heat, without
weight or restrictions, to the wanted state at the season of utilization. Powder
bonded items made in this way are delicate, open, and permeable with low-to-
medium quality. They likewise can be reactivated by warmth for utilization in
the assembling of laminated composites.
Figure 3.35 Infra-red bonding machine (Source: Kalinova 2012)
Products can be relatively soft and textile-like depending on blend composition
and bond area. The material production does not involve any chemical use
making it environment friendly and 100% recycling of fiber components can
be achieved. High bulk products can be bonded uniformly throughout the web
cross section.
3.4.2.6 Application of thermobonded nonwovens

Application of different methods of thermo bonding along with their web
forming methods and range of GSM for particular application are given in
Table 3.2.
Table 3.2 Application of thermo bonded nonwovens (Source: Goswami & Rajasekar 1992)
Type of web Weight range Application Bonding method

forming
Carded or Light- Cover stock, medical and Calender, combination air
aerodynamic weight webs sanitary webs flow principle/ calender, air
(disposables) flow principle (bicomponent
18–25 g/m2 fibers and blends)
Spunbonded Light- Cover stock, medical and Calender
weight webs sanitary webs
(disposables)
18–25 g/m2
Carded or 25–150 g/m2 Inter linings Calender, straight-through
aerodynamic air-flow treatment
Carded or 100–1000 g/m2 Filtration webs, high-loft Straight-through airflow
aerodynamic webs or needled webs treatment
Carded or 80–400 g/m1 Geotextiles Straight-through airflow

aerodynamic treatment, special
and spun- stretching frame with air
bonded jetting
Spun-bonded 150–200 g/m2 Carpet backing Straight-through airflow
treatment
Carded or 80–2000 g/m2 Industrial textiles, coating Straight-through airflow
aerodynamic substrates, protective treatment
material, insulating
material, decorative webs,
nonwoven covers, webs
for upholstery industry,
non woven wall coverings
Carded or 80–2000 g/m2 Padding material fiber fill Straight-through airflow
aerodynamic webs treatment
Carded or 100–250 g/m2 Wiping cloths Straight-through airflow
aerodynamic treatment
Carded or 80–3000 g/m2 Waste-fiber webs for Straight-through airflow
aerodynamic various applications treatment
Carded or 300–800 g/m2 Needle-punched carpets Straight-through airflow
aerodynamic treatment
Carded or 150–350 g/m2 Roofing felts Heat-setting with straight-
aerodynamic through airflow treatment
Web forming Light-weight webs, Straight-through airflow
machine decorative webs, tea bag treatment
paper
Dry-laid paper 20–200 g/m2 Wiping cloths, technical Straight-through airflow

products, medical and treatment
sanitary webs
3.5 Comparison of different web bonding techniques (Table 3.3)
150
Table 3.3 Comparison of different Web Bonding techniques (Silva, www.acaemia.edu)

Process Name Technique Process Web support Fabric weights Applications & Considerations & benefits
system products
Thermal Calender Fibers are formed Heating via: Heat applied 12–20 g/m2 Coverstock for Wherein a thermoplastic
into a web; fibers Conduction, everywhere = (0.35–0.58 oz/ sanitary prod- element, in the form of a
are bonded by ap- Convection and area bonded; Heat sq yd) ucts, Interlings, film (continuous or fibril-
plication of heat; Radiation; applied in specific Geotextiles, Carpet lated), fiber or powder (but
locations = point backing, Insulations, not aqueous dispersion
fibers cool to ambi- Work bonded; Calendar Upholstery, Wiping of film forming, emulsion
ent; bonded web is (Mechanical bonding – between cloths, Tea bag, Food polymerized polymers), is
wound up (frictional), lands (Thin, coverings integrated into the web,
Electrical, squeezed) Wherein thermal energy
Chemical); (extrinsic or intrinsic) initi-
Through-Air Calendar bond- Heat applied 9–150 g/m2 ates bonding between
ing; Through air wherever fibers (0.27–4.4 oz/ fibers in the web, Wherein,
bonding; Infrared cross = High loft sq yd) in general, no fluids need
bonding (not squeezed) be evaporated (except
when using wet-laid webs).
Ultrasound Radiation – wher- Used primarily to
ever fibers cross pre-heat
under ultrasonic
horn
Mechanical Needle punch; Felting; The fibers are Technology in Can attach layers Smooth or Automotive, Factors influencing nee-
Needling; Needle forced to entangle which the fabric producing com- ribbed and Filtration, Furniture & dling: Fiber web (weight,
punching in the z direction is formed by posites, Achieve velours surfaces Bedding, Geotextiles, thickness, closeness,
and inter-lock with means of fiber extremely high den- by structure, flat Roofing, Aerospace, orientation and opening of
other neighboring entanglement sities, High strength or circular by Agriculture, Advanced fibers), Machine (construc-
fibers. There are 7 achieved by overwhelming surface form, 80 composites, tion, variable settings,
board arrange- the repeated choice geotextiles, g/m2 to 3,000 g/ Industrial, Insulators, punch depth, density, no.
ments, and the penetration of that plus superior m2, small pads Marine, Medical, of runs, barbs, frequency,
web can be single barbed needles filtration choice for to up to 16 m Paper, Protective plate design), Binding
or double sided through a pre- filtration media, geotextiles, clothing, Sports felts, Needle (type, shape and
punched. Needle formed dry fiber X/Y/Z direction small diameter Synthetic leather/ # of barbs, thickness,
barb spacing can web (carded and elongation unbeat- (25 mm) to pa- shoes, Wall cover- Neck/kick-up, wear),
influence needle crosslapped or able in moldable permakers felts. ings. Environment.
efficiency and fabric airlaid). applications.
surface
Contd....
Contd....
Process Name Technique Process Web support Fabric weights Applications & Considerations & benefits
system products
Fluid entanglement; The fibers twist Three main Forming wire 20 g/m2 to 600 Mostly used for fine It is the fastest growing
Spunlacing; Jet entan- around their neigh- factors: Water surface character- g/m2 fiber webs intended bonding technology
gling; Water entangling; bors and / or inter- pressure, Energy istics determine for the medical, Worldwide, The spunlacing
Hydroentangling; lock with them transfer and Web properties & personal care, baby process yields the most
Hydraulic needling support system; aesthetics of fabric, care and consumer textile like product of any
Energy transfer: Surface topography and hygiene markets. of the current processes;
determines of forming wire is Most wipes (dry & Spunlaced nonwovens,
hydroentangle- extremely important wet wipe) are made depending upon the fibers
ment efficiency and has direct by hydroentangling or processed, are strong, soft
Insufficient influence on final by Spun Melt and pliable and can be
energy transfer product appear- dense or open and are typi-
(low pressure) ance cally highly absorbent
rearranges but
not entangles
fibers, Excess
energy (high
pressure)
produces weak
areas & non-
uniformity
Chemical Common methods of Binder application Binders Strength – non- Wipes and towels, In the early history of
application include to nonwoven; contain polymer woven strength is Automotive trim, nonwovens almost all
saturation, foam, spray, Removal of produced by closely related to Medical nonwovens, nonwoven fabrics required
print and powder moisture or solvent; the reaction of binder strength; Carrier fabrics, a chemical binder. In very
bonding Formation of strong monomer in Adhesion to Fibers Roofing products, early stages of nonwoven
bond between the presence – adhesion strength Bedding products development natural
binder and nonwo- of initiators or of the binder to (high loft), Apparel resins and glues were
ven web catalyst. During fiber bond is im- interlinings, Furniture used as bonding agents.
moisture removal portant; Flexibility/ fabrics (High loft), However, because of the
film formation handle – some Filter media, Apparel, fabric properties chemically
takes place. fiber movement is Coating substrates, bonded fabrics were not
Chemical binder required; Elastic Pillows (high loft fully accepted.
most used today Recovery – good
is water-borne recovery under
latex, Applied in stain is needed to
amounts ranging avoid permanent

from 5% to 60% fabric deformation.
by weight.
151
Contd....
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4
Finishing of nonwovens
Abstract: This chapter discusses about the basic finishing of nonwoven fabrics
such as mechanical and chemical finishes and special finishes such as plasma
and micro-encapsulation. In mechanical finishing, the principle of perforation,
splitting and winding, shrinking, compacting, embossing, creping, calendaring,
shearing and raising has been discussed. In chemical finishing of nonwoven,
dyeing, printing aspects and value-added finishes such as antistatic, flame
resistant, water repellant and softeners were also discussed in detail.
Key words: Mechanical finishing, chemical finishing, calendaring, compacting,
creping, flame resistant, plasma, micro-encapsualtion
4.1 Introduction
The finishing of nonwovens is gaining importance among the manufacturers, as
it contributes to the specialized and aesthetical functionalities of the materials
to render them more suitable to the market requirements. Various types of
nonwovens are subjected to finishing treatments amid their processing cycle.
The wide range of finishing techniques, both chemical and mechanical, has
broadened the range of applications of nonwovens. The nonwoven finishing
techniques can be classified as shown in Figure 4.1.
Non woven finishing methods
Mechanical finishes Chemical finishes Special finishes
Splitting and winding Washing Plasma finish
Perforation Dyeing Microencapsulation

Printing Other methods
Shrinking
Drying Antistatic finishes
Compacting Antimicrobial antifungal finishes
Embossing Flame resistant finishes

Emerising/sued finishing Lubricants
Creping Water repellent finishes

Calendering Softeners
Shearing Stiffeners
Raising UV Stabilizing finishes
Singeing
Figure 4.1 Classification of nonwoven finishing methods

Finishing of nonwovens 157
4.2 Mechanical finishing

4.2.1 Splitting and winding
Producing thicker nonwoven structures and parting (leveling) them to the
desired thickness is one of the convenient methods of manufacturing high
density nonwoven fabrics with generally low thickness. To achieve this, a
splitting machine is utilized. The construction of the splitting machine
includes a settled part comprising the upper scaffold and the feeding bench,
on which the feeding table is mounted. The flywheels, sharpened blade with
its controlling device and the sharpening attachment are all mounted on the
settled part. To ensure a fast and accurate splitting of the material, the blade
must be continuously sharpened by drum shaped grinding wheels.
The nonwoven is placed over the feeding table and passed with
predetermined pressure through the support, under a rotating precision sharp
edge blade. The arrangement of the unique rolls isolates the so-formed two
layers. The calibrator roll, which is the upper conveyor move, determines
the thickness of the material. The accuracy in splitting increases with the
closeness of the calibrator roll to the sharpened steel blade. The feed material
must perfectly cling on to the upper calibrator roll to maintain the required
thickness. The lower pressure roll is designed to continuously deform to
adjust to the varying thickness of the feed material as it pushes the material
against the blade. The pressure roll consists of several small rolls arranged
in a sequential manner. All nonwoven materials, evenly the intensely stitch-
bonded nonwovens, leather like imitation fabrics and chemically bonded
fabrics with high areal mass can be subjected to splitting by making suitable
mechanical alterations (Russel 2006).
4.2.2 Perforation and slitting

Nonwovens can be perforated by using heated needles or modified calendar
rolls. The process of perforating is done to facilitate vertical exchange of the
fluids inside the cover stocks (cardstock) of items used in personal cleanliness
or to increase the drapability and delicateness of coating fabrics. The vertical
profile of the puncturing can be altered according to the requirement. Funnel-
shaped profiles can be obtained by using suitable puncturing needle so as to
control the waste limit of the cover stocks.
In the case of chemically bonded nonwovens, puncturing with red-hot
needles can facilitate the crosslinking of the resinous bonding agents. The
slitting process creates longer holes (openings) in the nonwovens. The length
of the opening and the distance between openings need not necessarily lower
the fabric quality. (Russel 2006; Purdy 1983)
4.2.3 Shrinking
The fibres have a tendency of reverting back to their original state in order to
release the stress built up during processing. This results in shrinkage of the
fabric. To avoid the subsequent shrinkage, the nonwoven can be subjected
to intentional shrinkage by immersing in cold water, steaming or providing
resin/chemical treatment (Kamath et al. 2004).
4.2.4 Drying and heat setting

The nonwoven fabrics are subjected to strain during manufacturing, which may
cause the fabrics to distort dimensionally. The strain experienced by the fabric
causes it to extend along the length and shrink in width. This phenomenon is
more significant for hot and wet webs. The dimensional instability of the webs
results in shrinkage at later stage. To overcome this issue, the drying process
for nonwovens was introduced. Sometimes, the drying process is used for
coagulation of thermo sensitive binders and sintering of binder powders in the
fabrics. The drying procedure varies depending upon the type of material and
the end use of the nonwoven fabric. Drying can be achieved by using any one
of the methods like stenter frames, fusion ovens, drum drying, hot pipe dryers,
infrared heaters, and so on. In stenter frames, the fabric is clamped at the edges
with the movable frame to maintain a constant open width. The frame carries
the clamped fabric through the drying chamber. The conformity of the rail or
chain conveying the fabric controls the width of the fabrics. Overfeed to the
stenter pins provides stabilization of the fabric by permitting shrinkage along
the length of the fabric. Sensors in the stenter electronically control the air
stream, moisture and temperature at the set levels (www.nptel.ac.in).
The most remarkable drying method is the through air drum drying and
heat setting. This method also provides flexibility in terms of machine setups
like single drum, twin drum or various drum setups. The drums are arranged
in vertical or horizontal progression as per the requirement. A high limit
outspread fan controls the hot air in and out the drum with the assistance
of some heating element (which heat the air). Overfeed of fabric to the
drum allows shrinkage to occur. The resulting fabric develops the required
delicateness and bulk characteristics. This technique offers maximum heat
and mass exchange through the thickness of the fabric, thereby increasing the
productivity and minimizing the energy utilization.
4.2.5 Compacting
Compacting of fabrics is a simple mechanical process in which the fabric is
subjected to compressive forces along the length. In general, the nonwoven
fabric is fed into a converging passage, securely gripped and lead into the
treatment cavity, where the compaction takes place. Figure 4.2 shows the
nonwoven compacting process. For compacting a nonwoven fabrics, the
machinery setup includes a pair of juxtaposed rollers (2,3) and a superposed
roller (4) which are arranged in such a way to produce fibre compacting. The
central superposed roller (4) extends in preset space (9) between the juxtaposed
rollers (2,3) to achieve fibre compacting. Each of the rolls has perforations
(5) extending through the surface of a shell (6). The first conveyor (16,19)
feeds the nonwoven to the roller arrangement while the second conveyor belt
(17,20) draws the fibres away from the roller arrangement after compacting.
The conveyor belts (19,20) may also be perforated and surround the juxtaposed
rollers (2,3), respectively. The compacting process is assisted by means of
suction applied to the interior of the rollers, which draws the fibres through
the perforations (5) in the rollers (Lasenga 1989).
Figure 4.2 Process of nonwoven compacting (Source: Lasenga 1989)
4.2.6 Embossing
The process of embossing produces a raised texture on the surface of the
nonwoven fabrics. Embossing is done by means of heated engraved rollers.
This process is suitable for all nonwovens except for woolen felts. Permanent
embossing can be achieved by combining the process with certain chemical
resins.
4.2.7 Creping
The nonwoven web is attached to the surface of a roll or drum by means of
an adhesive and then the adhered nonwoven is mechanically detached from
the surface of the roll or drum. The absorbency (in case of hydrophilic fibres),
softness, and bulk of the nonwoven is improved as the fibre positions are
disturbed and are altered within the web during detachment process. Creping
can also be observed in the papermaking art.
Water-based adhesives, like latex adhesives, are widely used to attach
the nonwoven fibrous web to the creping roll or creping drum in the creping
process. To ensure proper adherence between the nonwoven web and the
creping roll or creping drum, the water must be removed from the adhesive
by drying. To achieve this, huge heated rolls or drums, like the Yankee Roll
(Figure 4.3), are used to dry the water-based adhesive. These drums are
expensive and consume a large amount of energy to efficiently dry the water-
based adhesive (Sayovitz 2004).
Figure 4.3 Mechanism of creping of nonwoven (Source: Sayovitz 2004)
4.2.8 Calendaring
Calendaring is a non-durable mechanical finishing technique which can be
applied to nonwovens made of cellulose, protein and synthetic fibres. This
machine includes one or several pairs of rollers pressing against each other.
These rollers are provided with movable weight and identical nip speeds.
The fabric is subjected to a smoothing and a squeezing activity when passed
through these rollers. The surface of the rollers can either be hard or milder
depending on the material being processed. Stiff rollers are typically made of
steel or hardened cast iron with chrome-plated or nickel-plated or stainless
steel surfaces. The roller can be subjected to treatments that provide:
• a matt appearance which is similar to abrasive blasting;

• a cross-stripe engraving to improve the fabric grip and resistance to
sliding;
• a very thin diagonal stripe patterning with a smooth appearance;
• a patterned engraving with embossed effects.
When the nonwoven is passed through the calendar rollers, it is subjected
to an extremely uniform pressure along the entire width of the rollers. Hence,
the calendaring process can be regarded as a more serious type of compaction
procedure. Calendaring decreases the nonwoven thickness and provides a
smooth surface. Either hot or cold calendaring can be done. The calendar
rollers can have two configurations, namely L type and I type (Goivanni
Tanchis 2008). In the I type, the rollers are set in line such that one roller is
vertically over the other. Whereas in the L type, the course of action the base
roller is set somewhat forward. The rollers are outlined to facilitate uniform
appropriation of nip line pressure over the entire width of fabric being fed.
Some rollers have a lump surface, i.e. breadth in the center is more prominent
than the distance across at the edges. Additionally, the rollers are secured with
resilient material for fitting weight conveyance. In case of hot calendaring,
the calendar rollers are heated by means of heated oil. Another variant of
calendaring is the belt calendaring, which provides the fabric a less solid feel
compared to the roller calendaring. This involves squeezing of the nonwoven
fabric against a heated drum with the help of a tensioned belt or cover running
over the surface of the roller. The pressure applied by this means is lower
compared to the ordinary calendaring process. But the contact time of the
nonwoven fabric with heated element (drum) is more prominent than in roller
calendaring (Tanchis 2008).
4.2.9 Emerising/sued finishing

The sueding process is quite similar to the raising process. It is distinct from
the raising process as the nonwoven fabric surface is rubbed by emerising filet
and not by raising wires. This procedure generates thick pile with intricate
quality and curbed appearance. Also, a sueder may be referred to as a sander
since it consists of one or more rolls secured with sand paper which acts
as the rough rubbing medium. When the nonwovens are passed over these
rollers, they produce a low pile which provides the fabric surface to feel like
suede leather. The sueding machines can be categorized into two fundamental
classes: the single cylinder and multi-cylinder machines (Wilhelm Albrecht et
al. 2003). A typical multi-cylinder machine has five pivoting cylinders, with
individual drive controls for each cylinder, i.e. the direction of rotation of each
cylinder can be varied independently. The single cylinder sueder consists of

one grating secured metallic roller and one elastic secured pressure roller.
There is a chance for the abrasive covered cylinder to expand due to the heat
generated from continuous grating. To overcome this expansion, water is
circulated inside the cylinder to maintain lower temperatures. The function of
the pressure roller is to press the fabric against the abrasive cylinder, and it can
be adjusted with micrometer accuracy. Hence, at the nip of the pressure roller
and the abrasive cylinder, the fibres on the surface of the nonwoven undergo
abrasion.
4.2.10 Shearing
Shearing is a method of trimming or cutting adopted to expel the surface
fibres from the nonwoven fabric. Shearing is a distinct alternative to the
singeing process. The shearing process facilitates only a fractional surface
fibre removal. The fabric surface morphology is the main factor determining
the cutting stature. A shearing machine is demonstrated in Figure 4.4. The
shearing head consists of a winding spiral blade and a ledger plate. The spiral
blade is capable of revolving on its own axis and remains in contact with
the ledger plate. This arrangement replicates the trimming activity similar to
that of a scissors. When the nonwoven is passed through the shearing head,
the protruding surface fibres will come in contact with the ledger plate and
subsequently get cut by the sharpened steel (www.nptel.ac.in).
Figure 4.4 Shearing process working mechanism (Source: http://www.nptel.ac.in/)
A cloth rest is provided such that the fabric forms an acute angle when it
is presented to the ledger plate. This sharp turn causes the pile to stand erect
and can be more easily cut. The distance between the cloth rest and the ledger
blade can be adjusted according to the height of the pile.
4.2.11 Raising
Raising is a finishing process which, in contrast to the other finishing process,
raises the surface fibres in the nonwoven fabric. This is achieved by passing
the nonwoven through fast rotating rollers secured with metal points or teasel.
Raising is also known as the napping process. Excursion, wool, and fleece
broadcloth get their wool like appearance by this process. Additionally,
napping can be utilized for certain knit goods, covers, and different fabrics
with a raised surface. This operation is particularly well suited for wool and
cotton fabrics as a fluffy surface can be generated in these fabrics by rubbing
the material and pulling the fibre end to the surface. By providing a fluffy or
shaggy surface to the fabrics, the fabric appearance, fabric mass and fabric
handle (mild and more full hand value) can be varied. The warmth protection
of the material is enhanced due to the entrapment of air by the fuzzy surface of
the fabric and makes it suitable for wear in cold climatic conditions.
The metal needles or points secured to the raising roller surface rub the
nonwoven surface and pull out the fibres as illustrated in Figure 4.5. Typically,
the needles are 45° hooks projecting from the raising rollers. The needles
are fitted onto an elastic belt which is spiral wound on the raising rollers.
Moreover, the thickness and length of the needles can be changed according
to the nonwoven being processed (Mazharul Islam Kiron 2012). In general,
a couple of rollers are used. A roller with its hooks directed in the direction
of fabric feed (pile roller), is alternated with another roller with its hooks
mounted in the direction opposite to the fabric feed (counterpile roller).
Figure 4.5 Raising rollers (Source: Kiron 2012)
Rotating brushes are also included in the machine in order to suction-

clean the needle points in the rollers (Figure 4.6). The present trend employs
raising roller to pile rollers in the ratio of 1:3 or higher ratios. The raising and
pile rollers have independent drives and can rotate with different speeds and
direction to produce a variety of fascinating effects.
1: Roller; 2: Rollers equipped with hooks; 3: Fabric; 4: Nib cleaning brushes; 5: Fabric tension
adjustment
Figure 4.6 Raising (napping) machine (Source: Kiron 2012)
Figure 4.7 Raising the face of the fabric (Source: Kiron 2012)
The effectiveness of the raising process largely depends upon the fabric
strain (5) or the fabric velocity and the direction of roller rotation (2). By
varying these parameters, the extent of raising can be altered. Aggressive
raising activity subjects the fabric to extreme mechanical stress and can
potentially damage the fabrics. To avoid such fabrics damages, it is better to
pass the wet fabric through the raising machine several times with mild raising
effects (dry when handling cotton fabrics). Wetting the material reduced the
friction between the fibres in case of synthetic fibres and enables easy pulling
out of fibres. Treating the fabric with softening-greasing agents also helps tit
prevent fabrics damage during raising (Figure 4.7).
4.2.12 Singeing
Singeing is the process of burning externally. The free fibres which are loosely
held on the surface are burnt-off in this process. Singeing is crucial finishing
treatment as it involves of burning of the fibres. Hazy print patterns, mottled
fabric surfaces, and pilling are some of the consequences of improper process
parameters in singeing. The main objectives of singeing are (Hussain 2012)
Singeing of a fabric produces a smooth and clean fabric surface.
• Singed fabrics show a lower soiling tendency compared to un-singed
fabrics.
• Singeing reduces the risk of pilling, especially with synthetics and
their blends.
• Printing of fine intricate patterns is possible in singed fabrics.
• The removal of randomly protruding fibres from the nonwoven
prevents the diffused reflection of light.
In this process, the fabric surface is initially brushed gently to raise the
undesirable and loose fibre ends. After this, the fabric can be singed by means
of heated copper plates or open gas flames. As the fabrics passes over the
heated plates or the flame, the fibre ends burn off. The fabric is moved quickly
such that the time of exposure is just sufficient to burn the protruding fibre
ends and not the entire fabric. A water bath or desizing bath is located at the
end of the singeing machine. This is essential to put off any singeing afterglow
or sparks that may degrade the fabric.
There are three main categories of singeing machines are listed below
(Hussain 2012):
1. Plate singeing machine
2. Rotary-cylinder singeing machine
3. Gas singeing machine
4.2.12.1 Plate singeing machine

In the plate singeing machine, the nonwoven is passed over a couple of hot
curved copper plates which have a thickness ranging from 1 to 2 inches. The
plates are heated by burners fuelled by a mixture of gas and air. The plates
are usually heated to splendid redness and then the nonwoven is passed over
the plates. The contact time of the nonwoven with the plates is decided by
the speed of the fabric movement. Generally, the nonwovens are delivered at
a speed of 150–250 yards every second to the machine. The machine can be
designed to ensure that both the sides of the nonwoven come in contact with
the plates in a single passage of the nonwoven through the machine. To avoid
localized cooling of the plates due to constant material passage, an automatic
traversing mechanism is fitted to the machine. This mechanism constantly
changes the part of the plates which come in contact with the nonwoven,
thereby preventing localized cooling and wearing of the plates.
4.2.12.2 Rotary-cylinder singeing machine

This type of singeing machine utilizes heated rotary cylinders made of copper
or cast iron for singeing. The revolving cylinder is provided with an internal
firing system to rise the temperature. This cylinder rotates gradually so that
a new surface of the roller is exposed to the material at every instant. This
overcomes the problem of localized cooling of the cylinders. The cylinder
rotates in the direction opposite to that of the material movement in order
to raise the protruding fibres or nap (Figure 4.8). The machine can also be
designed with two cylinders for singeing both side of the nonwoven.
Figure 4.8 Line diagram of rotary-cylinder singeing machine (Source: Hussain 2012)
4.2.12.3 Gas singeing machine

Figure 4.9 illustrates the principle of a gas singeing machine. In this machine
(Figure 4.10), singeing is performed by passing the nonwoven fabric over a
burning gas flame. The speed of the fabric movement through the machine
should be adjusted such that the flame only burns the protruding fibres and not
the fabric. This is the most widely used singeing machine.
Figure 4.9 Principle of gas singeing (Hussain 2012)
Figure 4.10 Line diagram of gas singeing machine

(Source: http://www.swastiktextile.com/)
4.3 Chemical finishing

4.3.1 Washing
Washing is a simple process that aims at removing undesirable substances or
dirt present in the fabric. In wet washing, the washing efficiency is improved
by adding a suitable cleanser to the washing medium which is usually water.
Anionic washing agents are also capable of softening the nonwoven fabric
apart from strengthening the washing effect. Nonionic washing agents are
more productive at particular temperatures. The material must be subjected to
a certain amount of pressure in both the wet and dry washing procedures. The
applied pressure should not distort or expand the nonwoven.
4.3.2 Dyeing
Nonwovens can be dyed at different stages of nonwoven manufacturing as per
the end product requirement. They are explained in detail below (Aspland &
Jarvis 2007).
Dyeing of polymer – In the case of polymers like polyester, the colouring
agents can be added as a concentrate to the polymer melt just before the
filament extrusion. This method can be treated as a bulk colouration or melts
dyeing process. The concentrates added to the polymer melt are basically
pellets or beads with a high concentration of dyes or pigments. Polymer
dyeing offers several advantages compared to the other methods. This process
is much faster and does not require the newly formed fibre webs to undergo
a vigorous dyeing process which may distort the webs. Moreover, polymer
dyed fibres show superior colour fastness properties.
Staple and mass dyeing – Wet processing like dyeing and printing
is a time-consuming process with high energy and cost requirements. Wet
processing of nonwovens is frequently linked with the other wet processes
involved in the web bonding procedure. Alternatively, the fibres can be dyed
in the staple form.
Dyeing and bonding – The dyeing and bonding procedure is suitable
for chemically bonded webs. The colouring agents are added to the tank or
reservoir containing chemicals for web bonding. Finely dispersed pigments
are used as the colouring agent as the bonding agents perform bonding
action by coating the filaments of the web. The bonding agents show strong
adhesion to the fibres, thereby enhancing the rubbing fastness and colour
fastness properties of the pigments. Dyes with excellent fibre affinity can be
used instead of pigments in the bonding processes where the banding agent is
not uniformly dispersed over the web. This improves the dyeing uniformity
despite the uneven distribution of the bonding agent.
Subsequent dyeing – Dyeing and bonding process is not suitable when
various fibres are blended in the web. In such situations, the dyeing process
is performed later. The nonwoven fabric is considered as a woven or knitted
fabric and is dyed using the conventional techniques.
Cold pad batch dyeing – Cold pad batch dyeing was originally licensed by
Farbwerke Hoechst for the dyeing of polyamide-bonded webs. This method
is used for dyeing spun bond or cross laid (card) nonwovens developed for
curtain and table linen applications. These nonwovens are bonded with the
help of acrylic acid esters and are coloured using coloured acid or metal
complex dyes. Acids can be added along with the dyes in order to form
hydrogen bonds between the acids and the cold wetting agents. This bonding
with the cold wetting agents facilitates migration of the dye molecules during
the batching period and helps in achieving better dyeing uniformity. Then, the
fabric is padded, batched and secured with polyethylene film. After 24 hours
time, the fabric is subjected to soaping and warm washing.
Continuous dyeing – Nonwoven fabrics with higher weight per unit area
can be dyed in a continuous dyeing range. The conventional pad-steam process
is preferred for continuous dyeing. Steaming is essential to properly fix the
dye molecules to the fibres. After padding and steaming, the nonwovens are
rinsed and washed (Kamath et al. 2004).
4.3.3 Printing
The printing systems and the colour range for printing nonwovens has
extensively developed due to the ever increasing utilization of nonwovens in
the home textiles sector. Similar to woven or knitted fabric printing, screen
printing and rotary screen-printing are widely used to print nonwovens. The
nonwoven fabric is placed on the printing backcloth and printed with suitable
dyestuffs depending on the nature of the fibre. It is then dried by steaming
and washed. Pigment printing is critical as pigment binders used also help
in bonding the fabric to a greater extent. The influence of pigment binders is
more significant in spunbonded fabrics.
• Printing of light nonwoven bonded fabrics: Almost the entire range
of light, nonwoven bonded fabrics can be printed using pigments.
Higher dye concentrations are required for printing light nonwoven
bonded fabrics.
• Printing of heavy nonwoven bonded fabrics: The composition and
viscosity of the printing paste used for printing of needled punched
fabrics is drastically different to the printing paste used for light
nonwoven fabrics. Additionally, heavy nonwovens must be printer at
slower speeds.
• Transfer printing: In transfer printing, dyes which are capable of
subliming are initially printed on a release paper and then transferred
from on to the nonwoven bonded fabric by means of heat and
pressure. Disperse dyes are widely used to print polyester fibres based
nonwovens in this method.
4.3.4 Types of chemical finishes for nonwoven fabrics

4.3.4.1 Antistatic finishes
Nonwovens, especially those composed of man-made fibres as polyester and
polyamide fibres, are prone to build up of static charges. These static charges
tend to attract dirt and other particles dispersed in the atmosphere. For this
reason, the use of antistatic chemicals for nonwovens composed of man-
made fibres becomes mandatory. The antistatic agents can be classified into
two types depending upon their working nature. One group of antistatic agents
dissipates the static charges by increasing the surface conductivity of the fabric
by attaching hydrophilic compounds to the surface of the fibres. Other antistatic
agents generate charges opposite to the charge building up in the fabric and
thereby neutralize the fabric. Antistatic agents are commonly used in home
textiles, especially floor covering materials, wall hangings, wallpapers and
upholstery fabric (Kamath et al. 2004; Russel 2006; Tanchis 2008).
4.3.4.2 Antimicrobial, anti-fungal finishes

Antibacterial or antifungal finishes are of prime importance in the hygiene and
medical sectors. These finishes also find application in sportswear, bedding
components, insulating materials, mattress coverings, home textiles, carpets
and products for body care. Their function is to prevent the degradation of
the fabrics due to microbial or fungal activity. These finishes should retard
the microbes but at the same time, they do not have any harmful effect on the
human body. These finishes also help to control the odour emission caused by
biological degradation (Milin Patel & Dhruvkumar Bhrambhatt 2011).
The antimicrobial agents can be classified into non-leachable or leachable
categories. As the name suggests, the leachable antimicrobial agents are not
chemically bonded with the nonwoven and can be easily removed or can be
transferred to the surrounding by contact with moisture or water. These agents
are primarily composed of compounds which contain metals like silver, or
biopolymers like chitosan. Collagen, tea-tree oil, aloe vera, camomilea are
widely used formulating antimicrobial agents for wounds and skin regeneration.
Cetyl Trimethyl Ammonium Bromide (CTAB) in combination with
fluorochemical-based water-repellent agent performs well as an antimicrobial
agent for polyester, polypropylene and viscose nonwoven fabrics. CTAB has
showed excellent a good antimicrobial, water and blood repellency properties
in various trials.
4.3.4.3 Lubricants
Lubricants perform the task of reducing the fibre to fibre friction or in some
cases, the fibre to metal friction in nonwovens. The application of lubricant
also makes the nonwoven feel softer. Lubrication is also essential in the the
stitching operation, as the rapid movement of the needles generate a lot of heat
while penetrating into the nonwoven fabric. If lubrication is not provided, the
overheated needles can damage the nonwoven fabric.
4.3.4.4 Flame-resistant finishes

Flame-resistant finishes are imparted to nonwovens to mitigate the
consequences of combustion namely flame propagation, post combustion,
carbonizing and smoke mission. Nitrogen phosphorous compounds are
the main constituents of flame resistant agents. Variants of azo-phosphoric
compounds in combination with hygroscopic auxiliaries also reduce the risk
of flammability in cellulosic fabrics. These finishes can be imparted as fibres
or as dispersion to the nonwoven. In case of fibre form, the flame retardant
fibres can be blended along with the constituent fibres during the process
of manufacturing. The flame retardant agents can be mixed as dispersion
in the coating polymer in coated nonwovens. Flame retardant finishing also
produces some undesirable effects like yellowing of the fabric, decrease
in tensile strength, and colour changes. (Kamath et al. 2004; Russel 2006;
Tanchis 2008)
Majority of nonwoven are fabricated using synthetic fibres in order to meet
the specific end requirements. The commonly utilized fibres like polyolefin,
polyester or nylon are quite flammable. Polypropylene has an entirely aliphatic
structure; and hence once it ignites, the fire propagates rapidly. Polypropylene
generates only a low amount of smoke during combustion and does not leave
any char residue. Such nonwovens made from synthetic fibres are prone to
catch fire which is undesirable. The following methods have been adopted to
enhance the flame retardant characteristics of nonwovens:
1. The nonwoven can be protected from extreme heats by coatings and/
or other finishing techniques; the layer coated on the fabrics prevents
volatilization of flammable material.
2. Nonwovens can be provided with back-coating containing thermally
unstable chemicals like inorganic carbonates or hydrates, to retain the
surface properties of the fabric.
3. The nonwoven can be maintained at a temperature lower than the
ignition temperature on exposure to heat; this is achieved by including
materials that can dissipate large amounts of heat (PCM or good
conductors) in the nonwoven structure.
4. Nonwovens can be subjected to char promoting chemical treatments.
The durability of the treatment depends on the interaction of the
chemical with the constituent fibres.
5. Incorporating chemicals which liberate free radical trapping agents

such as organobromine or organochlorine compounds on exposure to
heat, in the nonwoven fabric.
6. Suitable modifications can be performed in the fibre manufacturing
stage itself; the synthetic fibres can be copolymerized with flame
resistant additives like microfillers or nanoparticles.
The two basic ways of achieving flame-resistant properties in nonwovens
are added substance (the FR agent is added to the polymer dope and then the
polymer is extruded) and topical (coating the nonwoven with the FR polymer).
The first method incorporates flame retardancy within the fibre structure and
hence these fabrics exhibit superior flame-retardant characteristics. But this
method is suitable only for thermoplastic fibres. However, thermoplastics,
thermosets and common fibres can be made flame retardant by the topical
method. In this technique, the flame-retardant agent forms a durable layer
over the nonwoven by means of suitable binding agents. Apart from these two
techniques, flame retardants like smaller scale or nano-dispersed particles can
be fused in the nonwoven directly or can be dispersed in some polymer coating
over the nonwovens (Kamath et al. 2004; Russel 2006; Wilhelm Albrecht et al.
2003). The flame-retardant additives which satisfy the following requirements
can only be used in nonwovens:
• The additive must not adversely affect the natural colourants or the
added colouring agents in the fibre to a large extent.
• The additives should not emit smoke during fibre synthesis.
• It must not significantly alter the short- and long-term fibre properties.
• Ultraviolet (UV) durability should not be deteriorated by the additives.
• It must comply with latest quality and environment standards at the
international level.
4.3.4.5 Water-repellent finishes
Water repellant finishes render the nonwovens impermeable to water. The
impregnation of the nonwovens with silicone or fluorocarbon compounds
restricts the wetting of the nonwovens by water. Spraying or padding techniques
are utilized to impregnate the nonwoven with the aqueous dispersion of
silicone and fluorocarbon-based compounds. Fluorocarbonic dispersions
impart water repellency as well as oil repellency to the nonwovens owing
to their extremely low surface tensions. Perfluorated alkyl triethyloxysilanes
impart soil, water and oil-repellent characteristics to the nonwoven fabrics.
4.3.4.6 Softeners
The application of softeners provides a soft and delicate feel to the
nonwovens. Nonwovens which are in close contact with the skin like sanitary
napkins, wipes, etc., require softening treatment. In general, the softeners are
hydrophilic in nature which in turn increases the wettability of the fabric.
4.3.4.7 Stiffeners
The stiffness or firmness of nonwovens can be improved by using stiffening
agents. The weight, compactness and volume of the nonwoven fabric are
increased by the addition of stiffeners and fillers. Consequently, the physical
properties like the tensile strength and abrasion resistance are enhanced.
When stiffeners are applied in the form of polymer dispersion by spraying
or padding, they cause bonding of adjacent fibres in the nonwoven fabric and
enhance the dimensional stability.
4.3.4.8 UV stabilizing agents

UV rays are capable of degrading the constituent polymers and adhesives in the
nonwovens. The polymers undergo fading and loss of mechanical properties
due to photo-degradation. To overcome this, UV stabilizers are used to
protect the adhesives and polymers against photo-degradation. UV stabilizers
are basically UV absorbers which protect the polymers by absorbing the
harmful UV radiations. Some UV stabilizers contain controlled amines which
provide UV protection by a different mechanism. Instead of absorbing the UV
radiations, the controlled amines undergo complex reactions when exposed to
UV light, thereby protecting the polymer against degradation.
4.3.5 Application methods of chemical finishes

4.3.5.1 Padding
Padding is a simple finishing technique in which the nonwoven is impregnated
with liquor or foam containing the required finishing agent. The impregnated
fabric is passed through a pair of squeeze rollers. The pressure setting in the
squeeze rollers is altered in accordance with the desired pick-up or add-on
level. The pick-up level is decided by the type of fibre and the end usage
of the nonwoven. The excess water present in the nonwoven after padding
is eliminated by the drying process. The drying process must be carried out
in a controlled manner to ensure minimum energy utilization and minimum
chemical migration.
Padding can be done by two methods: wet on wet padding or wet on dry
padding. In wet on wet padding method the nonwoven to be padded must be
wetted. The prewet nonwoven is passed through the treatment liquor. The
exchange of the treatment liquor with the water present in the nonwoven
determines the pick-up level.
In the other method, wet on dry padding, the dry nonwoven is impregnated
with treatment liquor. During padding, the air in the nonwoven must be
eliminated and should be replaced with the treatment liquor. To achieve higher
pick-up levels, it is essential to de-aerate the nonwoven before impregnation.
Similar to calendaring, the squeeze rollers should exert uniform pressure
along the entire nip line. The treatment liquor is prepared depending upon the
required pick-up level.
4.3.5.2 Coating
In the coating process, the finishing agents are applied to the nonwoven in fluid
forms like solution or foam or dispersion. The coating process is followed by
the drying and curing process. There are different drying methods depending
upon the nature of the nonwoven and the water content to be removed. Coating
can be done as a single layer or as multiple layers. Consistent coating thickness
can be achieved with single layer coating. Multilayer coatings fill the holes
and gaps in the fabric surface providing a smooth and uniform surface to the
nonwoven. The major factor to be considered while coating nonwovens is the
rate of fabric let-off. If the rate of let-off is not set properly, it will result in
uncontrolled stretching of the fabrics.
The rotating roller (slop padding or kiss roll) is the most common
method of coating nonwovens. The slop padding roller is dipped halfway
in the coating solution and the nonwoven is passed over the roller making
contact with the other half of the roller. The pick-up level is determined by the
process parameters like slop padding roller speed, depth of roller penetration
in the coating solution and direction of roller rotation. The nonwoven can be
passed over the roller either in the direction of roller rotation or in a direction
opposite to the roller rotation. Penetration of coating solution is better when
the nonwoven is passed in the direction of the roller rotation, more noteworthy.
When the nonwoven is passed opposite to the direction of the padding roller,
the machine design is varied. The machine arrangement consists of a pair of
rollers, namely the application roller and the support roller. The nonwoven
is passed through the nip of the two rollers and the nip pressure determines
level of pick-up in the fabric. Attachments like scrubber, doctor blades, or
metering rods can be provided to remove the excess coating solution from
the nonwoven. The coating solution can be uniformly distributed through the
entire width of the fabric by means of special blades. The coating thickness
can be varied by altering the blade profile and the distance between the blade
and the nonwoven.
Besides roller coating, various other technologies like rotogravure
coating, rotary screen coating, extrusion coating and non contact coating are
also available for coating nonwovens. Rotogravure rollers (Figure 4.11) are
used to impart patterned coating to the nonwovens. The rollers maintained
at higher temperatures to assist the bonding of thermoplastic components.
Rotary screen coating (Figure 4.12) is quite similar to the rotary screen printing
process. It is used to coat fusible nonwoven interlinings at higher production
rates. In this technique, the coating material can be in the form of a fluid
or powder. In case of powder coating, size and shape of the particles in the
powder should be compatible with the pores in the coating screen. Patterned
coating can also be achieved by using fine meshed screens. The extrusion
coating process involves lamination of the nonwoven by the extrusion of
thermoplastic polymers. This technique is used when the nonwoven must
be rendered impermeable. In non contact coating, the coating material is
sprayed on the nonwoven with the help of spray nozzles (Figure 4.13). This
method is of prime importance for coating nonwovens with poor dimensional
stability and a highly irregular surface. It also helps in achieving low add-on
percentages. (Lünenschloss & Albrecht 1985)
Figure 4.11 Rotogravure coating
Figure 4.12 Rotary screen coating

Figure 4.13 Spray coating (Non-contact coating)
4.3.5.3 Laminating
Lamination is the process of securely attaching two or more pre-assembled
fabrics to produce a combined structure. If the components of the lamination
do not possess self-adhesion properties which are triggered by specific
conditions, a bonding agent must also be included in the lamination process.
(Bellini et al. 2001).
Wet laminating: A simple configuration for the wet lamination process is
illustrated in Figure 4.14. The adhesives used in the wet lamination process
are dissolved or dispersed in a suitable solvent. In wet lamination, the adhesive
is applied in the fluid form along the length of one of the component fabrics
which is to be joined. The second component fabric is then placed over it
with sufficient pressure to induce bonding between the layers. The amount of
pressure determines the extent of consolidation of the attached fabrics layers.
Figure 4.14 Wet or cold laminating

Dry laminating: Dry laminating is suitable for thermoplastics including

powders, plastisols, or melt adhesives. Numerous machines are available for
applying the thermoplastic adhesives to the substrates that are to be joined
together. Figure 4.15 shows a simple roller arrangement for the dry laminating
process. Dry laminated nonwovens have a soft feel compare to their wet
laminated counterparts.
Figure 4.15 Dry or hot laminating
4.3.5.4 Flocking
Flocking is the process of creating three-dimensional piles on the surface of
the backing fabrics in a nonwoven. Synthetic fibres are more convenient for
flocking as they are manufactured in uniform pre-determined lengths. Natural
fibres should be ground into short fibres to make them suitable for flocking.
The base fabric is treated with an adhesive resin to secure the flock fibres
to its surface. The adhesive can be applied over the entire fabric in case of
aggregate flocking. Alternatively, the adhesive can be applied in specific
areas of the base fabric by means of printing to create flocked designs. The
mechanical flocking techniques include the shaking process and the sprinkling
process. These techniques create random piles on the fabric surface as they
cannot control the alignment of the fibres. The electrostatic flocking process
is preferred to create velvet finishes. In this process, the created electrostatic
field aligns the fibres vertically as they make contact with the backing fabric.
Flocked products find numerous applications like automotive interior panels,
shoes, apparels, filters, drapes and as patterned decoration effects (Tanchis
2008).
4.3.6 Emerging technologies in nonwoven finishing

4.3.6.1 Plasma finishing
Plasma is referred to as the fourth state of matter apart from the solid, liquid
and gaseous states. Plasma is a gaseous state comprising of a dynamic
combination of ions, electrons, free radicals, metastable excited particles,
molecular and polymeric fragments, and large amounts of visible, UV, and
IR radiation. Plasma is capable of modifying the surface characteristics of
materials by the transfer of energy from the excited plasma particles to the
material. The plasma interacts with the material through various mechanisms
like etching, surface activation, decrystallization, cross-linking, chain
scission, oxidation, and chemical reactions and results in surface modification.
The main advantage of plasma treatment is that it is eco-friendly and energy
efficient process.
Plasma treatments are widely employed in finishing of nonwovens.
The most prominent application of plasma treatment is to impart surface
hydrophilicity to the polypropylene nonwovens in the hygiene sector.
Additionally, plasma treatment improves the interaction of the nonwoven
with dyestuffs, pigments and chemical finishes. Plasma treatment is a superior
alternative to fluorochemical treatments to impart hydrophobic characteristics
to fibres in nonwovens for specific applications. Plasma treatment, being a dry
process, does not generate pollution problems. (Wilhelm Albrecht et al. 2003;
Kamath et al. 2004; Russel 2006)
4.3.6.2 Microencapsulation
Microencapsulation is a technique in which the droplets of active finishing
agent are surrounded by a thin coating to provide small capsules with
numerous functional properties. These microcapsules can be utilized to
impart various properties like antimicrobial property, flame retardancy, etc.,
to any kind of fibre. The resulting property can either be durable or temporary
depending on the method adopted. In comparison to conventional finishing
techniques, microencapsulation imparts specific properties to the nonwovens
with improved stability along with controlled release of the active compounds.
In this process, the microcapsules containing the active compounds
are incorporated into the nonwoven during the finishing treatment.
Microencapsulation is being increasingly used in nonwovens for cosmetic,
pharmaceutical and industrial applications. The active compound is released
in a controlled manner by several mechanisms. Usually, the capsule wall is
designed to break and release the active compounds. In another mechanism,
the capsule wall acts as a permeable medium allowing the diffusion of
the active compound from the capsule to the nonwoven in a controlled

manner. Perfumes, cosmetics, lotions, thermo-chromic inks, phase-change
thermo-active materials (BCMs) and antimicrobial substances are generally
microencapsulated into nonwovens along with a binder. Capsules composed
of derivatives of β-cyclodextrines can be chemically bound to the fibres and
do not require a binder.
4.3.6.3 Other techniques

• Laser etching – Lasers are also capable of physically modifying
the surface of the fibres in nonwovens. It can also be utilized as an
impingement method for patterning the nonwoven fabrics.
• Biomimetic finishes – The biomimetic finishes are designed to replicate
certain biological structures along with their characteristics. This
technique was developed as an attempt to mimic water-repellency of
lotus leaves.
• Electrochemical finishes – This technique is adopted to make the
surface conductive and also to realize electro-luminescent nonwovens.
It can also be used to develop fabrics serving as electrodes or sensors.
The material surface should pre-metalized prior to the electrochemical
treatments (www.textileworld.com).
References
1. Russel SJ (2006). Handbook of Nonwovens. Woodhead Publishing Ltd. Cambridge.
2. Purdy AT (1983). Developments in Nonwoven Fabrics. Textile Progress, The Textile
Institute, Manchester, UK.
3. Wilhelm Albrecht, Hilmar Fuchs, Walter Kittelmann (2003). Nonwoven Fabrics: Raw
Materials, Manufacture, Applications, Characteristics and testing process. Wiley-
VCH Verlag GmbH & Co.
4. Joachim Lünenschloss, Wilhelm Albrecht (1985). Nonwoven bonded fabrics (Ellis
Horwood series in applied science and industrial technology). E. Horwood publisher,
1985. ISBN: 9780853126362.
5. Aspland JR, Jarvis CW (2007). The Coloration and Finishing of Nonwoven Fabrics.
Clemson University, Clemson, SC.
6. Kamath MG, Atul Dahiya, Raghavendra R. Hegde (2004). Finishing of Nonwoven
Bonded fabrics.
7. http://www.engr.utk.edu/mse/Textiles/Finishing%20of%20Nonwovens.htm
8. Finishing process of Nonwoven. http://www.nptel.ac.in/courses/116102014/11.
9. Mazharul Islam Kiron (2012). Singeing process. http://textilelearner.blogspot.

in/2012/03/what-is-singeing-process-of-singeing.html Accessed on May 20, 2015.
10. Milin Patel, Dhruvkumar Bhrambhatt (2011). Nonwoven technology for
unconventional fabric. https://textlnfo.wordpress.com/2011/10/25/nonwoven-
technology-for-unconventional-fabrics/ Accessed on May 20, 2015.
11. Pietro Bellini, Ferruccio Bonetti, Ester Franzetti, Giuseppe Rosace and Sergio Vago
(2001). Finishing – reference book of textile technologies. The ACIMIT foundation,
Milano.
12. Sayovitz (2004). Method for producing creped nonwoven webs. US Patent 6,835,264
B2.
13. Lasenga (1989). Apparatus for compacting a nonwoven fabric. US Patent 4809404.
14. Tanveer Hussain, (2012). Singeing fundamentals. http://www.fibre2fashion.com/
industry-article/13/1226/singeing-fundamentals11.asp, Accessed on May 20, 2015.
15. Anonyms, Gas singeing machines, http://www.swastiktextile.com/gas_singening_
machine_super_singe.html Accessed on May 20 2015.
16. Anonyms, Surface Finishing Gains New Precision. http://www.textileworld.com/
Issues/2000/May/Textile_News/Surface_Finishing_Gains_New_Precision Accessed
on May 20, 2015.
17. Goivanni Tanchis (2008). The nonwoven – reference book of textile technologies.
The ACIMIT foundation, Milano.
5
Testing of nonwovens
Abstract: This chapter discusses about the characterization of various kinds

of nonwoven structures, testing standards and methods available for testing of
nonwoven fabrics. Testing standards for fibres and various physical characteristics
to be tested for nonwoven fabrics and the respective standards are given in detail.
Testing of fibre orientation and porosity in nonwoven structure has also been
discussed. The various parameters to be tested on nonwoven materials and the
respective standards, based on its application fields such as medical & hygiene,
protective textiles, geo-textiles and filter media have also been provided.
Key words: ASTM, orientation, porosity, contact angle, filter textile, geo textile,
nonwoven, medical textiles
5.1 Introduction
With present indecisive economic circumstances, industries need to be far
more competitive to make sure their products get into market first. This
indicates that a business has an advantage over its competitors by being the
initial occupant of a market sector and this phenomenon plays heavily in the
testing field. Industries should need to develop a balance between being first
to market and being the best in the market. Testing is not a process that can be
done in a hurry but it is vital for businesses to make sure their products meet
their customer’s expectations and yet the product needs to be ready in time to
ensure a competitive edge.
Testing is extremely important when developing a new product and
many problems can be easily unseen in the rush to get a product to market.
Unfortunately testing is quite often looked as an overhead as industries are
very keen to reach the end product and cannot see the tangible return-on-
investment testing can bring. Testing is the way of control or the process
to check or verify the nature, kind or character of fiber, yarn, fabric or any
material, hence to control the degree of excellence.
5.1.1 Objectives of textile testing

• Selection of raw materials
• Process control
• Product control
• Process development
• Product development & research
• Specification test
5.1.2 Importance of testing

• To determine the properties and characteristics of fiber, yarn, fabric
and end products
• To compare the qualities of textile raw materials, intermediate
products or finished products
• To maintain the standard established by different organisation or
countries
• To meet market/consumer demand/standard
• To improve quality and cost ratio
• To control and improve processing technique
5.1.3 Benefits of testing

• Minimizes the risk to all parties in supply chain from yarn and fabric
producers to high-end retailers and ultimately the end user
• Confirms the quality of textile merchandise at any point in the
production chain and reduces costly mistakes
• Limits any customer liability
• Provide an independent expert opinion
5.2 Characterization of bonding structures

Nonwovens comprising binder structures could be characterized based on its
type, dimensions, form, rigidity and density. The bonding type can be further
classified as solid and rigid bonds and flexible and elastic bonds. For example,
in case of needle punched and spunlace nonwoven systems, the fibers are
interlocked by means of mechanical means by free fibrous interlacements,
which are flexible and elastic. On the other hand, thermal and chemical bonded
nonwovens are made by cohesion or adhesion of molten polymer which forms
a tiny fibrous net resulted in very little freedom for movement leading to rigid
bonds. The rigidity of solid bonding points could be evaluated by means
of tension properties by measuring traction and elasticity, etc. whereas the
bonding level can be determined directly by the microscopic analysis of fabric
cross-section.
Testing of nonwovens 183
5.2.1 Needle punched nonwovens

Needle punched nonwovens have regular characteristics due to the interaction
between the fibers and the barbs of the needle punching needles in their
structural design. The fibers are realigned or reoriented from outside to inside
of the web or vice-versa forming a interlocking pillar structures which are
normally oriented approximately perpendicularly to the plane. Often, the
needle marks are evident on fabric surface. By analysing at micro-structural
level, the needle punched fabrics comprises of two distinct regions: the first,
the portion of fibers in the nonwoven fabric which are not affected by the
impact of punching needle which looks similar to the non-bonded web. In
second region, the fiber segments are having the impact of penetration of
punching needles, leading to re-orientation of fibers in perpendicular plane
(Tanchis 2008).
The re-orientation of fibers due to the impact of barb needles during the
needle punching process increase the anisotropy nature in nonwoven structure
which makes the needle punched nonwoven heterogeneous. The number of
needle marks and the penetration depth of the fibers are correlated with the
bonding quality of the fabric and with tension resistance (Huang & Bresee
1993).
The needle penetration depth, the number and distance of the barbs
crossing the web are very important variables, because they can modify the
microstructure. Recent studies have proved that the maximum tenacity of a
nonwoven can be obtained with only three barbs per needle, if penetration
depth is adjusted perfectly.
5.2.2 Wetlaid nonwovens

The wetlaid nonwoven microstructure are quite different from needle punched
nonwovens, since absence of formation of fiber pillars in the cross-section.
Besides the high velocity water jets allow fibers to migrate in crosswise as
well as length/machine direction. The strength of fiber bonding depends
on the interaction between the fibers in the web. The structure of wetlaid
nonwovens mainly depends on fiber properties and process parameters. At
lower water-jet pressure, only a small area of the fibrous segments on web
surface get tangled and bonded together. But at high pressures, more fibers
are re-oriented towards the opposite part of the web and finally, some fibers
protrude. Wetlaid nonwoven properties are mainly governed by the fiber
properties such as rigidity and bending recovery which influences the capacity
of the jet to produce interlocking or entanglements in the fibrous web (Russell
2007; Tanchis 2008).
5.2.3 Stitch bonded nonwovens

Based on the various processing types, four main stitch bonded structures are:
• Malivlies – These kinds of nonwovens are comprised of staple fibers
which are bonded by fibers stitched into the web and by additional
yarns mostly filaments.
• K unit – These are 3-D nonwoven structures comprises of a carded
web pleated through a swinging element, which has on one side a
knitted structure produced through needles.
• Multiknit (Malimo) – These nonwovens are made from one or two
K unit layers, inside which further layers can be introduced which
are stitched by a multiknit machine on the pile side to produce a flat
surface on both sides of nonwoven.
• Maliwatt – These are fibrous webs stitched by one or two yarns,
which lend their form (stitch forming). Both fabric sides have the
same type of yarn sewing.
The stitch bonded fabric structure is influenced by the fiber properties,
web structure and density, sewing thread and its density, number of needles
per inch (gauge) and warp knitting action. The pile height in stitch bonded
nonwovens could range between 2 and 20 mm. Normally the warp knitted
structures have an open construction and short pleats and have good
extensibility in lengthwise as well as crosswise directions (Krcma 1972).
5.2.4 Thermal bonded nonwovens

The structure of thermal bonded nonwovens depends on the method of
application of heat to the fibers, the structure of the web and on the type
of bonds existing inside the fibers. In calendared nonwovens with thermal
bonding points, the fibers are pressed together and the heat is delivered by
conduction. This leads to fiber deformation and a flow of the polymer around
the bonding points.
In the closeness of the bonding points, the heating of the surrounding
fibers can induce the formation of bonds between the interfaces of the points of
contact of the non-compressed fibers. In case of nonwovens bonded with hot
air, bi-component fibers are normally used and the convective heat introduced
during the process creates soft and pliable bonds between the points of contact
of the polymer (Huang & Bresee 1993). With this process, no associated
deformation of the fiber in these points were noticed, hence the density of the
nonwoven fabrics is lower if compared to fabrics with calender-operated.
5.2.5 Chemically bonded nonwovens

Chemical bonded nonwovens are made by applying mixture of resins to the
web, which is then dried and treated. The uniform dispersion of binder resins
across the fabric is influenced by the application method and flow properties
of the resins. More number of fibers could be bound by the binder, which
adjoins only the points of contact among the fibers, but also the interspaces in
the fibers. On the other hand, the polymer could be concentrated in the points
of contact of the fibers, making the binders located in these particular regions
(Tanchis 2008).
5.3 Testing of nonwovens

The physical, chemical and mechanical properties of nonwoven that govern
their suitability for use are based on the characteristics of the raw material,
composition and the fabric structure. Hence, the testing of a raw material and
nonwoven is vital process after/during the manufacturing process.
Raw material properties and arrangement of raw materials during web
formation and bonding technique decides the characters of a nonwoven
material. The structure and properties of a nonwoven fabric are determined by
fiber properties, the type of bonding elements, the bonding interfaces between
the fibers and binder elements (if present) and the fabric structural architecture
(Russel 2007).
Characterization of nonwoven may be done at different stages as
mentioned below.
1. Raw material testing
2. Testing of finished products
3. Specific testing procedures based on applications
Importance of testing/characterization is that, if the choice of raw
material was appropriate and system of process control has been kept at
the stipulated standard levels, then the end products could be packed into
cases with confidence, knowing that they would fulfill their intended purpose
satisfactorily.
5.3.1 Testing of properties of a raw material

The following fiber parameters are tested before taking into actual
manufacturing process. All these tests are not required all the times. The
important tests are listed below (Behery 1993)
1. Fiber dimensions
• Fiber diameter and its variation
• Cross-sectional shape
• Crimp wave frequency and amplitude
• Length
• Density
2. Physical properties of fiber
• Young’s modulus, elasticity
• Tenacity
• Bending and torsion
• Rigidity
• Compression
• Friction coefficient
• Fibrillation propensity
• Surface chemistry and wetting angle
3. Structural parameters of a nonwoven
• Fiber alignment: fiber orientation distribution
• Porous structural parameters: fabric porosity, pore size, pore
size distribution, pore shape
5.3.1.1 Various methods and standards adopted to measure the

fiber properties
The standard methods and procedures for the measurement of various fiber
properties are given in Table 5.1.
Table 5.1 Standards for measurement of fiber properties
S. Fiber Standards Principle of measurement Technology to be

no. parameter available more important
1 Determination DIN EN Parallelized fiber bundles are cut to a Needle punching
of linear ISO 1973: specified length. 5 fibers are removed technology,
density 1995-12 from each of 10 fiber bundles. The hydroentanglement,
mass of the resulting fiber bundle, etc.
which consists of 50 fibers all, having
the same length, is determined.
The quotient of the mass and the
cut length, multiplied by the number
of fibers in the bundle, gives the
fiber linear density value. The mean
value of at least 10 bundles, each
consisting of 50 fibers, is calculated
arithmetically. The linear density is
given in dtex.
Contd...
Contd...

DIN EN Alternate method:
ISO 1973: Determination of linear density,
1995-12 Vibroscope method
The linear density of individual fibers is
determined by the oscillating principle
at a constant test length and constant
fiber loading. A brief acoustic vibration
is applied, which causes the fiber to
oscillate transversely.
The fiber linear density is calculated
from the resonance
frequency of the fiber
ISO Textiles – Cotton fibers –
2403:2014 Determination of micronaire value
2 Fiber DIN 53 811: Determination of the diameter of fibers Hydroentanglement,
diameter 1970-07 from longitudinal view by microscope etc. needle punching
projection technology, etc.
ASTM Alternate method:
D6466 – 10 1. Standard Test Method for diameter
of wool and other animal fibers by
Sirolan-Laserscan Fiber Diameter
Analyser
ISO 2. Wool – Determination of mean
1136:2015 diameter of fibers – Air permeability
method
3 Determination DIN 53 808- A glass plate in a contrasting colour is Wet laid technology,
of length 1: 1982-02 smeared with a thin layer of paraffin oil dry laid technology
of fibers by or vaseline. The fibers that are to be
measuring measured are picked up with a pair of
of individual tweezers, laid carefully onto the glass
fibers plate, and straightened to remove the
crimp (tweezers technique). The fibers
should not be stretched at all.
Standard ASTM Alternative method: Determination
Test Method D5103 - of length of fibers, Almeter method
for Length 07(2012) (Zellweger Uster, formerly Peyer)
and Length This test method covers the
Distribution of determination of average staple
Manufactured length and staple length distribution
Staple Fibers of both manufactured and natural
(Single-Fiber fibers by manually measuring single
Test) fiber lengths. This test method is also
used to measure the length of fibers
removed from a staple yarn, but such
a measurement may not represent the
fiber’s staple length, as manufactured.
Length and ISO Textiles – Cotton fibers –
uniformity 4913:1981 Determination of length (span length)
index and uniformity index
Contd...
Contd...
4 Testing of The fiber is clamped in a take-off
fiber crimp device with a fixed and a vertically
movable clamp under a pretensioning
force of 0.05 mN/tex. The clamping
length will depend on the nominal
length of the fibers. At least 100 fibers
are tested.
5 Determination DIN EN Direct measurement by Telescope- All technologies
of breaking ISO 5079: Goniometer
force and 1996-02
elongation at
break
of individual
fibers
6 Contact angle Direct measurement by Telescope- Filters and absorbent
of a fiber Goniometer materials
5.3.2 Testing of a nonwoven structure

The characterization of the nonwoven structure includes the determination
and measurement of the numerous properties which are applicable for any
particular application. The properties/ characters of nonwoven material could
be classified as
• Physical properties
• Chemical properties
• Aesthetic properties
• Commercial properties
The list of physical, chemical, aesthetic and commercial properties to be
tested for nonwoven products is given in Table 5.2.
Table 5.2 Various category of testing of various characteristics of nonwoven products
Physical properties Chemical properties Aesthetic properties Commercial

properties
• Tensile Strength(Wet/ • UV Resistance • Soft/Stiff • Price
Dry), (Machine/Cross) • Thermal Behavior • Opaque/Transparent • Cost Effectiveness
• Elongation • Active/Inert • Fragrance/Odor • Quantity
• Burst Strength • Polymer Properties • Shiny/Dull • Availability
• Tear Strength • Flammability • Fuzzy/Flat • Contract Terms
• Toughness • Chemical Resistance • Smooth/Rough • Width
• Impact Resistance • Chem. Sensitivity • Pliable/Crunchy • Packaging
• Tear Propagation • Hydrophobic/philic • Color • Put-Ups
Contd...
Contd...
Physical properties Chemical properties Aesthetic properties Commercial
properties
• Seam Strength • Oleophobic/philic • Surface Decoration • Shipping
• Flex Fatigue • Static Generation • Surface Texture • Exclusivity
• Shear Behavior • Electric Charge • Slick/Scroopy • Delivery Cycle
• Abrasion Resistance • Adhesion/Cohesion • Drape • Tariffs
• Compression Resist • Bioactivity • Warm/Cold • Liability
• Elasticity/Brittle • Liquid Repellency • Comfortable • Patent Protection
• Surface Friction • Dyeability • Clammy • Volume Breaks
• To self • Biodegradability • Stretchy • Licensing
• To other surface • Thermoplastic/Set • Bouncy/Dead • Royalties
• Moisture Vapor • Dye Stability • Fluffy/Hard • Trademarks
• Air Permeability • Melting Behavior • Bright/Dull • Merchandising
• Fluid Porosity • Wetting Behavior • Reversible • Hot/Old News
• Water Repellency • Absorbency • Textile/Papery • Converting
• Thickness • Cleanability • Feminine/Masculine • Safety
• Density/Bulk • Color • Cute • Efficacy
• Bending Resistance • Toxicity • Pretty • Regulatory Rules
• Surface Topography • Carcinogenicity • Sophisticated • Unique
• Thermal Conductivity • Printable • Trendy/Classic • Disposable/Durable
• Liquid Transport • Sterilizable • Quiet/Noisy • Environmental
• Pore Size • Fashionable • Impact
• Absorbency
• Fluid Uptake Rate
• Fluid Retention
• Sewability
• Wrinkle Resistance
• Weight/Mass
• Piling Resistance
• Cutting Behavior
5.3.3 Testing of nonwovens based on applications

Apart from the regular tests and test methods, some of the specialized testing
procedures have to be adopted in order to determine the suitability of a
product. The following properties are required to be checked for nonwoven
waddings depending upon the end use:
1. Resistance to sweatings, compressional resilience
2. Resistant to repeated and long term loading
3. Ability to keep thickness during loading, light weight, fit and loftiness
4. Thermal regulation, safety, high tenacity & stretchability
5. Resistance to abrasion
6. Sweat absorption & fast drying (low fluid resistant)
7. Moisture management
5.3.4 Standards for nonwoven testing

Various testing methods and techniques have been developed for the
measurement of nonwoven fabric properties. These test methods can be
grouped as follows (Chatterjee & Gupta 2002):
• Standard test methods defined by standard authorities (e.g., ISO, EN/
BS,ASTM, and ANSI)
• Test methods established by industrial associations (e.g., INDA,
EDANA, AATCC, TAPPI, etc.) and individual companies
• Non-standard test techniques designed for research purposes.
5.3.4.1 Sampling of a nonwoven materials

Standard test methods for characterization of nonwovens are given by ASTM
under the designation D-1117. While taking the sample at random manner
from the number of rolls it is referred to as lot sample. A piece of fabric
taken from the lot sample and extending them in the width-wise direction by
approximately 1 meter along the machine direction is referred to as laboratory
sample. These samples should be conditioned before testing as per ASTM
D1776 at 65±2 % RH (relative humidity) and 21±1°C temperature before the
tests are performed on them.
5.3.4.2 Measurement of basic nonwoven parameters

Some of the nonwoven parameter and its testing procedures are listed below.
But these lists are not exhaustive and the level of reliability is subjected
to nature of material and standards compatibility. The basic list of ASTM
standards for testing of nonwovens is given in Table 5.3.
Table 5.3 ASTM Standards for testing of nonwoven (Kamath 2004)
S. Test Standard Description

no.
IST ASTM
1 Thickness (mm) 120 D5729-97 Determined by observing the linear distance that a
movable plane is displaced from a parallel surface
by the sample while under specified pressure.
2 Basis weight (g/m2) 130 D3776-96 Sample of known area is weighed
3 Stiffness (mm) 90.1 D5732-95 Sample is slid in a direction parallel to its length.
The length of the overhang when tip is depressed
under its own weight at an angle 41.5°
4 Tensile strength 110 D5035-95 Sample is clamped and a force applied until
(lb or N/) break. Values of breaking force and elongation
are obtained
Contd...
Contd...
S. Test Standard Description
no.
IST ASTM
5 Bursting strength 30.1 D3786-87 Sample is clamped over a diaphragm that is
(psi or kPa) expanded by fluid pressure to the point of rupture.
It is the pressure difference between the pressure
to rupture and to inflate
6 Elmendorf Tear 100 D5734-95 Sample is fastened in the clamp, tear is started.
strength (gf) Pendulum is released and the sample is torn. The
force to tear is calculated.
7 Hydrostatic Head 80.6 Sample is subjected to standardised water
(mbar or Wc) pressure, increased until leakage appears.
Pressure at first sign of leakage is hydro head.
8 Air permeability 70.1 D737-96 Calculated from the rate of air flow passing
(cm3/s/cm2) perpendicularly through the known area of fabric
to obtain a prescribed pressure differential
Determination of mass per unit area

It is the determination of the area and mass of a test piece and calculation of
its mass per unit area in grams per square metre. In order to meet the specific
needs of nonwovens, alternative requirements to those listed in ISO 3801 are
specified in the part of ISO 9073. These are as follows:
(a) A different sampling procedure;
(b) An alternative specification for dimensions of test piece;
(c) A greater accuracy for the balance.
ASTM D 3776 covers the determination of fabric mass per unit area
which is applicable to majority of fabric types. The method describes four
approved options for use in the measurement of basis weight.
Option A – Full Piece, Roll, Bolt or Cut (Section 7)
Option B – Full Width Sample (Section 8)
Option C – Small Swatch of Fabric (Section 9)
Option D – Narrow Fabrics (Section 10)
The values affirmed in either SI units or inch-pound units are to be
regarded separately as standard. The values stated in each system may not be
exact equivalents; therefore, each system shall be used independently of the
other. Combining values from the two systems may result in non-conformance
with the standard.
Fabric thickness
Determination of thickness is the fundamental physical properties of high-
loft nonwoven structures. In specific industrial applications, the thickness
of material warrants stiff control within specified limits. Determination of
thickness of nonwoven structures is quite similar to conventional textile fabrics

however due to the higher unevenness and compressibility of nonwovens,
different sampling procedure should be adopted.
Three different test methods, namely, ASTM D5729-97, ASTM D5736-
01 and ASTM D6571-01 are available for the determination of thickness,
compression and recovery of conventional nonwovens and high-loft
nonwovens. The thickness of material plays a vital role in bulk and warmth
properties of high-loft nonwoven fabrics and determination of thickness is
also useful in measuring performance characteristics, such as before and after
abrasion or shrinkage.
The thickness of a nonwoven fabric can be defined as the distance between
the face and back of the material and is determined as the distance between
a reference plate on which the nonwoven is kept and a parallel presser-foot
that applies a pressure to the fabric (EN ISO 9703-2:1995). Nonwoven
fabrics having higher specific volume, i.e. high-loft or bulky fabrics need a
special procedure. In this context, bulky fabrics are defined as those that are
compressible by 20% or more when the pressure applied changes from 0.1
kPa to 0.5 kPa (Russel 2007). The thickness of high-loft nonwoven fabrics
could differ significantly based on the pressure applied to the material at the
time of thickness measurement. In such circumstances, the apparent thickness
varies inversely with the pressure applied. For this reason, it is essential that
the pressure be specified when discussing or listing any thickness value. The
standard conditions for determination of thickness for conventional and high-
loft nonwoven are given in Table 5.4.
Table 5.4 Standard conditions for measurement of nonwoven thickness

(Source: Russel 2007)
Dimensions of Pressure Sample No. of Duration

presser foot (kPa) size samples of testing
plate (mm)
Thickness Conventional Diameter 25.4 4.14 ± 20% 10 5s
nonwovens ± 0.02 0.21 Greater 5 9-10s
(ASTM 300 × 300 mm 0.03 than
D5729-97) presser
High-loft foot
nonwovens 130 × 80
(ASTM mm
D5736-95)
Compression ASTM 230 × 230 × 0.03 / 200 × 200 5 10s/30
and recovery D6571-01 6.4 mm 1.73 / mm Applied min/5 min
of high-loft Repeated 0.03 200 × 200 and 10 min to
nonwovens compression 1.83 × 100 mm removed 56 hours
and recovery at a series
(ITS 120.4, of time
120.5) intervals
Uniformity of nonwoven fabric

The uniformity or evenness of nonwoven structure is concerned with the
variations in thickness and density but is generally expressed as weight
variation per area unit. To measure the evenness of nonwoven structure either
subjective or objective methods could be used. The subjective assessment of
nonwoven for evenness can explore the uneven up to 10 mm2 surface from
30 cm distance (Behery 1993). The indirect objective evaluation have been
developed based on the changes in other characteristics of nonwoven which
vary with the changes in areal mass, including transmission and reflection of
beta rays, gamma rays, laser rays, visible light and infrared light, as well as
variations in the tensile strength.
The uniformity of nonwoven structures can be explored using optical
scanning methods through an electronic optical method which can differentiate
32 different shades in the grey scale. The depth of grey shades gives an idea
about the uniformity of nonwoven structures. The optical method could be
combined with image analysis to determine the variation coefficient of grey
level depth resulting from the scanned images of the nonwoven (Chen &
Huang1999).
Normally, the evenness of the nonwoven structure is based on fiber
properties, weight of fabric and processing conditions. From the various
studies, it is revealed that with increase in average weight of nonwoven
structures, the thickness and weight variation decreases. Wetlaid nonwoven
structures are normally more uniform with respect to thickness, compared to
drylaid nonwovens. Airlaid nonwovens in short fibers are on the whole more
uniform than carded fabrics and spunbonded and meltblown nonwovens are
often more uniform than fabrics produced with staple fibers (Chhabra 2003).
Tensile strength of fabric by strip method
Breaking force and elongation of textile fabrics (strip method)
ASTM standard D 5035 covers raveled strip as well as cut strip method
for the determination of the breaking force and elongation of textile fabrics.
The raveled strip method is relevant to woven fabrics whereas the cut strip
method is pertinent to nonwovens, felts and coated fabrics. The values stated
in either acceptable metric units or in other units shall be regarded separately
as standard. ASTM standard D5034 test method for the determination of
breaking force and elongation of textile fabrics could also be used to for
measuring the tensile properties of nonwoven structures.
As per ISO 9073-3:1989 Textiles, test methods for nonwovens for the
determination of tensile strength and elongation stated that application of a
force longitudinally to a test piece of a specified length and width at a constant
rate of extension. Determination of breaking strength and elongation could be

derived from the recorded force-elongation curve. In order to meet the explicit
needs of nonwovens, alternative requirements to those listed in ISO 5081 are
established in this part of ISO 9073. These are:
(a) Different sampling procedure;
(b) Constant rate of extension (100 mm/min).
Bursting strength of textile fabrics

Bursting strength of fabric is normally determined by means of measuring the
resistance of the material evaluated to bursting using a pneumatic diaphragm-
bursting tester. This testing procedure is utilized for a various end-use applications
and could be suitable for woven, knitted, as well as nonwoven materials.
• ASTM Standard D6797 – Constant-Rate-of-Extension (CRE) Ball
Burst Test – It depicts the determination of bursting strength of
woven and knitted structures. The values stated in either SI units or
US customary units are to be regarded as standard, but must be used
independently of each other.
• ASTM standard D3786 – Bursting Strength (Diaphragm Method)
Tear strength of fabric by Trapezoid method

ASTM standard D 5733 illustrates the determination of tearing strength
of nonwoven structures using trapezoid method in tensile testing machine.
The Constant Rate of Extension (CRE) tensile testing machine is the ideal
principle for determining trapezoid tearing strength though constant-rate-of-
traverse (CRT) tensile testing machines are used rarely. Hence, the principle
used for testing should be agreed upon between the purchaser and the supplier
before testing the material.
This standard method is applicable for most of the nonwoven fabrics
such as treated or untreated, heavily sized, coated, or resin-treated. But this
method is not suitable for high-loft nonwoven structures. Trapezoid tear
strength determined in this method is the maximum tearing force necessary to
propagate a tear started previously in the testing specimen and is not directly
related to the force required to initiate a tear.
Abrasion resistance of textile fabrics ((ASTM D3884 - 09(2013)e1 Rotary

Platform, Double-Head Method)
The resistance of fabric to abrasion is mainly influenced by the testing
conditions like nature of abradant, variable action of the abradant over the
area of specimen abraded, the tension of the specimen, the pressure between
the specimen and abradant and the dimensional changes in the specimens.
The abrasion resistance of the textile materials is a vital characteristic

which contributes directly to wear performance or durability of the material.
While abrasion resistance and durability are frequently related, the relationship
varies with different end uses, and different factors may be necessary in
determination of predicted durability from specific abrasion data. Alternative
test methods available for determination of abrasion resistance of fabric are
D3885 Test Method for Abrasion Resistance of Textile Fabrics (Flexing and
Abrasion Method), D3886 Test Method for Abrasion Resistance of Textile
Fabrics (Inflated Diaphragm Method), D4158 Test Method for Abrasion
Resistance of Textile Fabrics (Uniform Abrasion Method).
Air permeability of fabric
The air permeability is defined as volume flow rate per unit area of a fabric
when there is a specified pressure differential across two faces of the fabric.
Air permeability of the samples is measured via standard TS 391 EN ISO
9237 method. The measurements should be performed for 10 samples at a
constant pressure drop of 100 Pa (20 cm2 test area).
Water vapour transmission of fabric

The water vapour transmission rate through a nonwoven refers to the mass
of the water vapour (or moisture) at a steady state flow through a thickness
of unit area per unit time. This is taken at a unit differential pressure across
the fabric thickness under specific conditions of temperature and humidity.
Evaporative dish method based on the British Standard, BS 7209 is normally
used to determine the moisture water vapor permeability (MVTR). In this
method, a sample covers a cup containing distilled water in the cup of 46 ml
and a constant air gap was set between the water surface and the sample. The
MVTR in g/m2/day is calculated as
MVTR = 24M/At
Where,
M is the loss in mass of the assembly over the time period t in grams;
t is the time between successive weighing of the assembly in hours and
A is the area of the exposed test fabric (0.005413 m2).
Thermal resistance of fabric (UNI EN 31092)

The thermal resistance of a nonwoven structure in stationary condition (Rct)
is evaluated at standard relative humidity and temperature, by keeping the
nonwoven on an electrically heated (35°C) plate made of sintered steel. The
thermal resistance (m2K°/W) is determined from the value of the electrical
power which is used to maintain the temperature gradient between plate and
room.
Steam resistance of fabric (UNI EN 31092)

Steam resistance testing of nonwoven is carried on a porous plate which is
electrically heated (35°C) and covered by a stream permeable membrane
however impermeable to water. By placing the surface of the material on the
membrane, the heat flow required to necessary to keep the plate temperature
at 35°C gives the value of the water evaporation flow. The steam resistance
(m2Pa/W) of the material is inferred from the water evaporation flow.
Liquid absorption of fabric
In a porous nonwoven the liquid passes through it by means of application of
an external pressure gradient. The most important tests provides the results
such as absorption time, the absorption capacity and the absorption speed of
the nonwoven material compared with the water.
Fire resistance of fabric

The fire resistance which refers to the complex of physical and chemical
changes to which the material is subjected under the action of fire. To evaluate
the fire resistance of nonwoven material, the following parameters have to be
evaluated.
• Inflammability – The ability of a nonwoven to enter and to stay in a
combustion condition, with release of flames, during and/or after the
material has been submitted to the action of a heat.
• Flame propagation speed – The rate at which the flame spreads in a
nonwoven structure
• Calorific value – The thermal power which a unit material mass is
capable to build up during its complete combustion.
• Heat development in the time unit – Quantity of emitted heat in the
time unit by a material during combustion
• Production of smoke and noxious substances – Emission of nonwoven
materials by the material of a visible complex of solid and/or liquid
particles, of gaseous particles and of noxious fumes at specific
combustion conditions.
5.3.4.3 Fiber orientation angle and distribution of fiber orientation

The fibers in a nonwoven fabric are rarely completely randomly orientated,
rather, individual fibers are aligned in various directions mostly in-plane.
These fiber alignments are inherited from the web formation and bonding
processes. The fiber segment orientations in a nonwoven fabric are in two
and three dimensions and the orientation angle can be determined. In the
two-dimensional fabric surface, fiber orientation is measured by the fiber
orientation angle, which is defined as the relative directional position of

individual fibers in the structure relative to the machine direction as shown
in Figure 5.1.
Figure 5.1 Measurement of fiber orientation and orientation angle

(Source: Russel 1997)
The frequency distribution (or statistical function) of the fiber orientation

angles in a nonwoven fabric is known as fiber orientation distribution
(FOD) or ODF (orientation distribution function). Frequency distributions
are obtained by determining the fraction of the total number of fibers (fiber
segments) falling within a series of predefined ranges of orientation angle.
Discrete frequency distributions are used to estimate continuous probability
density functions (Tsai & Bresse 1991; Pourdeyhimi & Nayernouri 1993).
The quantitative evaluation of the anisotropic characteristics of a
nonwoven structure is very significant to attain a precise measurement of
the distribution of fiber orientation. Though numerous methods have been
developed for measurement of fiber orientation, the manual and visual method
provides accurate measurement (Kallmes 1969). Manual measures are carried
out on the angles of the fibrous segments for a given direction, and on the
lengths of the curves of the segments, which have been obtained within a given
value. The optical method which utilizes a dull mask in an optical microscope
to highlight the fibrous segments which are oriented in a known direction
could also be used for determination of fiber orientation. But this method
is of limited use due to longer time consumption in the visual examination.
Chuleigh (1983) developed an optical processing method in which an opaque
mask was used in a light microscope to highlight fiber segments that are
orientated in a known direction.
To determine the distribution of fiber orientation, the computerized
analysis method to monitor fiber orientation in moving web structure, based
on phenomenon of light diffraction and X-ray diffraction could be used.
Other methods of indirect analysis comprises of microwaves, ultrasounds,

light diffraction methods and electric measurements. In recent years, image
analysis technique has been used to discover the fibers and their orientation,
and computerized simulation techniques have been used for the creation of
virtual models of various types of nonwovens. Stenemur (1992) devised
a computer system to monitor fiber orientation on running webs based on
the light diffraction phenomenon. Huang and Bressee (1993) developed a
random sampling algorithm and software to analyse fiber orientation in thin
webs. In this method, fibers are randomly selected and traced to estimate the
orientation angles; test results showed excellent agreement with results from
visual measurements.
3.4.4 Determination of porosity of fiber assembly

The porous nature of the material influences the physical properties,
adsorption, permeability, mechanical resistance, density and other factors. The
pore structure of nonwoven material could be characterized in terms of total
pore volume, pore dimensions, distribution of the pores and its size and of
connectivity among the pores. Porosity is defined as the ratio between the sum
of the volumes of the small cavities, slits and inter-granular spaces existing
inside a material. Porosity provides information on the overall pore volume of
a porous material and is defined as the ratio of the non-solid volume (voids) to
the total volume of the nonwoven fabric. The specific volume fraction of fiber
is defined as the ratio of solid fiber material to the total volume of the fabric.
ρfabric
f (%) = ρ × 100
fibre
ε (%) = (1 – f) × 100
Where ε is the fabric porosity (%), ρfabric is the volume fraction of solid
material (%), (kg/m3) is the fabric bulk density and ρfibre (kg/ m3) is the fiber
density.
A sample of known volume should be cut from the fiber assembly and
then the mass of dry sample should be noted. The sample is then immersed in
n-decane till saturation was achieved. After that, the mass of the wet sample
should be noted down. The difference in the mass of the wet and dry sample
gave the mass of n-decane absorbed. The quotient of this mass to the density
of n-decane resulted in the volume of n-decane absorbed. The quotient of the
volume of n-decane to the volume of the sample resulted in porosity of the
sample (Rengasamy et al. 2011; Dierickx 1999). Moreover, apart from direct
determination of porosity, for resin impregnated composite nonwovens, the
porosity can also be determined with density measurement on basis of the
floating of the material in a liquid or by porosimetry through expansion in a

gas.
Measurement of pore size and porosity
Pore characteristics in a nonwoven fabric are probably the most important
structural features that determine utility of nonwoven fabrics. Pore size and
shape distributions can tremendously influence permeability and filtration
properties of nonwoven fabrics. Pore orientation reflects fiber orientation and
pore placement indicates the structure uniformity, and therefore, both have
fundamental impacts on fabric mechanical properties such as strength and
elongation (Pouredyhimi & Xu 1993). An increasing use of nonwoven fabrics
in various areas has intensified the necessity to develop efficient and reliable
methods for measurement of pore size, shape and other pore characteristics.
Three pore diameters, namely
• equivalent,
• hydrodynamic and
• thickness (i.e., opening diameter), were defined and measured
The force required to drive a liquid out of a capillary is dependent upon
the diameter of the capillary as well as the surface tension of the liquid
and its contact angle with the material of the capillary. If a specimen of a
porous material having capillaries is saturated with a liquid and rotated in a
centrifuge, the force acting on the liquid is dependent upon the speed and the
geometry of rotation. In this apparatus, a sample impregnated with a known
liquid is rotated in a predetermined manner at the incremental constant speeds
and the volume of liquid driven out of the sample is measured for each speed
of rotation. From this information, a size-volume distribution ‘d’ porosity of
the sample and, therefore, of the material from which the sample was derived
can be made. Alternate methods to measure the pore dimensions and their
distributions can be measured by
• Measuring pore characteristics includes sieving dry (ASTM D4751,
1987)
• Optical methods
• Determining the gas absorption and expansion
• Determination of electrical resistance
• Porometry
• Image analysis (the application of image systems in analysis of
nonwoven structure has greatly increased.
The size of the opening pore is determined by passing the spherical
glass marbles of several dimensions ranging from 50 to 500 µ through the
largest pore dimension on specific conditions. Pore dimensions are vital to

conclude filtration and retention characteristics of nonwoven geotextiles and
authorize their classification as filtering materials (Bhatia & Smith 1996).
The constriction pore size is different from apparent opening pore size of
the nonwoven and represents the dimension of the smallest part of a flow
channel in a pore; it is indicative of fluid transport through a nonwoven, and
its value is related to the retention level and to the filtration characteristics of
the nonwoven (Votava 1982).
The image analysis technique could be utilized to measure the apparent
opening (AOS) of the nonwoven structure. Thin sections of the material
impregnated with epoxy resins should be prepared and then the sample is cut
and analysed with the help of an optical microscope or SEM to obtain photos
for image analysis (Xu 1996; Aydilek et al. 2002).
5.3.4.5 Absorbency and wicking rate using GATS

Gravimetric absorbency testing system (GATS) is used to determine the
absorbency or wicking as a function of time of absorption (ASTM D5802,
TAPPI T-561). The schematic diagram of this instrument is shown in Figure
5.2. This testing method provides the lateral wicking capability of a material, or
the capacity of the material to take-up liquid impulsively in the perpendicular
direction of its plane which is normally known as demand wettability (Behery
1993). It is determined by the amount of water drawn from a water filled
reservoir through a tube connected to a porous, sintered glass test plate
designed to imitate sweating skin. The test plate self adjusts to maintain a zero
hydrostatic pressure differential relative to the water reservoir; water is drawn
into the test fabric via capillary action (Song 2011; Yoo & Barker 2005).
Figure 5.2 Schematic diagram of GATS tester
The following measurements have to be noted for the calculation of

various parameters.
Wd – Dry weight of the conditioned sample specimen, grams

Ww – Wet weight of the sample specimen at the end of the test, grams
V – Amount of water passed from the reservoir during 1000 seconds,
grams
T – Time, minutes.
Absorption parameters determined from the above measurements are
• Absorbent capacity (C) in grams – It is the amount of water contained
in the sample at the end of the test.
• Absorbency rate (Q) in g/min – It denotes the rapid rate of fluid loss
which is indicated by the high slope in the initial phase of the test.
• Evaporation parameters calculated from the above measurements are
• Percent evaporation (Ep) – It indicates the ratio of evaporated
moisture to moisture absorbed.
5.3.4.6 Contact angle measurement

As an interface exists between a liquid and a solid, the angle between the
surface of the liquid and the outline of the contact surface is known as the
contact angle (θ). The contact angle often known as wetting angle is a measure
of the wettability of a solid by a liquid. The determination of contact angle
is vital wherever the intensity of the phase contact between liquid and solid
materials are needed to be evaluated such as for coating, printing, hydrophobic
or hydrophilic coating, bonding, dispersing, etc.
Figure 5.3 Contact angle on different materials (Source: http://www.kruss.de/)

In the case of complete wetting of material by a liquid, then the contact

angle is 0°. And between 0° and 90°, the solid is described as wettable
and above 90° it is described as not wettable material. For ultra-hydrophobic
materials known as lotus effect, the contact angle comes close to the
theoretical limit of 180°. The contact angles of different materials are shown in
Figure 5.3.
According to Young’s equation, a relationship between the contact angle
(θ), the surface tension of the liquid (σl), the interfacial tension between
liquid and solid (σsl) and the surface free energy (σs) of the solid is shown in
Figure 5.4 and is given by the equation
σs = σsl + σl.cos θ
Figure 5.4 Schematic diagram of contact angle (Source: http://www.kruss.de/)
Several testing methods are existing for the measurement of contact angles
for liquids against solid materials. Standard optical and Wilhelmy methods are
complicated or impossible to solve if a sample swells when exposed to the
liquid used for testing (Shang et al. 2008). Washburn theory specified that if
a porous solid material is brought into contact with a liquid in a manner that
the solid is not sunken in the liquid, however is slightly touching the surface
of the liquid, then the rise of liquid into the pores of the solid material due to
capillary action will be governed by the following equation:
m2 η
cos θ =
t ρ2 σc
For carrying out a Washburn experiment, a liquid of known density (ρ),
viscosity (η), and surface tension (σ) should be taken for the experiment. By
looking into the above equation, it is observed that the mass of liquid which
rises into the porous solid material could be monitored as a function of time.
Then two unknown parameters remaining are the contact angle of the liquid
on the solid material (θ) and the solid material constant (c). On the other
hand, if a Washburn experiment is carried out with a liquid which is having
a contact angle of θ = 0° (cos θ = 1) on the solid material, then the solid
material constant (c) is the only unknown parameter which can be determined.
N-hexane chemical is a better choice as the liquid for determining material
constants, due to its low surface tension (18.4 mN/m) at room temperature.
After the calculation of the solid material constant (c) of a particular solid
material, a second sample of the solid can be evaluated for wettability by
means of another kind of liquid. The solid material constant determined by the
N-hexane method is normally used in the Washburn equation, in combination
with m2/t data obtained during testing with the second liquid. This permits
determination of the contact angle between the second liquid and the solid. C is
related to tortuosity (r5) and square of number of pores (Rengasamy et al. 2011).
Washburn adsorption tests could be easily and automatically carried out
on a numerous porous materials using a Krüss Processor Tensiometer K100
in combination with Krüss LabDesk software in the Adsorption mode. This
solid material constant (c) contains information related to the pore structure,
pore size, and number of pores in the solid sample. This must remain constant
during an experiment for the resulting contact angle measurements to be
correct. For swelling solids the pore structure will change, creating a change
in the c-factor (Rengasamy et al. 2011).
5.3.4.7 Blood penetration resistance

ASTM standard F-1670 is used to assess the resistance of nonwoven structure
used in protective clothing to penetration by synthetic blood under conditions
of continuous liquid contact. Protective clothing evaluations are based on
visual recognition of synthetic blood penetration. This testing method is not
always efficient in analyzing the protective clothing which is thicker, where
the inner liners can readily absorb the synthetic blood. Hence, this method is
used for selection of protective clothing materials for subsequent testing with
a more sophisticated barrier test as described in Test Method F1671.
This procedure will not be appropriate for all forms of blood-borne
pathogen exposure and the appropriateness of this test method for the
particular application have to be analysed. This test method deals with only
the performance of materials or material constructions (example seam) used
in protective clothing and not concentrates on design, overall construction and
components, or interfaces of garments, or other factors which could influence
the overall protection provided by the protective clothing (Hutten 2007).
5.3.4.8 Common testing parameters and standards for nonwoven

materials used in various application fields
Common testing parameters and standards for nonwoven materials used in
various application fields are given in Table 5.5.
Table 5.5 Common testing parameters and standards for nonwoven application in
different areas
S. no. Description Testing standard

1 Medical and hygiene Bacterial filtration efficiency % (ASTM F 2101)
textiles This test method measures the percent efficiency at which the face
1. Face mask mask filters bacteria passing through the mask. The maximum
• Air permeability filtration efficiency that can be determined by this method is 99.9%
• Bacterial Barrier efficiency towards bacteria and liquids
filtration SS 8760019 EDANA 190.0-8, ASTM F 1670-97, ASTM F 1671-97,
efficiency % DIN EN 20811
• Splash Bacterial loading of products - DIN EN 1174
resistance Splash Resistance (ASTM F1862)
This test method is used to evaluate the resistance of medical face
masks to penetration by the impact of a small volume (2 ml) of a
high velocity stream of synthetic blood. Medical face mask pass/
fail determinations are based on visual detection of synthetic blood
penetration
2. Surgical gown Level 1 – AATCC42:2000 Impact penetration test <4.5 g
• Spray Impact Level 2 – AATCC42:2000 Impact penetration test ≤1.0 g
Penetration Test AATCC 127:1998 Hydrostatic pressure test ≥20 cm
• H y d r o s t a t i c Level 3 – AATCC42:2000 Impact penetration test ≤1.0 g
Head Test AATCC 127:1998 Hydrostatic pressure test ≥50 cm
• Resistance to Level 4 – ASTM F1670 Synthetic blood test – Pass
synthetic blood ASTM F1671:2003 Viral penetration test – Pass
• Viral penetration
resistance
3. Surgical drape • Drape
• Air permeability
• Weight per unit area
• Breaking strength and elongation of textile fabrics
• Flammability
• Anti bacterial activity assessment (Qualitative)
• Antibacterial activity assessment (Quantitative)
• Thermal resistance
• Linting test
4. Hospital bed linen • Weight/square metre
• Tensile strength
• Tear strength
• Antibacterial activity assessment (Qualitative)
• Antibacterial activity assessment (Quantitative)
5. Baby diaper • Speed of Absorption – Liquid strike through time – It is the time
taken for a known volume simulated urine applied to the surface
of test piece of non woven cover stock, which is in contact with an
underlying absorbent pad, to pass through non woven.
• Re-wet – It is the ability of diaper cover stock to resist the transport
back onto the skin of a liquid which has already penetrated the
cover stock
Absorbent Capacity – ASTM F 1819-97
Absorbent Retention – ISO 9073-6
Contd...
Contd...

6. Incontinence • Volume of leaked liquid
product • Absorption rate
• Wicking rate
• Wettability
• Permeability
7. Sanitary napkins • Absorbency
• pH value
• Disposability
2 House hold products • Determination of thickness of textile fabrics – Floor coverings (DIN
53 855-3: 1979-01)
• Determination of thickness loss of textile floor coverings at static
load (DIN 54 316: 1983-10)
• Determination of appearance retention of textile floor coverings –
Tetra pod-walker-test (DIN 54 326: 1984-01)
• Electrostatic behavior – Determination of electrostatic charge of
textile floor coverings by machine (DIN 54 345-3 1985-07)
3 Protective clothing • EN 469 – Protective clothing for fire fighters – Requirements and
test methods for protective clothing for fire fighting
• EN 1486 – Protective clothing for fire fighters – Test methods and
requirements for reflective clothing for specialized fire fighting.
• EN 470-1 – Protective clothing for use in welding and allied
processes – Part 1: General requirements
• EN 531 – Protective clothing for industrial workers exposed to
heat (excluding fire fighters’ and welders’ clothing)
• EN 533 – Protective clothing – Protection against heat and flame –
Limited flame spread materials and material assemblies
• EN 348 – Protective clothing – Test method: determination of
behavior of materials on impact of small splashes of molten metal
• EN 366 – Protective clothing – Test method: determination of
behavior of materials on impact of small splashes of molten Metal
• EN 367 – Protective clothing – Protection against heat and fire –
Method of determining heat transmission on exposure to flame
• EN 373 – Protective clothing – Assessment of resistance of
materials to molten metal splash
• EN 532 – Protective clothing – Protection against heat and flame
– Test method for limited flame spread
• EN 702 – Protective clothing – Protection against heat and flame
Test method: Determination of the contact heat transmission
through protective clothing or its materials
4 Geo textiles • The mass per unit area is determined by cutting a minimum of 10
• Mass per unit area specimens, each at least 100 mm square, and then weighing them
(ASTM D5261-92) on an accurate scale.
• Thickness (ASTM • The average thickness of a geotextile is measured using a

D 5199) thickness gauge under a gradually applied, specified pressure.
The ASTM specified a pressure of 20 kPa applied through a
circular loading tip with a diameter of 6.35 mm.
• Breaking (grab • This is the benchmark strength test used in the geotextile industry.
strength) (ASTM D It determines the force or load at which the geotextile breaks and
5034-95) elongates before it breaks.
Contd...
Contd...

• Wide Width • The wide width tensile test provides a more reliable assessment
Strength (WW of geotextile strength. So for critical applications such as
Tensile) and reinforcement design, it is the method engineers use to calculate
Elongation (ASTM the required tensile strength.
D 4595)
• Tensile Creep • This test is applicable to geosynthetics used in steepened slopes
(ASTM D5262 and and retaining walls. Tensile creep tests are carried out by keeping
D6992) a load on a geotextile sample for up to 10,000 hours while the
samples are gripped across their full width. The creep deformation
of the sample is monitored over the test period. From these
results, the time to rupture at various load levels or the load level
that will cause rupture at a given time can be determined.
• Trapezoid tearing • Geotextile samples are cut in the shape of an isosceles trapezoid
strength (ASTM and then a small cut is made on one side of the trapezoid. The two
D4533-04) non-parallel sides of the geotextile are gripped in parallel flat faced
clamps in a manner which allows the tear to propagate as the jaws
move apart and the required strain rate is applied. A continuous
tear is propagated in this way and the maximum force recorded.
• Mullen Burst • This test determines the force required to rupture the geotextile
(Diaphragm Burst) as it is inflated. An inflatable rubber membrane is used to deform
(ASTM D3786) the geotextile into the shape of a hemisphere through a 30 mm
diameter ring until it bursts. Due to a small sample size and a high
variation in the test procedure, the results can vary widely. It is
no longer recognized by ASTM as an acceptable geotextile test.
• Puncture strength • This is an index test for puncture resistance of geotextiles. A
(Pin puncture) geotextile sample is fixed without any tension between circular
(ASTM D4833) plates of a slip-free ring clamp and the clamp is secured in a
tensile/compression testing machine. A force is exerted by a metal
puncture rod attached to a load indicator against the center of the
unsupported portion of the geotextile sample until rupture occurs.
The maximum force recorded is the value reported. It is no longer
recognized by AASHTO M288 as an acceptable geotextile test
and has been replaced by CBR Puncture.
• CBR Puncture • To eliminate the high degree of variability from the Mullen Burst
(Static) (ASTM (3786) and Pin Puncture (4833) test methods, Static (CBR)
D6241) Puncture Strength (ASTM D 6241) was developed to replace
them. CBR Puncture is an index of puncture resistance that
measures the force required to push a flat ended plunger through
a geotextile.
• UV Resistance • UV Resistance is a measure of the potential for the deterioration of
(ASTM D4355) tensile strength in the fabric due to exposure to ultraviolet light and
water. It is typically expressed at 500 hours exposure.
• Friction (ASTM D • The force required to cause sliding between the fabric and soil is
5321) determined for different normal stresses and the shear strength
parameters are obtained.
• Apparent Opening • A.O.S. is an important parameter in assessing a geotextiles soil
Size (ASTM filtration potential. Spherical solid glass beads are dry sieved
D4751) through a geotextile for a specified time and at a specified
frequency of vibration. The amount of beads retained by the
geotextile sample is then measured. The test is carried out on a
range of sizes of glass beads. The apparent opening size is the
pore size at which 90% of the glass beads are retained on and
within the fabric.
Contd...
Contd...

• Permittivity (ASTM • Permittivity is the method by which water moves through the
D4491) fabric. It measures the quantity of water which can pass through a
geotextile perpendicular to the surface of the geotextile material.
It can be measured by a constant head or falling head test
method. In case of constant head test, a head of 50 mm water is
maintained on the geotextile throughout the test. The quantity of
flow is measured versus time. In the falling head test, a column of
water is allowed to flow through the geotextile and reading of head
changes versus time is taken.
• Permeability • This is derived from the permittivity test using the nominal
(ASTM D 4491) thickness of the geotextile. The permittivity is divided by the
thickness to determine permeability.
• Water flow rate • The amount of water that travels through the geotextile expressed
(ASTM D 4491) in gallons per minute per square foot.
• Transmissivity • The volumetric flow rate of water per unit width of a geotextile
(ASTM D 4716) specimen per unit gradient in a direction parallel to the plane of
the specimen.
• Percent Open Area • The sum of the open area of a sample of a geotextile, divided by
(CW-02215) the total area of the sample and expressed in percent (Area of
Openings/Total AreaX100).
• Pore size - ASTM
D4451-04 (D6767-
02)
Filter media • Basis weight – ISO 9073-1, TAPPI T410; Volatiles and Moisture
Content – TAPPI T550; Formaldehyde Content – AATCC-112;
Thickness – TAPPI T411, ISO 9073-2; Air permeability – TAPPI
T460, ISO5636-5; Density and Bulk; Stiffness – TAPPI T543, T489
• Solidity and Porosity; Pore size and structure – ASTM F316-86
• Dry tensile strength – ASTM D828, ISO 1924, TAPPI T494; Wet
tensile strength – TAPPI T494; Grab tensile strength - ASTM
D4632; Burst strength – ASTM D774, ASTM D3786, TAPPI T403
• Tear strength - Tonque tear - ASTM D2261; Trapezoid tear - ASTM
D46 J2; Elmendorf tear – TAPPI T414
• Water repellency – TAPPI T558
• Flammability – TAPPI T461, NFPA – 701, ASTM D2863
• Efficiency of filter
– Filtration efficiency
– Single pass efficiency
– Cumulative efficiency
– Micron rating
– Multi-pass efficiency - ISO 16889-99
– Beta rating
– Fractional efficiency - ASHRAE 52.2-1999
– MERV rating - ASHRAE 52.2-1999
– Arrestance
– ASHRAE dust-spot efficiency
– CEN ratings – CEN EN779
– HEPA and ULPA ratings – EN 1822
– Aerosol efficiency penetrometers
• Particle filtration efficiency (PFE) - ASTM F2299-03
• Bacteria filtration efficiency (BFE) - ASTM F2101-01
• Viral filtration efficiency (VFE) - MIL-M-36954C and ASTM F2101.
• Pressure drop
• Filter life testing
References
1. AATCC Technical manual (2013) Test methods for textiles. American Association of
Textile Chemists and Colorists (AATCC).
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6
Applications of nonwovens
Abstract: This chapter provides the detailed information about the application
of nonwoven in different application fields. The application potential of nonwoven
in apparel sector and its advantages and challenges are discussed in detail. The
application of nonwoven in agriculture like mulching, weed and root control and
in geo textiles for separation, filtration, drainage and reinforcement applications
were also discussed. The applications of nonwoven in medical & hygiene sector,
automotives, wet and dry filtration areas, roofing and construction and in home
textiles are also discussed in detail.
Key words: Nonwoven, geotextiles, automotive, apparel, filtration, medical,
hygiene
6.1 Introduction
As per the research report in light of the worldwide business sector for
nonwoven materials and products, published by US-based Transparency
Market Research, the nonwoven business will develop at a CAGR of 6.7%
between 2013 and 2019. The nonwoven market, which earned incomes worth
US$28,783.8 million in 2012, will hoard incomes worth US$45,363.7 million
in 2019 (Zhang 2007; Zhang 2011). The report articulates that an expanded
worldwide interest for nonwoven materials and items from the medical and
health care industry is generally in charge of the unfaltering development of
the business sector sooner rather than later.
The nonwoven products are categorized into polypropylene, nylon,
polyester, bi-component fibers, nano-strands and cellulosic. Of these,
polypropylene nonwoven fabric held the biggest share of business sector income
and had total assets of US$16,438.7 million in 2012. A tremendous application
base of polypropylene nonwoven fabrics in the worldwide business sector will
keep on heightening its demand, prompting the segment’s development at a
CAGR of 6.7% somewhere around 2013 and 2019 to achieve a business worth
of US$25,808.2 million by 2019 (Zhang 2008). The nonwoven application is
further divided into disposable and durables. Of the key application of nonwoven
materials and products, durables gathered the biggest offer of income gained by
the business in 2012. This segment created income worth US$17,716.0 million
in 2012 and is relied upon to achieve US$28,335.6 million in 2019, enrolling a
CAGR of 7.0% between 2013 and 2019 (Ahmed & Zaman 2007).
The nonwoven consumption of different product groups is shown in

Figure 6.1. Wet laid nonwoven fabrics represent the major area of the
nonwoven industry. The final products are made into a mixed bag of products
including apparel, therapeutic packs and filters. Spunbonded nonwovens are
strong and tough and are basically utilized for the manufacture of medical
and hygiene items, automotive and furniture applications, and geotextile and
construction markets. Carded nonwovens are produced using staple fibers
which are carded, before heating and bonding (Pourdeyhimi 2010). The carded
nonwovens are used for wipes, hygiene products and filters. Needled felts are
manufactured by hooking and trapping fibers, which are then compressed to
form the fabric. These fabrics are essentially utilized as a part of the furniture,
filtering and automotive industries.
Figure 6.1 Nonwoven consumption of different product groups

(Source: www.accuval.net)
Nonwovens are imperviousness to tears, soil, chemical, puncture, UV

light exposure, exceptional quality, breathability and barrier properties at low
cost make them a perfect possibility for specialized applications. Fabrics made
by nonwoven process can be made up to five times tougher than conventional
textiles of the same weight. They can be intended to be exceptionally abrasion
and heat resistant. A few fabrics can withstand high temperatures for instance;
mechanical fortified glass filaments can be utilized at working temperatures
up to 1000°F and silica materials can be utilized around 2000°F (Adanur
1995; Stanley & Dewitt 1906).
Table 6.1 Application fields of nonwoven fabrics (Source: Iqbal 2009)
Agrotech Buildtech Clothtech Geotech Hometech Indutech

• C rop covers, • R oofing and tile • oot liners,
B • A
sphalt overlay, • C arpet • E lectrical
• Seed blankets, underlay, • Parcel shelves, • Soil stabilization, components, components
• Weed control • Underslating, • Heat shields, • Drainage, • Furniture (cable instructions,
fabrics, • Thermal and noise • Shelf trim, molded sedimentation and components, floppy disc liners,
• Greenhouse insulation, bonnet liners, erosion control, • Consumer wipes insulation tapes and
shading, • House wrap, • Boot floor covering, fuel/ • Pond liner, (baby, personal micro filters),
• Root bags, • Facings for plaster oil filters, • Impregnation base, and household • Filtration and
• Biodegradable board, • Headliners, rear parcel • Drainage channel wipes), and separation (air,
plant pots, • Pipe wrap, shelves, airbags, cabin liners, industrial wipes liquid and gases),
• Capillary matting • Concrete moulding air filters, • Separation, (food service, • Satellite dishes,
cover, layers, • Engine intake and reinforcement, industrial general, • Clothing surfacing
• Protection and • Foundations exhaust air filters, filtration, offshore land industrial specialty, tissues/veils,
collection, and ground • Silencer pads, insulation reclamation, and medical • Conveyor belts,
• Fishing and tying stabilization, materials, • Roadside, railside, river wipes), • Reinforced plastics,
• Vertical drainage, • Car covers, under and canal banks, and • Air and water PVC substrates,
• Protection and padding, car mats, tapes, reservoirs filtration, • Flame barriers,
display, • Backing for tufted • Interior design, • Noise absorbents,
• Textile construction, carpets, • Drapes, covers, • Battery separators
• Building • Seat covers, door trim ticking, and ( alkaline, acid and
components, and insulation, composites fuel cells),
Applications of nonwovens
• Reinforcements • Floor-coverings, • Anti-slip matting,
and high quality protection and lifting and pulling
wallpapers composites
Medtech Mobiltech Packtech Protech Sporttech Oekotech

• D rapes and • S hoe components, • B ulk packaging with • C hemical and biological • L uggage • E nvironmental
gowns, • Insulation and predefined 3D structure, protection, components, protection,
• Sterile wrap, structure, • Scrap and disposable, • Particulate protection, • Sports equipment, • Exhaust air and
• Swabs (operating • Sewing products, • Spacer and tying and • Flame retardant, cut • Sportswear, waste water
room and ward • Interlining, absorbent food pads resistant, shields • Wipes, filtration,
use) and dressing, • Cleanroom and gowns worn in • Covers, • Dust collection,
• Cleaning, garments, and emergency response, • Disposable • Leak oil absorbent,
• Coverstock, • Shoe and leather • Chemical handling, and camping gas and odor
• Wound-care, goods applications hazardous waste equipment removals
213
• Protective apparel, control,
• Bedding and • Cleaning and filtration
sheets and masks
The common application areas of nonwoven in technical textiles and

their market share are shown in Table 6.1 and Figure 6.2 respectively and the
application of nonwovens manufactured from different technologies are given
in Table 6.2. The market shares of nonwoven in different product areas are
Table 6.2 Application of different types of nonwoven fabrics

Needle-punched nonwovens
Geotextiles Automotive Hometech Sportech Furniture Other technical felts

fabrics
Road and Head liners, Carpets, wall Shoe, bags, Shoulder Polishing felts, abrasive
railway door trim, coverings, sport goods pads, felts, mineral fiber felts for
construction, parcel shelves, decor waddings, insulation
dams, roofing carpets, felts, wipe, mattresses
and drain felts, insulation felts, blankets
shore protection gas filters
Spunlace nonwovens
Hospital Medical Sanitary Household Industrial Automotive Other

products products textiles products applications
Surgical gowns Wound Baby wipes, Cleaning wipes, Industrial Headliners, Interlinings,
and drapes, dressings, facial clean protection fabric wipes, cleaning Coating
operational gauze, wet wipe, face for electronics, filtration, wipes substrates
cover sheets, tissue, cotton masks, home furnishing roofing, water for synthetic
bed sheets, products, pads disposable fabrics, table insulation, leather
towels pants cloths and protective
napkins, apparel, liquid
curtains absorbents
Stitch-bonded nonwovens
Automotives Upholstery Sport tech Apparel Other applications
Surface covers Covering Fabric in Lining For insulation, soft toy

for various material for training for winter material, filtration materials
molded mattresses shoes, shoe garments. as well as packing materials.
components, and beds, lining
parcel shelves decorative
and head fabric, base
liners material are
suitable for the
manufacture of
blankets
Chemical bonded nonwovens
Apparel Sanitary Home tech

purpose purpose
Interlining Some types Filling in quilted fabrics, for duvets, for some upholstery
fabric for of filter fabric,
textile clothing, in some cover
disposable/ stock and in
protective wiping cloths
clothing
Thermal bonded nonwovens
Designing Upholstery Food Medical textile

processing
Composites Interlinings, Food Cover stock for sanitary products, wiping cloths
and laminates Carpet coverings,
backings tea bags
Applications of nonwovens 215
Figure 6.2 Application of nonwovens in technical textiles (Source: David Rigby

Associates, Technical textiles and nonwovens, World market forecasts to 2010)
Figure 6.3 Market share of nonwovens in different application areas

(Source: EDAA, INDA)
6.2 Application of nonwovens in apparel

Protective clothing manufacturing, mainly against fire and chemicals,
is the major driver of the apparel manufacturing market for nonwoven
fabrics. Nonwoven fabrics are further utilized for manufacturing of masks,
surgical gowns and also as protective clothing against chemicals, pesticides,
manufacturing electronics, and in all laboratories.
Nonwoven provides a numerous advantages contrast to woven fabrics,

particularly with respect to cost benefits, owing to its direct fiber to fabric
formation process, high volume of production and less manpower requirement.
This difference in cost is sufficient for them to completely replace woven
fabrics for fashion apparel applications, if they were not suffered by the distinct
disadvantages in terms of their mechanical properties, poor drape or flexibility
(Pourdeyhimi 2010). Design and production of a nonwoven fabric to mimic a
woven cloth for apparel uses have to meet the following requirements such as
• physical requirements
• thermo-physiological requirements
• biomechanical requirements
• psychological requirements
In the nonwoven, the combined contribution of neighbouring fibers
depends totally on the extensibility of fiber and bond and is accordingly very
restricted. The mechanism of nonwoven fabric fitting is represented by the
fiber rotation, fiber straightening, bond rotation, bond expansion and fiber
extension. The nonwoven can’t simply accommodate in-plane compression
without buckling as it does not have the easy shear path. The incapability of
nonwovens to distribute the stress at a tear, leads to premature breakdown
in outer wear. To put it plainly, the nonwoven structure is not in a superior
position to withstand tears, stitch gatherings and transfer of stresses in a
fabricated garment in day to day service (Deepti Gupta 2011). The solutions
recommended to improve the performance of nonwoven for apparel
applications are given below (Grisset 2005):
• The presentation of highly elastic and tough fibers and similarly
elastic and strong bonds needs to make nonwovens more sturdy and
strong.
• Darting of the strands between the two surfaces of the fabric and
presenting bonding just at the midplane. This could improve the
strength and flexibility of nonwoven.
• Extra fiber length between bonding points must allow higher
deformability and consequently decreased the fabric stiffness.
• The chance of attaining greater degrees of filament freedom of motion
would be improved with increasing space between the bonding points.
• Better fabric drapeability could be achieved by the use of binders
with enhanced mechanical properties.
• The durable and washable nonwovens by need must be hydro-
entangled. Hydro-entangling produces fabrics that are flexible, soft
and conformable, alike traditional woven fabrics.
Few of the nonwoven fabrics developed with various kinds of fibers are
mentioned below:
• Cotton-polyester blended nonwoven fabric
• Polyester nonwoven fabric
• Silk nonwoven fabric
• Wool nonwoven fabric
• Polyester durable nonwoven fabric
A 100% polyester nonwoven fabric can be manufactured from nonwoven
web subjected to hydro-entanglement process. The nonwoven web is then
gone through an image processing element which imparts a final design to the
web. The web is passed through a three water jet nozzle sections at a speed of
around 35 ypm (yards per minute) and at 150 bar entangling pressure. After
hydro-entangling or spun lacing process, the binder which contains elastomeric
mixture is applied while the web is passed through an application station.
The web is then passed through a sequence of drying organized one over
the other which are worked at around 310°C. Before utilization of nonwoven
fabric for garment manufacturing process, the fabric should be pre-treated
with a softening agent followed by jet dyeing and mechanical compaction
to a level of 7%. Mechanical finishing treatments like sanforizing, sueding,
napping, etc., can be carried out prior to or subsequent to printing and dyeing
(Kasemeyer 2007; Lamb & Costanza 1975).
Figure 6.4 Fashion apparel produced from nonwoven fabrics

(Source: Dhange et al. 2012)
Freudenberg Nonwovens, German based top nonwoven manufacturer

has introduced Evolon®, a spunlace bi-component nonwoven fabric made
from polyamide and polyester nonwoven fabric to be used as an apparel
outer fabric. It provides thermal insulation, washability, ultraviolet protection,

breathability, wind resistance and quick-drying. Precision Custom Coatings
LLC, one of the leading manufacturers of nonwoven and coated fabrics for
apparel and industrial applications, has recently launched the Comfort Stretch
Thermal Bond Nonwoven fabric, which offers good stretch, elastic recovery
as well as comfort for the wearer (Dhange et al. 2012). The fashion apparel
produced from nonwoven fabrics are shown in Figure 6.4.
6.3 Application of nonwovens in agriculture

The principle application areas of textiles in agriculture comprise farming,
animal husbandry and horticulture. The most essential necessities of textile
for agriculture applications are resistance to climate and micro-organisms.
Nonwoven covers and blankets shield the plants against temperature
variations, accordingly creating the base for earlier yield with better results.
The nonwoven fabrics are permeable to air as well as water; UV stabilized
and has resistance to destructive micro-organisms (Horrocks & Anand 2000;
Adanur 1995).
Nonwovens are normally have controlled light penetration, high
breathability and strong strike through. The rate of light penetration is over
80%, the small pores ensure high air exchange rate when covered with
nonwovens. These benefit the photosynthesis of the plants. Nonwoven can be
watered and steam osmosis so that the covered area will not have too much
moisture condensation. The moisture retention under strong sun light is for
the benefit of plant growth. The temperature and moisture can be increased
when the plants are covered with nonwovens in winter. High temperature and
harm of strong ultra-violet rays can be prevented with nonwoven by covering
the plant in summer. As an earth cover or second layer in a green house helps
temperature retention, and as a cover it also protects vegetables and fruits
from insects pests.
The market for agrotech nonwovens comprise of weed control,
greenhouse shading, crop protection, mulching, turf protection products, crop
covers, nursery overwintering, root control, containers, capillary matting,
protection from frost, biodegradable plant pots and insects. In horticulture, the
nonwoven material is utilized as a ground cover to slow down weed growth,
shield against the frost, wind and heavy rain and protection against dangerous
insects. Nonwovens are utilized efficiently for optimizing the productivity
of crops, greenery enclosures and nurseries. Their shielding nature lessens
the requirement for pesticides and keeps physical manual work to a base.
Geotextiles are perfectly customized items and the rundown of utilizations is
ceaseless. The utilization of hydro seeding or seed-impregnated fabric can be
an efficient and effective method to create vegetation. Hydro seeding, once in

a while alluded to as hydro mulching, is a quick, proficient and economical
process of planting grass. The rate of disintegration relies on upon elements,
for example, atmosphere and temperature and also the consistency of the soil
(Chapman 2010). The nonwoven fabric must be appropriately customized and
configured based on the consistency and the fineness of the soil.
6.3.1 Crop covers

The nonwoven covering fabric used for protecting the plants from frost is
shown in Figure 6.5. The fabric of 17–20 gsm polypropylene spunbond which
is properly UV stabilized to withstand long exposure to sunlight is generally
used. The width of the fabric normally varies from 2.4 m to 6 m.
Figure 6.5 Nonwoven frost covering fabric (Source: www.ecvv.com)
The fabric used has several functions depending on the situation

• Protection of crops against severe sunlight in hot conditions
• Maintaining moisture under the cover
• Physically prevent the crop from insects, pests and birds
• Protect the plant from severe frost in cold climates
• Protect the plant from hail storms.
These kind of preventing actions resulted in faster early and late spring
vegetation, increase in the yield of fruits, vegetables and flowers, minimization
of pesticides and fertilizers.
6.3.2 Mulching
The nonwoven mulching fabric aids the farmers to save valuable fruits,
flowers and vegetables. Normally, spunbond nonwovens are best suited for
this kind of applications. The nonwoven mulching fabric spread on the soil
is shown in Figure 6.6. Nonwovens made form polyester and polypropylene
with very low open area and reasonable strength are generally utilized.
Figure 6.6 Nonwoven mulching fabric (Source: http://www.pegas.cz/en/agriculture)
6.3.3 Overwintering nursery

The utilization of nonwoven yield spreads (Figure 6.7) on the area
builds yields and enhances crop quality. Light, adaptable sheets are laid
over seed beds, making a microclimate in which the warmth and humidity
are controlled. Plant development is quickened, and the plants are shielded
from unfriendly climate conditions. In capillary mat applications, nonwovens
endorse the development of blooms and vegetables in nurseries by offering
soilless growing methods (Ramkumar & Arunachalam 2009).
Figure 6.7 Nonwoven blanket fabric (Source: http://www.pegas.cz/en/agriculture)
The gap between the intersecting fibers of nonwoven fabrics are large
enough to permit air and water to enter the fabric and contact the crop;
however, sufficiently little to keep out insects. The shielding allows plants
and crops to grow without the need to utilize pesticides and herbicide.
Synthetic fibers are the preferred raw material for agricultural products.
Polyester and Polypropylene are two main fibers utilized in agrotech because of
the superior strength and flexibility. The utilization of spunbonded nonwovens
is growing in agrotech compared to woven fabrics. The bonding method
mostly used is needle-punching since needle punched nonwoven fabric is
flexible with adequate strength and higher elongation. They can be produced
with a superior control on the porosity and permeability of the fabric.
6.3.4 Green houses

The function of green houses is to maintain the moisture and temperature
balance to provide conductive weather conditions for growth. Green houses
are extensively utilized for growing vegetables and flowers. Nonwovens
laminated with films are normally used in green house covers to provide better
barrier properties. Typically green house covers are used for
• Production of off-seasonal flowers, vegetables
• Production of roses, carnation, cut-flowers, etc.
• Plant propagation, raising of seedlings
• Primary and secondary hardening nursery of tissue-cultured plant
• Growth /production of rare plants, orchids / herbs, medicinal plants
6.3.5 Weed control

Nonwovens are used worldwide for this end use due to low cost and
effectiveness. Typically black pigmented spunbond polypropylene of weight
40–60 gsm is used for this purpose. The area on which weeds are likely to
grow is covered by spunbond that do not allow light for any vegetation to take
place. A cut out is made in the spunbond only where the seedling is located.
This ensures undisturbed growth of the crops ensuring their definite and quick
growth without the attack from weeds. In many parts of the world chemical
spray for weed control is prohibited and physical covering with nonwovens is
the only way the weed growth can be controlled in the fields or even in house
hold gardens.
6.3.6 Root control

This is a materials used for root control barrier in trenches, alongside
hardscape structures such as sidewalks, curbing, pavements, concrete and
building foundations to prevent structural damage due to root penetration.

The product functions to provide both a physical and chemical barrier zone to
restrict vegetative root encroachment. Fibers used in the manufacture of root
control barrier substrate fabric are generally PP or polyethylene spunbond and
a UV stabilizer. Typically 100–130 gsm spunbond material is used for this end
use. All products are made of a durable nonwoven, polypropylene geotextile
fabric with permanently attached nodules containing Trifluralin. Trifluralin
prevents root tip cells from dividing, which is the method by which roots
grow. The nodules are engineered to slowly release the trifluralin, creating a
zone where root growth is inhibited. Nodules consisting of trifluralin, carbon
black, and polyethylene compounded in a patented method utilizing time-
released characteristics are permanently attached to the substrate fabric on
1–1.5” centers W a through injection molding process.
6.3.7 Containers
Nonwoven carriers for saplings and young roots are an important end use.
The controlled air and water permeability of spunbonded nonwovens and
laminated nonwovens (Meltblown, net el with spunbond) is an important
use for critical application. Nonwoven material also allows proper moisture
balance in the roots during storage.
6.3.8 Capillary mats and pre-grown grass seed mats

Normally needle punched nonwovens of jute or flax, in the weight range 150–
2500 gsm used. The mats control moisture availability and ensure uniform
growth of the grass. The bio degradable nature of natural fiber nonwoven mats
ensure little problem of disposability.
6.4 Application of nonwovens in geotextiles

Nonwoven geotextiles are manufactured from either staple fibers (staple fibers
are short, usually 1–4 inches in length) or continuous filaments randomly
distributed in layers onto a moving belt to form a felt-like “web”. The web then
passes through a needle loom and /or other bonding machines interlocking the
fibers/filaments.
Geotextile is a division of a wider group of civil engineering and are
exceptionally diverse in their structure and appearance. The polypropylene
fiber dominates the geotextile application due to its low cost, low specific
gravity and strength. The functions (Figure 6.8) and applications of geotextiles
fabrics include separation, reinforcements, filtration, drainage and/or as a
moisture barrier for roads and railways off shore land reclamation, road side,
rail side, river and canal banks and reservoirs.
Figure 6.8 Various functions of geotextile fabrics

(Source: http://www.erosionpollution.com)
Some important applications are described as follows:

• Separation: Fabrics are used to separate two dissimilar materials.
• Reinforcement: Fabrics reduce the level of stress in the foundation
soil due to horizontal shear stresses mobilized by vertical loads. This
application spreads the load over a large area and thereby decreases
its intensity. The ultimate purpose is to reduce the vertical stress and
provide less possibilities of failure.
• Drainage: The second largest area of current fabric utilization since
the permeability of the fabric can be controlled.
• Erosion control: Fabric acts both as a separator and as a drainage
layer, but when its primary function is to aid in erosion control it is
placed in this special category.
• Moisture barrier: The hydrophobic nature of some of the olefin fibers
can be exploited to prevent the moisture in seeping through and
disturbing fine soil structure. Apart from these fabric, materials can act
as forms to be filled with other materials and thereby conform to the
shapes and topography of any surface on which they are constructed.
The impermeable fabrics coated with vinyl, polyurethane, etc., act
like air-supported structures (inflated floodgates in tidal zones).
Nonwoven fabrics are impervious to tear, soil chemicals, puncture, UV
light exposure, mildew, rot, etc., which makes them a perfect choice for
filtration applications. Significant application of nonwoven fabrics in the
geotextiles comprises of separation of dissimilar materials, strengthening of
weak soils and drainage/filtration systems (Jackob 1994).
The three principle properties required for geotextiles products are its
mechanical characteristics, filtration capacity and resistance to chemicals.
The mechanical response of a geotextiles depends on the orientation and
uniformity of the fibers. Chemical resistance of fabric rely on the size of the
individual component fibers and their chemical composition. Generally, finer
fibers offer higher the surface area which is more susceptible to chemical
attack. But filtration capabilities of the material are better when fine fibers
with high surface area are used (Zornberg & Nathan 2012).
6.4.1 Metal culverts

These flexible structures are able to absorb very high radial pressures
without any significant deformation, if the all surrounding-embedding is
carefully compacted. If the subsoil conditions are poor, nonwoven fabrics
can be used instead. These geotextiles enable a sufficient compaction of
the base bedding and good drainage of the water saturated subsoil during
consolidation. The advantages of using flexible culverts are lower cost,
shorter construction period and reduced differential settlements between
embankments and culvert.
6.4.2 Railway construction

Due to heavy dynamic load resulting from train traffic, rising fine particles
from the underlying soil very often contaminates the stony ballast. This
“pumping up” not only leads to a deformation of the ground, but also to a
greater susceptibility to freezing and thawing (in the ballast). This eventually
causes a gradual decrease in the bearing capacity of the upper structure.
Graduated sandy-gravel filters and synthetic nonwovens can be used as
separating layers. The use of separation and stabilization geotextiles keeps the
subgrade soil from pumping-up into the aggregate that support the pavement
or unpaved aggregate surface. Rigid soil stabilizers (cement, lime etc.) cannot
provide long-term stabilization. There is also uncertainty about the long-term
effectiveness of bituminous sealing of the track bed.
Nonwoven fabrics with a low stretch property should always be covered
with a thin layer of coarse sands in order to prevent perforation by the sharp
stones of the ballast. This danger exists during lying (particularly with tamping
machines), when the subsoil is inhomogeneous. It also exists later on through
dynamic loading. Finally, the coarse sand should protect the nonwoven fabric
against damage caused by the chains of the machines, which clean the ballast
track bed.
6.4.3 Environmental applications

Nonwoven geotextiles play a major role in engineered systems designed to
achieve the stricter waste disposal and emissions control regulations that
improved over the past two decades. Both liner and cover systems are layered
systems that include hydraulic barriers and liquid/gas collection systems.
Geotextiles can be used in landfill systems to provide the following functions:
• Filtration: The liquid collection systems must be protected against
clogging caused by soil or waste particles carried by the liquids.
• Protection: The barrier systems include a thin geomembrane that
must be protected from puncture.
• Bio-barrier: Impregnated with a biocide agent, geotextiles are being
used to limit root penetration into the landfill system.
• Barrier: Geosynthetic clay liners (GCLs) use geotextiles to confirm
bentonite granules into sheets that can be used to form liners.
6.5 Application of nonwovens in medical textiles

The utilization of nonwovens in medical textiles is long back in the time
of Second World War when there is a need for huge quantity of medical
products. The nonwoven products are less expensive, more flexible, safer and
characteristic of better disposability. In case of hospitals, cross-contamination
is the critical issue which arises mainly due to re-using of medical products
like gowns, masks and other products which would get contaminated (Rigby
& Anand 2000; Chapman 2010). The main characteristics of nonwoven
fabrics intended for medical use are its water and oil repellency and barrier
properties. The nonwoven characteristics which make them better option for
medical products are:
• Excellent barrier properties
• Greater efficiency
• Better performance in terms of comfort, porosity, thickness and
weight, water vapor transmission, air permeability
• Better shielding for wearer in terms of superior physical properties
like tensile, tear resistance, abrasion resistance
• Easy to sterilize
• Economical manufacturing process
The application areas of nonwoven in medical textiles are shown in Table
6.3 and examples of application of areas of nonwoven in medical textiles are
Table 6.3 Application of nonwovens and fibers in different fields of medical textiles
(Source: Chinta & Veena 2013)
Fiber type Fabric structure Applications

Non-implantable materials
Cotton, viscose, Lyocell Nonwoven Absorbent pad
Alginate fiber, chitosan, silk, Woven, nonwoven, Wound-contact layer
viscose, lyocell, cotton knitted
Viscose, Lyocell, plastic film Nonwoven Base material
Woven,
Cotton, viscose, Woven, nonwoven Simple non-elastic and elastic
Lyocell, polyamide fiber, bandages
elastomeric-fiber yarns
Cotton, viscose, Lyocell, Woven, nonwoven, High-support bandages
elastomeric-fiber yarns knitted
Cotton, viscose, Lyocell, Woven, nonwoven, Compression bandages
elastomeric-fiber yarns knitted
Cotton, viscose, plastics Woven, nonwoven, Plasters
film, polyester fiber, glass knitted
fiber, polypropylene fiber
Cotton, viscose, lyocell, Woven, nonwoven, Gauze dressing
Alginate fiber, Chitosan knitted
Viscose, cotton linters, Nonwoven Wadding
wood pulp
Polylactide fiber, Spunlaid, needle- Scaffold
polyglycolide fiber, carbon punched nonwoven
Implantable materials
Low density polyethylene Nonwoven Artificial skin
fiber Artificial cartilage
Chitin
Healthcare / hygiene products
Cotton, polyester fiber, Woven, nonwoven Surgical gowns
polypropylene fiber
Viscose Nonwoven Surgical caps
Viscose, polyester fiber, Nonwoven Surgical masks
glass fiber
Polyester and polyethylene Woven, nonwoven Surgical drapes, cloths
Polyester fiber, Nonwoven Protective clothing,
polypropylene fiber incontinence diaper /sheet,
coverstock
Superabsorbent fibers, wood nonwoven Absorbent layer
Polyethylene fiber Nonwoven Outer layer
Figure 6.9 Nonwoven in medical textiles (Source: imac4.wordpress.com)
Disposability is the primary reason for the hospitals and operating rooms
to desire nonwoven compared woven fabrics. Nonwoven used in gauze pad
must absorb exudates, protect from contamination, mitigate from trauma.
Normally, nonwovens used for medical textiles offer exclusive antimicrobial
activity (Kamran 2009; Chinta & Veena 2013). It provides improved protection
for the wearer and less possibility for cross contamination. Disposable mask is
expected to protect 98% of the bacteria from getting into the wearer, and it must
not lead to skin irritation; hence composite nonwoven structures such as SMS
are used. Surgical gown must protect from hazardous substances and should
provide water resistance with GSM less than 35 (Ahmed 2007). The composite
nonwovens are utilized in the application areas like gowns, laboratory coats,
coveralls and other type of protective clothing. They should shield blood or
infectious material from passing through under various ambient conditions. It
should have better tear resistance, burst strength, abrasion resistance, cracking
resistance, barrier properties and water vapor transmission (Ghosh 2000).
The raw materials used to manufacture medical nonwovens comprise
fiber, filament and antimicrobial finishes. Fibers used for medical nonwovens
should be non-toxic, non-allergic, non-carcinogenic and should be sterilized
without leading to any changes in the physical or chemical characteristics
(Yokura & Niwa 2000). By keeping the desired properties onto the product
in mind, combination of natural as well as synthetic fibers could be used.
Natural fibers are used for its superior absorbency, for example wood pulp is
used in huge amounts because of its high absorbency and low cost (Russell
2007; Chapman 2006). Synthetic fibers are used due to its higher strength,
resistance to solvents and antimicrobial properties. Further, micro fibers are
used in medical nonwovens due to its better barrier properties, flexibility and
smooth surface. Cotton fiber is extensively used in medical nonwovens owing
to its high absorbent character.
The most prominent systems for manufacturing of medical nonwovens
are spunbonding, meltblown and their composites in specific end uses.
Spunbonding process is used when higher strength webs are desired.
Spunbonded fabrics are strong in machine direction as well as in cross
direction. These fabrics are soft, porous and dimensionally stable.
Spunbonding is commonly used for products such as face masks, head wears,
shoe covers, bed linens and disposable clothing etc. Dry-laid, wet-laid and
carding are utilized for production of different web properties depending on
web thickness necessary, speed of bonding technique to be used etc. (Russell
2007; Zhang 2006a & b).
It might be noticed that manufacturing methods are distinctive with
different products, for instance for therapeutic outfits, drapes spunlacing
process is primarily used to give absorbency and to show low linting behavior.
Generally speaking, in medical nonwovens, polyester for its strength and
thermal stability and polypropylenes for its hydrophobicity and cost is
exceedingly utilized (Cusick & Hopkins 1990). These fibers are bonded with
composite nonwoven process (SMS) since it gives better barrier properties in
protective mask and clothing.
6.5.1 Nonwovens in wound dressing

Most wound dressings are built from three layers:
• Wound contact layer – nonstick surface
• Absorbing layer – absorbs exudate and provides cushioning
• Base – allows for application of the dressing to the wound, usually
coated with a skin friendly adhesive
Needle-punched nonwoven fabrics from hydrophilic as well as
hydrophobic fibers have been utilized for absorbent dressing products. The
nonwovens made from chitin fibers can be utilized as an artificial skin for
treating burn wounds. The advancements in wound dressings includes addition
of special type of coatings for the nonwoven fabric, or adding ingredients
into the polymer resins. Wound dressings with antimicrobial properties could
be manufactured by incorporating a silver-coated, high-density polyethylene
mesh on a rayon adsorptive polyester core. The nano-crystalline silver offers

very efficient antibacterial and fungicidal protection. Other innovative nano
wound dressings are produced by utilizing the electrospun polyurethane
membranes and silk fibroin nanofibers. These wound dressings have high
porosity for fluid exudation.
In moist wound dressings, nonwovens have a healing effect and
facilitate the curative process, specifically when used where wounds have
high exudates. Moist wound dressings are designed to keep the appropriate
moisture conditions around the wound, preventing wound aridness. Utilization
of nonwovens in wound leads to the rapid uptake and retention of exudates
from the wound, which is vital in producing an optimal atmosphere for curing
and preventing bacterial growth. Moist nonwoven wound dressings are softer,
lightweight as well as flexible and it provides accurate absorbency control,
fluid retention porosity and low shedding performance. Improved absorption
and retention rates provide longer use and less frequent changing of wound
dressing.
6.5.2 Nonwovens in medical gauze

With the aid of spunlace technology, cost-effective low weight gauze products
could be manufactured where the open structure is created by the appropriate
selection of a wire mesh for spunlacing. Moreover, only 4 instead of the 6–16
layers are usually required for nonwovens gauze which also adds to cost
saving
6.5.3 Nonwovens in surgical gowns, caps and masks

The common requirements for surgical drapes and gowns consist of liquid
repellent and bacterial barrier properties, strength, flame resistance, static
safety and toxicity. Surgical gowns comprise of nonwoven fabrics and
polyethylene films in weight range of 30–45 g/m2.
The surgical caps should be soft, pliable, air permeable, absorbent, and
sterilisable, even though headgear is not normally sterilised. Nonwoven
surgical caps are made of cellulosic fibers with the parallel-laid or spunlaid
process in range of 17–20 g/m2.
A disposable surgical mask is likely to shield 98% of the bacteria from
reaching the wearer and has to be waterproof, hence composite nonwoven
structures (SMS) are commonly used. It consists of a fine middle layer of
fine glass fibers or synthetic micro-fibers covered on both sides by an acrylic
bonded parallel-laid fabric. The thickness of the fiber is between <1 μm and
about 10 μm and the GSM between 10 and 100 g/m2 based on the method of
manufacture, configuration of the web, the cross-sectional shape of the fiber.
6.5.4 Nonwovens in bed linen

It would be alluring for disposable nonwovens to be utilized as bed linen in
clinics and hospitals to break the chain in the spreading of contamination.
They are regularly used in operating rooms however rarely for bed linen with
the exception of in casualty sections and isolation wards and are normally
used as incontinence sheets (Massey & Goel 2008).
6.5.5 Nonwovens in hygiene products

The hygiene products are regarded as the most valuable to the consumers and
with a manufacturing capacity increasing as end-uses nonwoven composites.
There are three types of nonwoven based hygiene products as follows:
• Baby care: baby diapers, training pants, pant diapers, dry baby wipes,
and wet baby wipes;
• Feminine hygiene: sanitary napkins, panty shields, tampons, inter
labial devices, personal wipes, cosmetic removal pads, feminine
pads, sanitary towels, and panty liners;
• Adult incontinence: adult diapers, adult pant diapers, under-pads,
personal/medicated wipes, nursing pads, disposable underwear, bed
pads, bladder control pads, briefs, disposable underwear, guards,
insert pad & pant system, liners, nursing pads, personal/medicated
wipes, shields, two piece insert system.
6.5.6 Nonwovens in wipes

Wipes could be like a paper or tissue or nonwoven and are subjected to slight
rubbing action to remove dirt or liquid from the surface or body. The main
advantage provided by the wipes is convenience, i.e. using it is easier and
quicker compared to other methods. Wipes mainly cater into 3 categories:
1. Personal care wipes
2. Household & home cleaning wipes
3. Industrial cleaning wipes
6.5.6.1 Personal care wipes
• Baby wipes: It is normally a wet wipes utilized to clean the sensitive
skin of baby. These kinds of wipes are normally inundated with
solutions ranging from normal cleaning agents to alcohol-based
cleaners.
• Cleansing pads: These are fiber sponges which are soaked with
water, alcohol or other active ingredients prior to use for a specific
endues application.
• Pain relief: These kinds of pads are normally saturated with alcohol
and benzocain and are useful for treating minor scrapes, burns, and
insect bites.
• Personal hygiene: These wipes are generally pre-moistened and
are available in individual pack or one larger container that can be
resealed.
• Pet care: Wet wipes are available for pet care like eye, ear, or dental
cleansing pads for dogs, cats, horses, and birds.
6.5.6.2 Household and home cleaning wipes
• Kitchen wipes
• Bathroom wipes
• Food service wipes
• Glass surface cleaning wipes
• Automotive care wipes
6.5.6.3 Industrial cleaning wipe
• Degreasing / machinery cleaning wipes
The three vital nonwoven technologies encouraging the growth of wipes
segment are airlaid, spunlace (hydro-entanglement) and SB-MB laminates.
Wipes are generally produced from spunlaced nonwoven fabrics from
polypropylene in blend with viscose/rayon in the GSM between 30 g/m2 and
70 g/m2 which may be saturated with an antiseptic finish (Zhang 2006a, b, c).
6.5.7 Nonwovens in Tissue engineering

Regarding implants the following fields are covered by nonwovens:
• Nonwovens as drug carrier or delivery system;
• The use of the (semi-) permeability of nonwovens: patches for defect
covering or wound dressing
• Nonwovens as scaffolds for tissue engineering.
Tissue engineering is a mixture of engineering as well as biological
divisions to culture feasible human tissues outside the body. Needle punching
is an appropriate route for providing 3-dimensional scaffolds for tissue
engineering, because of the following advantages:
(a) A very broader range of felt thicknesses and densities can be achieved;
(b) A very wide range of fiber types can be processed;
(c) Small-scale operations can be established; and can be obtained.
Needle-punched nonwoven fabrics produced from conventional

non-biodegradable fibers have the potential to be used in two areas of
tissue engineering; they may be seeded with stromal tissues cells actively
synthesizing the extracellular matrix and developed as:
• So-called “smart” wound dressings for the treatment of chronic non-
healing ulcers:
• Dermal equivalents for the construction of living skin equivalents for
use as in vitro modal system.
Resorbable spunlaid nonwovens are used more and more as a material
for 3D tissue engineering like chondrocytes, endocrine cells, and as patches
to cover wider areas of damaged or injured tissue. Nonwovens which have a
high porosity permits permeation and growth of cells in vitro and in vivo.
6.6 Application of nonwoven in automotive textiles

One of the largest application areas of nonwovens is the automotive industry.
On an average, cars generally have more than 33 sq m of textile material of
all types for interiors alone; in that nonwovens represent around 10% of that
with about 3.64 sq m per vehicle (Barrillon 2005). Nonwovens are utilized in
automobile industry for a range of purposes owing to their distinct advantages
such as lightweight, flexibility, versatility, sound insulation, moldability,
recyclability, low process and materials costs and attractive cost/performance
ratio (Smith 2004).
As per INDA (Association of the Nonwovens Fabrics Industry) the
mainly used nonwoven technologies for the manufacturing of nonwovens
meant for automotive applications are spunbonded (66%), needle punched
(27%), hydroentangled (6%) and others (1%). Textile materials utilized
for automotive applications are generally categorized as interior surface
materials and interior trim materials. Interior surface materials are applied
as skin materials in visible areas in a vehicle passenger compartment, mainly
for interior decoration (Parikh et al. 2006). On the contrary, interior trim
materials are frequently utilized in unseen places in a vehicle as a structural
components or acoustical components of trim parts. Property requirements for
these components therefore will differ based on different end-use applications.
But important property requirements that are significant to OEMs (Original
equipment manufacturer) involve trimability, emission, shade/color variation,
color fastness, abrasion, aging, odor, acoustical performance, and flammability.
A split-up of consumption pattern of nonwoven in the automobiles are
carpet (43%), insulation (17%), trunk (13%), hood liner (10%), headliner (6%),
seating (6%), package trays (3%), door panels (1%) and other miscellaneous
areas (1%). The application areas of nonwoven material in the automobile
were given Figure 6.10 and the specific technology used for the production of
the same is given in Table 6.4.
(1) Door and side panelling; (2) Underbody covers; (3) Airbag covers; (4) Floor and footwell
covers; (5) Rear of seat; (6) Brake disks; (7) Textile wheel-arch liners; (8) Exhaust systems; (9)
Filters; (10) Engine insulation; (11) Turbocharger; (12) Battery; (13) Side and rear door panelling;
(14) Rear parcel shelf; (15) Stowage compartment cover 16 A- and C-columns; (17) Headliner;
(18) Sunshade; (19) Dashboard; (20) Bonnet covers; (21) Floor of boot, spare wheel cover
Figure 6.10 Application of nonwoven in a car (Source: https://www.groz-beckert.com)
Table 6.4 Application of nonwoven technology in automotive textiles

(Source: Smith 2004)
Applications Specific area of use Nonwoven technology

Headliners Facing, backings, (including mold Needle punch, spunbonded
release applications) substrates
Hoodliners Facing, backings (including mold Spunbond, resin, needle
release applications) substrates punch
Trunk Trunk liner, reinforcement, load Spunbond, needle punch
floors for wagons, trunk liner,
reinforcements, deck lid liners,
seatback fabric on fold down seats,
under package
Insulation Acoustic, thermal Needle punch, spunbonded
Door Lower facings, panel trim (door Hydroentangled, needle
insert-bolster), reinforcements punch, spunbonded
Seat Back fabrics, bolster fabrics, Hydroentangled, needle
construction reinforcements, trim/ punch, spunbonded
toe kick, decorative fabrics
Rear shelf, package Facings / backings Needle punch
tray
Carpet Carpet, primary backing, secondary Needle punch, spunbonded
backing
6.6.1 Fibers and manufacturing methods for automobile

applications
All kinds of nonwoven manufacturing processes are used in automotives but
spunbond (66%) and needled (27%) punched fabrics are dominant compared to
others. Mostly polyester and polypropylene are used in automotive nonwoven
materials owing to their low cost and better UV resistance property (Pollock
2008). Nylon is typically used in tufted carpets, headliner and seating in the
form of woven, knitted or tufted face fabrics. Solution-dyed fibers are finding
more useful in meeting the increasing demand for higher UV resistance
property for automotives (Bõttcher 2003). Micro-denier fibers are having the
potential to use as sound insulation products and where a soft luxurious feel is
advantageous. Lighter weight and low density materials are also increasingly
finding the application in automotives due to increasing demands by the
OEMs to reduce the weight and to increase the mileage.
6.6.2 Carpets
A huge quantity of nonwovens for automotive fabric involves usage of carpets.
As most carpets in automotives and light trucks in the NAFTA (North American
Free Trade Agreement) countries are of tufted pile fabrics, nonwovens play a
vital role as primary or secondary backing materials. Several newer needled
carpets include patterning and velour structures produced on the needle looms.
Presently, 47% of carpets uses nonwovens, with tufted carpets contributing to
49% and special combination products about 8% (Kemper & Hobi 2003).
6.6.3 Trunklining, headliner and recycling

Headliners, the fabric on the top of the interior cabin, mostly use nylon tricot
fabric with multilayer of other materials, including glass and nonwoven
layers. Numerous research works carried out on headliner of needled
materials. Though there may be several merits in manufacturing of needle
punched fabrics, even in performance, one huge advantage could be a
reduction of incompatible materials being used (Bõttcher 2002). On one
side few manufacturers are promoting a single polymer concept, where each
part of a headliner is made of the same polymer while other manufacturers
have proposed a single fiber be used in flooring, headliner, seating, etc., in
at least one case, polypropylene. The trunk liner is predominately made of
polypropylene needle punched nonwoven material with a shoddy underlay.
This combination offers better sound insulation properties and gives a better
look to the utilitarian trunk.
6.6.4 Acoustics
One of the oldest application areas of nonwovens in automobiles is the sound
insulation. Impregnated jute materials have been used in earlier days in the
automobiles for damping of sound. The promising area for sound insulation
material in automotives is the hoodliner. In the past the hood liners are generally
made of a glass mat covered with plastic film but hoodliners in modern cars
are made of a blend of micro-denier and conventional fibers and moulded to
shape to match the engine and compartment to which it is fixed. It is predicted
that 40% of the sound/noise, for example, comes from the interaction of tires
on the road (Bõttcher 2002). Special nonwoven wheel well inserts have been
developed and engaged as standard equipment to minimize that noise.
6.6.5 Filtration
The oil and air filters in automobiles are well known but a key growth area
in automobiles is in the cabin filtration. Cabin filters which are typically the
electret, charged-ion type, will perform better in filtering out mildew, pollen,
and airborne particulates. Air and oil filters used earlier were treated paper;
however, now use of spunbond, dry-laid, spunlace nonwoven materials is
often used. The selection of materials and type of nonwoven depends on
the chemical nature of the fluid or material being filtered. Nonwovens are
also found application in battery separators for lower cost, better efficiency,
and longer battery life. The gaskets and seals which are vital for engine
performance also use nonwovens in many areas, as do brake and friction
components.
6.6.6 Safety
Safety is a mounting concern in automobiles. Numerous research works has
been carried out in flame retardant materials. Nonwovens could be easily and
economically treated to get the flame retardant property. A few high hazard
areas may need specialized products, such as aramids which are inherently
flame retardant. The majority of polyester and polypropylene can be treated
for FR (Flame retardant) and are efficient and effective in use. Airbags and
seat belts have been key growth areas.
6.7 Application of nonwovens in filtration

Filtration is a process that separates the components of a mixture. The mixture
can be solid with solid, liquid with liquid, liquid with solid, and gas with solid.
Therefore, filtration is basically a process of separation and its basic objective

is to enhance the purity of filtered material (INDA 2009). Sometimes filtration
is used to recover solid particles. Textile filter materials are generally used for
• Solid gas separation/ dry filtration
• Solid liquid separation/ wet filtration
Generally, dry filtration is related to the separation of solid, liquid
or gaseous matters from a solid or gaseous medium. These substances are
distributed in the solid or gaseous medium. On the other hand, wet filtration
is related to the separation of solid, liquid or gaseous matters from a liquid
medium. The substances to be filtered are normally suspended in the medium.
Wet filters offer the possibility for fluid permeability and at the same time
provides the impermeability for particles that need to be filtered. Nonwoven
filter media offer the possibility of collecting the particles on the filter surface
(surface filtration) and in the filter medium installation (depth filtration). Wet
filtration media are usually very thin and compacted media (Chapman 2006;
Bradean 2001).
The several filtration mechanisms involved in filtration of different
particles are
• Sieving: Particles are prevented from entering the medium because
they are larger than the pore size in the medium.
• Interception: This is a key mechanism for depth filters; the particle
(or droplet) is carried with the fluid, touches a fiber and adheres to it.
• Inertial impingement: A particle being carried along by the fluid
stream leaves the stream because of its inertia and hits a fiber.
• Brownian motion: The random movement of fluid molecules causes
movement of fine particles.
• Coalescence: Droplets merge together to form larger drops and
eventually a film.
• Diffusion: If there is a concentration gradient of molecules or ions in
the fluid, then the molecules or ions move as a result of that gradient.
• Electrostatic effects: Many particles carry a charge and can be
attracted to charged fibers; this is exploited in fabrics called electrets.
6.7.1 Types of filtration

There are two main types of filter: depth filters and surface filters. Surface
filtration takes place at the surface of the medium and not by the passage of
particles into its depth. It is normally characterised by a deposition of particles
whose diameter is normally larger than the pore size of the filter, on the filter
surface (Tsai 1998). On one side of the filters, the particles can congest and
block the filters, leading to high fluid resistance across the filter, the point
when it needs a cleaning. This layer of substrate is normally called as a filter
cake. To avoid particles smaller than the pore size of filter from passing
through the surface filter, the surface of filter should be coated with a pre-coat
medium chosen to collect fine particles.
In case of depth filtration, a particle enters the filtration medium and
becomes ensnared within its structure (Freudenberg 2009; Tsai & Wadsworth
1994). This could take place even when the size of the particle is smaller
than the pore at that particular point. These kinds of filters are generally
more difficult to clean compared to surface filters, hence they are regularly
used in processes where the filter medium can be removed. These filters are
commonly utilized where there is a large difference in particle size.
6.7.2 Application of textile filters

A list of the major filtration segments would include the following pews:
• Automotive (engine air, fuel, oil, cabin air)
• Clean room
• Coolant and lubricant
• Dust collection (filter bags, pleated cartridges, pleated bags, cleanable)
• HVAC, paint spray booth, buss duct, make up air, gas turbine, oil
mist, coalescers
• Hydraulic and linen
• Liquid process filters (all types, cleanable)
• Medical, pharmaceutical, ultra pure
• Potable water
• Respirator, PPE
• Reverse osmosis
• Swimming pool and spa
Air or dry filtration applications consume approximately 65–70% of the
nonwoven filtration, while wet filtration consuming 30–35%. Nonwoven
liquid filtration application areas tend to make higher profit margins due to
the requirement of specialized constructions and performance requirements.
Further, due to the global needs for pure and potable water (Turnhout 1980).
6.7.3 Requirements for nonwoven filtration

For the selection of fiber material to be used in nonwoven filters the following
parameters need to be considered:
• Basis weight
• Pore size/distribution
• Thickness
• Solid volume fraction (SVF)
• Porosity (P)
• Density
• Permeability
• Surface texture
• Moisture absorption capacity
• Flammability behaviour
• Strength and drape
• Electrostatic behaviour
• Chemical, thermal and biological stability of the materials
The following are the advantages of nonwoven fabrics over woven fabrics
in filtration:
• High permeability
• Higher filtration efficiency
• No yarn slippage
• Good gasketting characteristics
• Good cake discharge
Figure 6.11 Global nonwoven filter market (Source: http://www.bccresearch.com)

The worldwide market for different nonwoven filter products is shown

in Figure 6.11. Nonwoven meltblown and spunbond material along with
nonwoven glass filtration are the major air filtration media for HVAC
(heating, ventilation and air conditioning). High-efficiency particulate air
(HEPA) wetlaid glass nonwoven filtration media correspond to further 90
million to 100 million square meters. Air nonwoven filters are found by
and large dust filtration to highly effective filtration in several constructions
(Chapman 2006). These filters are rated by a Minimum Efficiency Reporting
Value (MERV) standard, which rates filters from 1 to 20 in terms of their
degree of efficiency. At the high end, MERV 17- to 20-rated HEPA filters are
characteristically used in situations that necessitate complete cleanliness for
the production of microchips, liquid crystal display screens, pharmaceutical
production and microsurgery in hospital operating rooms (Rollin et al. 1982).
HEPA filters are mostly produced from wetlaid glass nonwoven filtration
substance, with a lesser portion of the market by PTFE membranes laminated
with a polyester base material. MERV 1-16, considered HVAC-grade filters,
are principally constructed of synthetic meltblown, spunbond or glass fabrics.
In general, 75% of engineered nonwoven media go into business segments
like offices, theatres, hospitals, casinos etc.; with around 25% found in private
and general consumer air filters (Dickenson 1997).
Nonwoven fabrics are likewise utilized as stand-alone filtration media
in pleated cartridges; one of the significant examples is cartridges, mainly
spunbond media. Other known cartridge applications involve pleated
cellulosic automotive engine air-intake filters and oil filters on the car and off-
road vehicles, fuel filters on home lawnmowers, chain saws, power washers
and other small engines. Cellulosic media are comparatively cheap and are
self-supporting when pleated, a vital parameter along with the compatibility
of construction materials with fluids and temperatures found under the hood
(Aydilek et al. 2005).
Wetlaid cellulosic and spunbond polyester filter medium that range
from 200 to 300 g/m2 are utilized for pleated dust collection cartridges.
Pleated cellulosic or polyester based filters provide considerably more
surface area than needle felt filter bags. In general, dust collection cartridges
and bag-house filters are found in industrialized environments and facilities
that process materials that produce huge amount of fine, airborne particles
or dust. The filters are normally used to reduce particulate exhaust and
avoid impulsive explosion when large amount of fine particles accumulate
in factory air. For liquid filtration applications, nonwoven filter bags are
utilized as final filtration medium and in some cases as pre-filters, extending
the life of final filters.
6.7.4 Nanofibers in Filtration

The electrospinning technique offers possibility of manufacturing of
nonwovens which comprise very small fibers in the nanometer range (fiber
diameter < 500 nm). They are normally produced within an electric field from
a fiber forming material or substance. For the manufacturing of electro-spun
fibers, the fiber-forming substance/liquid is generally a solution of polymer
using a suitable solvent. The fibers having a wider range of diameters are
gathered on a mesh or a plate. Owing to their very smaller size, the resulting
fibers have distinctive morphologies and characteristics which are very
different from conventional fibers. In case of filtration, the small diameters
in nano range resulted in higher filtration efficiencies in air filtration and are
mainly found in heavy duty air and gas turbine applications (Wrotnowski
1962).
Engine air-intake filters and pleated configuration of dust collection have
a lightweight cover of manmade nanofibers over a base material of a wetlaid
cellulosic or polyester nonwoven in a numerous number of applications. The
nanofibers are generally as fine as 200–300 nm in diameter, with the less
than 1–2 g/m2. The nanofibers are put down over the upstream side of the
material using an electrospinning technique or an ultrafine meltblown process
(Chapman 2006; Chapman 2010). The nanofibers produce a maze of fibers
with pore size smaller than the dust particles in the air stream. Particulate
deposits and exists on the surface of the fine nanofiber webbing, permits
the operator/user to clean the filter medium by manually shaking off loose
particles from the surface or by using an automated clean-air back-pulse
system. All key suppliers of air filters to the automotive and dust collection
market segment have internal manufacturing processes in place or access to
nanofiber media from outside suppliers.
The principal objective of nano-filters is to produce filtration medium to
fill the micron space between the finest meltblown media and micro-porous
membranes. By considering the production costs, the low production speed
of electrospinning method is idyllically suited for lightweight covers over
substrates in the dust collection since these applications need only a few
grams of fiber to cover the base substrate. Nanofiber nonwoven filtration
medium for applications in the MERV 10-16 range and potentially for liquid
applications obviously remains the largest unexploited potential (Turnhout
1980).
The comparison of various nonwoven technologies used in filtration with
their advantages and limitations are given in Table 6.5.
Table 6.5 Comparison of nonwoven technologies used in filtration

(Source: Chapman 2006)
Structure Advantages Disadvantages Typical use Raw material

Needlefelt Higher strength Wider pore size Bag-house Staple fibers
and durability. distribution. filtration
Dirt-holding Relatively
capacity. Higher larger pore
thickness. size. Not
Suitable for suitable for fine
brittle fibers particle filtration
Aerodynamically Higher loft. Pre-filter Staple fibers
formed batt Higher dirt- in air
holding capacity filtration
Spunbonded More robust Lack of precise Wide Thermoplastic
than other pore size application polymers
direct melt laids. distribution in coarse
Modest dirt- of melt-blown and fine
holding capacity. and wet-laid filtration
Versatile medium
structures
Wet-laid Defined pore Relatively low Laboratory Short fibers,
size distribution. dirt-holding filtration, oil especially
Thin. capacity. filters glass and
Suitable for Low strength cellulose
brittle fibers
Melt-blown Fine fibers for Thin structures. Respiratory Thermoplastic
l–l0 μm filtration. Lower masks, polymers
Lower pressure manufacturing vacuum
drops, high rate than cleaners,
efficiency spunbonded. HVAC
Relatively
fragile
structures.
Dry-laid and Relatively Relatively Vacuum Staple fibers
bonded cheap. Widest large pore size cleaner
range of fibers distribution filters
available. Well
established
Electrospun Finest of fibers. Limited range Very high Solutions of
Nanofiltration of fibers efficiency air polymers
available. Very filtration
thin, fragile
structures. Low
manufacturing
speed & flow
rate. Can be
spun directly
onto substrate.
6.8 Application of nonwovens in home textiles

The main benefit of using nonwovens within the home textile sector is
that they can achieve a range of technical functions economically than
conventional textiles. The engineerable properties and performance benefits
of nonwovens applicable to interior products involve dimensional stability at
high temperatures, fire retardancy, non-fray, colour stability, high tear strength
and abrasion resistance, elimination of de-lamination risk, stretchability,
strength, uniformity, fluid resistance and retention, anti-allergy and anti-
microbial properties. Table 6.6 shows the application of different kinds of
nonwovens in hoe textile products.
Table 6.6 Application of different nonwoven products in home textiles
Needle-punching Spunlacing/hydro- Spunbonding

entanglement
• arpet underlay/backing
C • B ackings for wall • ablecloths
T
• Wall coverings coverings • Coverings for bedding
• Blankets • Upholstery • Carpet underlay/backing
• Upholstery • Coverings for bedding • Wall coverings
• Wadding and padding • Semi-durable bed sheets • Backings for wall
• Semi-durable tablecloths coverings
and napkins • Curtain header tapes/
backing
• Upholstery
Furniture backings
Wet-laid Thermal bonding Chemical bonding
• T
able linen, cloths and • C arpet underlay/backing • W
adding and padding/
napkins • Furniture and bedding fiberfill
• Glass fiber matt for components
flooring
• Wall coverings
• Insulation materials
6.8.1 Nonwovens in bedding

Bedding products are an important area of the home textiles industry. Bedding
products include mattresses, mattress pads and covers, pillows, sheets and
pillow cases, quilts, bedspreads, comforters and sleeping bags. A number
of these products are multi-component structures in which nonwovens have
replaced traditional materials. They are used in the construction of mattress
flanges, quilt backings, mattress insulation, spring covers, pillows, dust covers
and mattress pads. The key aspects in application of nonwovens in these
areas are due to the fact that the nonwovens could be designed to have flame
retardant and anti-microbial properties (Assent et al. 2003; Chapman 2006).
Nonwovens are used in the production of mattresses as support and
insulation materials, as external coverings and as replacements for traditional
foams. Nonwovens are used as internal support and covering materials in
mattresses. Nonwoven utilized in this segment involves chemically bonded
polyester wadding, thermally bonded nonwovens and nonwovens laminated
with woven or knitted fabrics to give higher dimensional stability. Polyester
or polypropylene filament nonwovens are increasingly used to replace plain
weave cotton fabrics as mattress covers. Because of fire and health dangers
connected with polyurethane foam, nonwovens are increasingly being used as
a replacement material in the construction of mattresses. Nonwovens and fiber
fillings are frequently used within the production of pillows, quilts and duvets
(Chapman 2006; Stein & Slovacek 2003).
6.8.2 Nonwovens in upholstery, wall and floor coverings

Nonwovens are used as reinforcing lining materials inside the curtains and as
the main outer fabric. As a lining material, they are normally coated on one
or both sides of the fabric with a hot-melt adhesive and thermally bonded
to the support fabric. Spunlaced nonwovens could be used as substitute for
conventional curtain nets, roller blinds and shower curtains.
Nonwovens are used as replacements for traditional wall coverings. They
could also used as backings for traditional fabric wall coverings. The wet-laid
nonwovens are predominantly used; smaller extend to needle-punched fabrics
and potentially others. The nonwoven wall coverings must have sufficient
dimensional stability and strength to withstand application to the wall while
maintaining a smooth and consistent surface. Nonwovens could also be used
as backings for traditional wall covering when a higher level of dimensional
stability is required than can be provided by a traditional scrim (Chapman
2006; Yeager & Teter-Justice 2000).
Needle-punch technology is widely used to produce carpets for both
the domestic and contract interior sectors. Nonwovens are also widely used
as primary and secondary carpet backings. Needle-punched carpets usually
consist of three layers: a face layer, a scrim and a bottom layer. They are
produced using pre-needling, flat needling and often structuring techniques.
Needled floor coverings are generally manufactured using polypropylene,
polyamide or their blends which are spun dyed and blended prior to carding.
Nonwovens are generally used as the primary and secondary backing material
in conventional tufted carpets. Tufted carpets are consists of three components
such as pile, tufting substrate (primary backing) and a secondary backing. The
primary backing is placed between the carpet pile and the secondary backing
and is normally manufactured using polypropylene and polyester in spunbond
processes.
6.9 Application of nonwovens in roofing and

construction
Due to rising oil cost, environment change, carbon dioxide emission
regulations and building regulations, nonwovens are providing cost-effective
and efficient solutions to building and construction. Nonwovens are frequently
utilized for covering structures and rooftops and as insulating materials and
geo-synthetics for undertakings of structural building, rail lines, dams and
channels. The utilization of nonwovens offers a variety of advantages, from
the holding of squanders – protecting the soil from chemical contamination
– to erosion control and to soil reinforcement and stabilization. Further, the
use of nonwoven provides thermal and sound protection, improvement in
heat distribution and protection against temperature fluctuations. The most
recent nonwoven developments in the building business and in the structural
designing industry incorporate the development of materials ready to transmit
numerous physical qualities as permeability, fluid transmission inside the
material and barrier effect, as imperviousness to perforation and to chemical
degradation.
Nonwovens are also entered in flat and pitched roofing market segment
applications. Stringent building construction standards, changing climate
conditions over the years and energy-saving schemes drive the need for
breathable and impermeable underlay for pitched roofs. The development of
nonwovens in the building and construction segment as thermal and sound
insulation materials, facing materials for plaster boards, for panels in cavity
walls and for floor and wall coverings is a sign of its success in building
applications.
6.10 Application of nonwovens in packaging

Nonwovens uncover an extensive range of applications in the packaging
segment, especially for packing luxury and costlier materials, pharmaceuticals
and vegetables, for transport of bulky goods, packaging of domestic appliances,
furniture, electronic goods and deep-frozen foods. Reusable bags which are
mostly made from nonwovens have turn out to be exceedingly popular with
consumers for the green environment. They are normally lightweight, robust
and minimize the number of plastic bags being used. Examples of nonwoven
materials used in packaging materials are
• Beverage packing
• Breathable bags
• Canisters
• Confectionary packaging
• Envelopes/file folders
• Flow wraps
• Flower wrap
• Food pads
• Fruit liners
• Hazmat transport aids
• Individual packets
• Industrial bags
• Insulator materials
• Meat packaging trays
• Medical sterile packaging
• Separator sheets
• Tubs
• Vegetable packaging trays
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7
Composite nonwovens
Abstract: The chapter deals with the composite nonwoven (CN) materials, their
significance, manufacturing technology, properties and application fields. The
types of composite nonwoven such as complex composite nonwovens, laminated
composite nonwovens, coated composite nonwovens, blended composite
nonwovens, technology-combined composite nonwovens have been discussed
in detail. Different technologies for manufacturing of composite nonwoven like
multi-forming, multi-beam, multi-bonding, particulate composite nonwoven and
hybrid method have also been discussed in this chapter. The application areas
of composite nonwoven in medical and hygiene sector, industrial filtration and
insulation have also been provided.
Key words: composite nonwoven, laminated composite, multi-form, multi-bond,
laminated composite, hybrid composite, particulate composite
7.1 Definition
The composite nonwovens are known as a macroscopic blend of two or
more dissimilar materials often with a recognizable interface between
them. A composite is considered as a multiphase material produced from a
combination of materials which differ in composition; stay bonded together,
and maintains their identities and properties. The composite nonwovens (CN)
are generally roll goods produced from two or more layers when the vital part
of a composite could be identified as a nonwoven.
CEN 29092 and ISO 9092 have defined the composite nonwoven (CN)
as ‘composite structures are considered nonwovens provided their mass
is constituted of at least 50% of nonwoven structures or if the nonwoven
component plays a prevalent role’. As per EDANA, composite nonwoven
term is used when the critical part of the composite is made of a nonwoven.
Hutten (2007) has defined composite nonwovens as ‘nonwoven products
that are produced by a combination of two or more different web formation
technologies in order to optimise the characteristics of the product’. Based on
this definition, it is presumed that the nonwovens produced from combination
of fibers of different sources but similar physical properties or produced from
combination of fibers of the same source but different physical properties can
be termed as composite nonwovens. The composite nonwovens (CN) can be
produced from (Das et al. 2012):
• Two or more fibers (multi-fiber or filament composites) – These

kinds of nonwoven are produced by blending of two or more fibers of
similar or dissimilar characteristics
• Layered structures – By combining different layers of web and
consolidating it to produce a composite nonwoven.
• Fibers and particulates – By embedding particulate matters such
as powders, abrasives, metal ions, antimicrobials etc. into fibrous
nonwoven structure with other components like abrasives or powders.
• Two or more layers at least one being a nonwoven – These are
generally called as hybrid nonwovens which are produced by
combining nonwovens with other materials such as woven, knitted
and braided fabrics, films, scrims, foams with tissue, etc.
7.2 Importance of composite nonwovens

Nonwovens possess different structures and properties compared with those
of woven structures in terms of softness, porosity, bulkiness, fiber directional
arrangement and fiber packing arrangement. The characteristics of conventional
nonwoven are further enhanced by means of composite nonwovens to use it
for specific applications where the conventional nonwovens alone cannot meet
the desired performance level. The composite nonwoven (CN) are generally
used for the following purposes:
• To significantly improve the functionalities of nonwovens.
• To offer the structural integrity of nonwovens produced from nano
fibers or ultra fine fibers which are supported by microfiber webs.
• To produce nonwovens at economical cost by means of mixing
coarser and finer fibers.
• To provide value-addition to a nonwoven product without any extra
cost.
The main advantages of composite nonwovens (CN) are:
• These offer engineered solution by creating multifunctional products.
• Economical owing to elimination of manufacturing processes and
replacing two or more products by a single product.
• Higher profit by providing specialized solutions.
7.3 Types of composite nonwovens

Though there is no definite classification of composite nonwovens, it could be
classified in accordance with the following categories (Das et al. 2012):
Composite nonwovens 251
• Complex composite nonwovens – If two or more webs or even

nonwoven structures are bonded together by means of hydroentangling,
needle punching, thermo-bonding, stitch-bonding or latex-bonding then
it can be considered as complex composite nonwoven as per EDANA.
• Laminated composite nonwovens – Two or more layers of nonwoven
structure are combined together to produce a laminated composite
nonwovens in which one layer must be a nonwoven fabric. Normally,
the lamination is made by thermal bonding, ultrasonic bonding,
adhesive bonding, extrusion coating, needling or spunlacing where
the bonding is permanent. The interfacial bonding is stronger in
laminated composite nonwovens compared to a complex composite
nonwoven.
• Coated composite nonwovens – In this category, coating of chemicals
over a nonwoven structure is done to provide various functionalities.
The coating could be carried out on one or both sides of the nonwoven
structure based on the requirement.
• Blended composite nonwovens – By blending fibers of different
origin but having similar characteristics or same origin with different
characteristics or a combination of above two, the blended composite
nonwovens can be prepared.
• Technology-combined composite nonwovens – These kind of
composite nonwovens can be produced by combining various web
forming or web bonding methods or a combination of web forming
and web boding systems. For example, composite nonwoven
made by combination of needle-punched carded web and
hydroentanglement webs can be termed as technology combined
composite nonwovens.
7.4 Composite nonwoven manufacturing processes

7.4.1. Composite nonwoven manufacturing by blending
of fibers
The composite nonwovens could be manufactured by homogeneous blending
of different fiber characteristics or vice versa or combination of both. The
examples of composite nonwoven manufactured utilizing this concept are
given below.
• Acquisition and distribution layer (ADL) in diapers made from
coarser and finer deniers (8–12 deniers and 2–4 deniers ) for high loft
and wicking action
• Blend of cut fibers with meltblown fibers, example CoForm process

from KC (wood pulp + meltblown) or Thinsulate® from 3M (large
denier cut + sub-denier fibers)
• Flame proof fabric produced from 25% meta-aramid, 25% para-
aramid and 50% melamine spunlace structures (Shiels and Henry
2014)
• Cable-wrap from blend of synthetic fibers and super-absorbent fibers
which are thermally bonded together. Cables that undergo damage
could absorb water. The presence of super-absorbent fibers could
swiftly absorb the liquid at the point of entry and swell to form a
gel, blocking any further water ingress. Application is ideal for many
different cable types including telecoms, medium and high voltage,
industrial and underwater.
7.4.2 Manufacturing of multi-forming composite

nonwoven
Layered composite nonwoven are manufactured by processing more than one
forming sections by adding different fibers or filaments to a web. Layered
composite nonwoven are manufactured by using different materials through
various processes such as
• multi-card system
• multi-forming box air-lay or wet-lay process
• multi-beam spunbond process
• combination of different web formation methods.
7.4.2.1 Multi-card process

In this method, the fibers of same or different characteristics are processed
through a two or more nonwoven card separately which are arranged side by
side and the webs from each card are layered one above the other and finally
bonded by an appropriate web-bonding method. Multi-layered nonwoven
could be produced by this process using different fiber cross-sections or
characteristics to provide required mechanical and functional properties in
nonwoven structure (Das & Pourdeyhimi 2014). Further, each layer of web
can be produced with variable density to provide gradient pore structures
which could be used in liquid absorption and particle filtration. An example
of production concept of multi-layered nonwoven using multi-card process is
Figure 7.1 Sandwich web-laying using multi card (Source: http://www.emsgriltech.com/)
Further, a divider can be utilized to separate the card line feeder into
sections which provides possibility of introducing two different colored fibers
to the card side by side. After the cross-laying process was completed, the
multi-layered nonwoven was needled and thermally bonded as shown in
Figure 7.2.
Figure 7.2 Single stage multi-layered nonwoven using divider in card line
(Source: http://www.emsgriltech.com/)
7.4.2.2 Multi-forming box air-lay and wet-lay processes

In these processes, fibers of the same or different types are processed through
a set of forming boxes placed side by side in an air-lay machine or a wet-
lay machine or a combination of both, and the air-laid or wet-laid web thus
produced is then bonded by a suitable web-bonding technology.
Zhang et al. (2011) have invented a multi-forming air-lay process for

incorporating thermally expandable microspheres into a nonwoven structure
to increase the bulk. The thermally expandable micro spheres are formed with
a gas-proof shell encapsulating a drop of liquid hydrocarbon. When exposed
to heat, the microsphere volume expands about 50 times which can be used
for bulk enhancement of dispersible moist wipes and other air-laid-based
products.
While forming the air-laid web from different materials, the forming box
may involve multiple feed inlets so that the materials can be blended together.
The multi-layer air-laid web formation with three web forming boxes is shown
in Figure 7.3. The multi-forming devices are used to increase the weight or to
form a multi-layered structure. The multi-layered web is passed through the
compacting device, two spraying chambers where binders and micro-spheres
are sprayed onto the fabric on both sides and dryers for bonding the materials.
Figure 7.3 Multi-forming air-laid process (Zhang et al. 2011)
Dahl (2000) from Voith Paper, GmbH, developed a three-layer headbox

forming arrangement (Hydroformer) in wetlaid technology. Figure 7.4 shows
the cross section of a headbox where three different fiber suspensions can
pass through three distributing pipes which are separated from each other by
a fixed as well flexible lamellas to produce the outer layer, middle layer and
inner layer. The relative speeds of each fiber layer can be varied with respect
to each other by adjusting the swingable separating blade (flexible lamella).
After passing over the blades, the fiber suspension exits the narrowed slice end
of the headbox and impinges on the wire of a forming section to form a layer.
After dewatering, a three-fiber layer is formed with a small intermingling of
fibers between each layers which aids in better bonding of layers.
Figure 7.4 Three-layer headbox in wet-laid (Dahl 2000)
In conventional multi-forming wet-laid machines, one layer is formed

on the inclined wire and a second layer is formed on top of the first layer
with the first layer being exposed to the air for a very short time. The layered
nonwoven made from these machines has a clear demarcation between the
layers which could leads to delamination. Recently, Kajander et al. (2012)
from Manville Corporation, US, has developed the modified configuration of
forming system to overcome this problem. The modified headbox system is
Figure 7.5 Modified headbox system for improving the integrity of layered nonwoven
(Kajander et al. 2012)
The flexible lamella made of polymer membrane material is attached to the

back wall of the headbox and the distance between the tip of the lamella and
the forming wire is quite higher. Two different fiber suspensions S1 and S2 can
be fed to the forming box separately. Since the distance between the lamella tip
and forming wire is high, some turbulence still exists in the fiber suspensions at
the tip of lamella and there is a mixing of the two fiber suspensions S1 and S2
before reaching the forming wire. This resulted in formation of thin transition
zone L1-2 which is formed on top of layer L1, containing a mixture of the S1
and S2. Instantly, a layer 2 starts to form on top of the transition zone L1-2,
forming a wet web. The thickness of the transition zone L1-2 could be varied by
changing the shape of the tip of the lamella or by altering the distance between
the tip of the lamella and the forming wire. The layered nonwoven produced in
this method has superior interlaminar strength and integrity.
7.4.2.3 Multi-beam spunbond process

The multi-beam spunbonding system warrants more than one web-forming
section to produce webs from similar or dissimilar polymers or dissimilar
characteristics or a combination of both. The layers of web from individual
web forming section are combined and bonded by means of thermal calendar
bonding as shown in Figure 7.6. Few examples of multi-beam spunbonding are
spunbond-spunbond (SS), spunbond-spunbond-spunbond (SSS), spunbond-
spunbond-spunbond-spunbond (SSSS) etc. These kind of nonwoven structures
provides hydrophilic, hydrophobic and improved tactile properties compared
to single layer structures.
Figure 7.6 Spunbond-spunbond-spunbond production process and fabric

(Source: http://www.lynonwoven.net/sss-machine)
The main application of multi-beam spunbonded nonwoven structures

are as follows (Zamfirbul 2010):
• Medical and hygiene textile – Operation suit, garment, face mask,
diaper, sanitary napkin, disposable hygiene product etc.
• Home decoration – Shopping bag, wall covering fabric, tablecloth,
bed sheet, bedspread etc.
• Lining for clothes or shoes – Lining, adhesive interlining, shoe lining,
etc.
• Agricultural usage – Protection cover, nursery cover, etc.
7.4.2.4 Combination of web forming methods

In case of combined forming layered nonwoven processes more than one
type of web-forming techniques are utilized where each section can produce
web structure from the same or different fiber or filament type. This kind of
composite nonwovens comprise of a combination of fibers and filaments in a
manner that one layer can add fibers and another layer can add filaments. Few
examples of such process are SMS (spun-melt-spun), SMMS (spun-melt-
melt-spun), SSMMMSS (spun-spun-melt-melt-melt-spun-spun) composite
nonwovens where comparatively weaker meltblown fibers are sandwiched
between the stronger spunbond filaments (Das & Pourdeyhimi 2014; Das et
al. 2012). These combination of spunbond and meltblown layered nonwoven
structures provide advantages such as fine filtration, low pressure drop and
acoustic insulation etc. These kind of layered nonwoven structures are useful
in a wide range of composite nonwoven products such as barrier fabrics,
facemasks, coverstock, sanitary products, packaging, filtermedia, protective
covers and acoustic facings. Another form of process is CoForm® composite
nonwovens which is prepared by a combination of carded, air- laid, and carded
layers and bonded by the through- air bonding process. Out of these several
combination systems, SMS and CoForm® process are widely used.
SMS nonwoven process
SMS (Spunbond + Meltblown + Spunbond) nonwovens are layered nonwoven
structures in which one meltblown nonwoven is sandwiched between two
layer spunbond.
In this SMS layered nonwoven process, the meltblown system is utilized
to provide the microfiber web whereas the continuous filament web is offered
by a spunbond system. The microfiber web produced by the meltblown system
is normally used to offer functional properties, whereas the mechanical
integrity, dimensional stability and protection of meltblown web will be
provided by the spunbond nonwovens. The process may utilize three different
fiber spinning lines, which are combined to produce multiple layers (Figure
7.7) that are finally bonded together to make a nonwoven composite structure.
On the other hand, multiple extruders could be used in the same fiber-spinning
machines (Figure 7.8). After combining the layers, bonding was carried out by
passing them through a set of heated rollers, in which one roller may be smooth
and the other having a plurality of raised points to make a patterning effect.
Figure 7.9 shows a Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) image of a SMS
nonwoven structure.
Figure 7.7 SMS production process of Zimmer AG (Wilhelm et al. 2002)
Figure 7.8 SMS production process from same spinning line

(Source: Kimberly-Clark)
Figure 7.9 SEM image of SMS nonwoven structure (Das and Pourdeyhimi 2014)
Several structural combinations like SM, SMS, SMMS and SSMMS are
achievable by just changing the position of spunbond and meltblown layers
and by altering the number of layers. These structures are generally self-
bonded composite media, but sometimes they may be thermally bonded also.
CoForm® process
Figure 7.10 CoForm® layered composite nonwoven process

(Das & Pourdeyhimi 2014)
CoForm® is a patented technique from Kimberly-Clark, in which homogeneous

blending of wood pulp in the form of fiberized pulp sheet will take place with
the meltblown polypropylene fibers as it travel from die to the collector system.
Natural fibers of small cut length, super-absorbent fibers, activated carbon
powder or other ingredients could be blown into the meltblown structure before
it solidifies. As the synthetic fiber solidifies (cooled), the wood pulp fibers and
other external materials if any added, will adhere to the synthetic fiber structure
(Das and Pourdeyhimi 2014). After that, a preformed meltblown structure is
thermally laminated to one side of the CoForm® layer to produce an absorbent
composite structure (Figure 7.10). The application of CoForm® includes wipes,
feminine hygiene products, diapers and adult incontinence products.
Other processes
Apart from the above two methods, several techniques are available to produce
layered composite nonwovens. Few of them are listed below:
• A three-layer composite nonwoven, one from wood pulp (absorbent
layer), second layer from wet-laid process and third layer from
spunbond process can be combined and bonded by spunlace process
to produce absorbent nonwoven with more strength (Homonoff et al.
1992).
• Cotton-based layered composite nonwoven could be produced
by sandwiching the spunbond web in-between two carded cotton
nonwoven fabrics where the outer cotton layer provides functionality
while the core spunbond layer offers strength and stability of the
composite nonwoven (Chatterjee & Gupta 2002). On the other hand,
cotton carded web could be sandwiched between two spunbond
structures (Sun et al. 2000; Suskind et al. 1989).
• Some of the commonly used layered composite nonwovens are
spunbond–pulp–spunbond (SPS), carded–pulp–carded (CPC),
carded–pulp–spunbond (CPS) and carded–spunbond–carded (CSC).
7.4.3 Multi-bonding processes

The three common techniques for bonding of nonwoven web are mechanical,
thermal or chemical bonding. The multi-bonded composite nonwovens are
produced by combining more than one above mentioned bonding methods.
7.4.3.1 Hydroknit® process

Hydroknit® process patented by Kimberley-Clark is an integrated spunbond–
spunlace method of manufacturing composite nonwoven structure having a
soft absorbent material in one layer and a strong synthetic layer in another
layer as shown in Figure 7.11. The absorbent layer can soak water quickly
and efficiently and the synthetic layer (PP) could soak oil and grease as well
as providing strength, tear resistance, abrasion resistance and dimensional
stability (Das et al. 2012).
Figure 7.11 Hydroknit® integrated spunbond-spunlace process

(Source: Kimberley-Clark)
7.4.3.2 Evolon® process

Evolon patented process from Freudenberg, Germany, uses recirculated
®
water to split and create entanglement among fibers. It is spunlaid nonwoven

structure produced from splittable 16-segement pie bicomponent filaments
made of polyester and nylon66 (65%/35%) which is splited into micro-fine
filaments (Figure 7.13) by means of high-pressure water-jet (Figure 7.12).
It is then consolidated into isotropic structure weighing between 40 and
240 g/m2 with final counts from 0.05 to 0.2 decitex.
Figure 7.12 Evolon® spunlace process (Source: http://www.freudenberg-nw.com)

Figure 7.13 SEM image of micro-fibers of splitted fibers

(Source: http://www.freudenberg-nw.com)
Evolon® fabrics are suitable for a diversified range of applications: dust

mite-proof mattress covers, anti-allergy encasings, sports towels, cosmetic
wipes, duvet covers, air filtration, digital large-format printing media for
signs and advertising, surface preparation wipes, industrial cleaning cloths,
technical packaging, sun protection and window treatment, coating and
synthetic leather, wall covering, washable incontinence pads, microfiber
bathrobes, printed labels, tea towels, and many others.
7.4.4 Laminated nonwovens

The easiest method to produce a composite nonwoven structure is to combine
two or more layers of web in a laminating line where the layers could be glued
to each other by latex adhesives or hot melt glues. The laminated composite
structures can be produced with two or more layers of nonwoven or at least
one nonwoven layer and one different layer which may be film, woven fabric,
knitted fabric, reinforcement net, etc.
Polyamide, polyester, elastomeric urethane and polyolefin polymer-based
hot-melt adhesive webs offer a single-stage technique for combining nonwoven
structures with other types of materials such as fabrics, films, foams, metals,
glass, papers and plastics. The melting point of adhesive webs is normally in
the rage of 75–200°C to facilitate easy and economical lamination. Apart from
low melting point of adhesives, it has to meet the following requirements.
• Peel, shear and tensile strength
• Viscosity, elasticity and hardness
• Porosity, breathability and low weight; and
• Special properties (washability, dry cleanability, color, antimicrobial
properties, flame resistance).
In production of composite structures, adhesive webs are used to position

glass fibers and carbon strands in the laying-up process. They are also
used to bond the film component in making performance sailcloth. In wet
filtration materials, the webs are used to bond needle felts and meltblown
nonwovens. One kind of laminated nonwoven structure process for the
application in packaging material is shown in Figure 7.14. This is made from
lamination of L-LDPE (liner low-density polyethylene resin) fabric and water-
absorption paper. As this material can absorb the condensation and extra water
and retain the flavour of the contents, this package material is suitable for
microwave oven use.
Figure 7.14 Laminated composite nonwoven structure from LDPE

(Source: http://www.idemitsu.com/)
Flame lamination is commonly used for production of laminated

composite structures. In this method, soft foam is passed over an open flame
to form a thin layer of molten polymer, which is utilized as an adhesive to
bond film or nonwoven structure to the substrate. The adhesion strength of the
bond depends upon the film, fabric and foam selected; as well as processing
parameters such as gas type, flame height and spread, foam burn-off, and
nip pressure. The most commonly used foams for this purpose are open-cell
polyester and polyether urethanes, and cross-linked polyethylene. The process
of bi-lamination and tri-lamination is shown in Figure 7.15.
High-frequency (HF) and radio-frequency (RF) welding uses
electromagnetic energy to generate heat, and under pressure will bond films
to substrates. Dow’s Covelle films are finding applications in which foams
and nonwovens are laminated for use in automotive interiors, furniture, shoes
and garments.
Figure 7.15 Flame-lamination process (Source: http://www.thevitagroup.com)
7.4.5 Hybrid nonwovens

The hybrid composite nonwoven structures are manufactured by combining
nonwoven materials with other structures like woven, knitted and braided
fabrics, scrims, etc. A hybrid nonwoven composite structure consisting of two
nonwoven webs with the scrim in-between them bonded by spunlace process
was developed (Lang and Schmalz 2004). The scrim material is sandwiched
between the two nonwoven webs. Normally woven fabric is utilized as a scrim
material to provide the strength. The process concept is shown in Figure 7.16.
Figure 7.16 Hybrid nonwoven structure with scrim (Source: http://www.norafin.com/)
For the synthetic leather application, three-layer hybrid composite

structure has been developed by spunlacing a woven fabric layer which is
sandwiched between nonwoven layers (Qian 2007). Hybrid composite
nonwoven structure comprising three layers of web (first layer – meltblown

micro-fibers, middle layer – staple fibers, bas layer – woven fabric) which
could be used as a material for artificial leather was made by hydroentangling
process (Nakamae & Shima 1984).
7.4.5.1 VAPORWEB process

The spinforming which is specialized technique for manufacturing absorbent
products for hygiene textiles utilizes the air-laid method for short fibers along
with spunbond technology. The spunbonded filaments which are drawn to
improve the strength are sucked into a blending chamber. Further, they are
mixed with air-laid short fibers and powder and are intermingled in blending
chamber, laid down on a conveyor belt. Spinforming structure without any
bonding process offers excellent absorbent layers for hygiene products
(Wilhelm et al. 2002).
Figure 7.17 shows the VAPORWEB process developed by Reifenhauser
Maschinenfabrik, GmbH. In this process, the composite is coated and biaxially
drawn, after thermal bonding of the spunbonded nonwoven. In this process,
the spunbond webs are thermally bonded initially and then coated with
solution containing mixture of calcium carbonate (particle size of less than 2
μm) and polymeric resin like polyolefin and are drawn biaxially. Introduction
of calcium carbonate into the structure produces breathable microporous
composite nonwoven structure, which are impermeable to water vapour and
is used as a cover stock in hygiene products (Lim 2010).
Figure 7.17 VAPORWEB process (Wilhelm et al 2002)

7.4.5.2 Nanofiber based hybrid composite nonwovens

Single layer nano-fiber webs have a limitation with respect to retaining of
thermo-mechanical integrity of the structure. Hence, the electro-spun nano
fiber webs could be deposited over the spunbond or meltblown layered
nonwovens to produce a composite structure. The nanofibers coated on the
nonwoven substrate offer functional performance whereas the base substrate
(nonwoven) provides the mechanical robustness. The nano-fibrous web
gives higher surface area to the nonwoven structure while the spunbond or
meltblown nonwoven provides its mechanical stability (Heikkila et al. 2007).
Hirose Paper North America has invented nozzle-free nano-fiber spinning
technology using the principle known as Electro Bubble Spinning (EBS)
which does not require a nozzle or a collector system. The principle of EBS
is shown in Figure 7.18, where the nano fibers are directly overlaid on the
nonwoven structure.
Figure 7.18 Principle of Electro Bubble Spinning

(Source: http://www.hiroseamerica.com)
Two layer (nanofiber + polyolefin) or three layer (polyolefin + nanofiber

+ polyolefin) nano fiber overlaid nonwoven structure could made by this
principle as shown in Figure 7.19. The SEM images of nanofiber overlaid
nonwoven structure is shown in Figure 7.20. By dispersing the nano particles
along with the polymer solution, composite nanofibers could also produced.
Figure 7.19 Production process of PVA nanofiber overlaid nonwoven

Figure 7.20 SEM micrograph of nanofiber overlaid nonwoven

The main application area of nano fiber layer composite structures are
• High performance filter media (air, liquid)
• Li-Ion battery separator with polymer/ceramic composite nanofiber
technology
• Tissue engineering
To produce durable composite nonwoven structure, the bonding interface

between the nanofiber layer and the base nonwoven structure should be
higher. But in case of nonwoven-layered composite structures, it is difficult to
achieve maximum bonding since the contact points between the two layers are
less which resulted in inferior bonding strength. Hence, in order to enhance
the bonding strength, it is essential to increase the number of nanofiber layers
or density that facilitates better adhesion with the base nonwoven substrate
(Kishimoto 2012).
One of the possible techniques to enhance the bonding strength is to
fuse the nanofiber layers with the base nonwoven structure at the contact
points. The formic acid vapor has been attempted to improve the adhesion
of nanofiber layer by means of fusing at the contact points. This process has
improved the abrasion characteristics of the layered composite nonwovens
which are used as filter media (Lei et al. 2006).
Adhesive which can be cured by the application of heat could be applied
over the base nonwoven substrate prior to coating with nanofibers. This kind
of approach has been carried out by Faccini M et al. (2012). The sequence of
operation in this process is shown in Figure 7.21.
Figure 7.21 Basic processes involved in production of nanofiber coated textiles

(Faccini et al. 2012)
In their research work, a thermoplastic co-polyamide powder having

a melting temperature of 80–90°C has been deposited over the viscose
nonwoven structure. The electrospun nylon 6,6 nanofibers are subsequently
deposited over the adhesive powder and hotmelt laminated to fuse the
fibers to the base nonwoven substrate by melting the adhesive powder. The
thermoplastic co-polyamide powder having a melting temperature of 80–
90°C was deposited onto the base nonwoven substrate in the form of dots by
means of screen printing at distances going from 5 to 20 mm and bonded to
the viscose nonwoven by means of infra red bonding method. Subsequently,
the electrospun nylon 6,6 nanofibers are deposited over the adhesive powder
and hot melt laminated at 110°C for 5 seconds to fuse the fibers to the base
nonwoven substrate by melting the adhesive powder. The SEM micrographs
of nylon 6,6 nanofibers thermally bonded onto the viscose nonwoven substrate
are shown in Figure 7.22.
Figure 7.22 SEM micrographs of nylon 6,6 electrospun fibers thermally bonded onto
viscose nonwoven (Faccini et al. 2012)
7.4.6 Particulate composite nonwovens

The particulate composite nonwovens are manufactured by incorporating the
particulate matters with or without the addition of binders into nonwoven
structures. The particulate matters which are commonly used are activated
carbon, metal ions, super absorbent powders, biocides, antimicrobials,
abrasive particles such as quartz, corundum, silicon carbide, preservative
agents, wetting chemicals, etc.
The particulate composite nonwovens can be classified into three
categories based on the manner in which the particles are embedded in the
base substrate. The first category of particulate composite designs is called
as cage design in which the particulates are incorporated within the base
substrate but not necessarily bonded to them. Some fiber to particle bonds
may happen but the principal mechanism for particle immobilization is by
surrounding the particles with fibers. An example of a cage design is an air
laid pulp/SAP/binder fiber material as shown in the Figure 7.23.
Figure 7.23 Particulates incorporated within the base substrate (Baer 2004)
In second category of particulate composite nonwovens (sandwich

design), the particles are bonded and sandwiched between two nonwoven
structures. The particles are bonded by mixing with adhesive powders or
resins. Figure 7.24 shows the sandwich construction where particles are
bonded using an adhesive resin between nonwoven layers.
Figure 7.24 SEM images of bonded particles between two nonwoven structures
(Baer 2004)
In third category of particulate composite structure, bicomponent fiber

matrix is blended with functional particles which are distributed isotropically
throughout the web as shown in Figure 7.25. Individual particles are bonded
to the sheath resin of the carded bicomponent fibers. The fiber-to-particle
bonds allow particle restriction in a lower density structure with greater void
volume between particles than the cage and sandwich materials.
Figure 7.25 SEM photograph showing functional particles bonded to bicomponent

fibers (Baer 2004)
Numerous research works has been carried out by Nowicka (1993, 1994,
and 1995) in particulate composite nonwoven structures with powder-sorbent
particles such as active carbon, aluminium oxide, chitosan, etc. in meltblown
technology. These particulates are incorporated during meltblown process
using special dosing method. The particulates are bonded to the micro-fibers
on their way through probably due to the plasticity of micro-fibers which does
not require any binding agents. The micro-fibers (0.5–10 μm) from meltblown
process offer higher number of contact points with particulates leading to better
binding (Nowicka 2003). The composite nonwoven structure comprising of
elastomeric nanofibers along with one kind of active particle for the application
as protective garments has been reported by Kalayci et al. (2008).
The skin decontamination kit which serves the dual purpose of physical
and chemical decontamination of the toxic agent has been developed using
a particulate technology which comprises of six individual pockets of
carbonaceous reactive powder in a nonwoven matrix structure. The particulate
decontamination material in each pouch is a combination of adsorbent carbon,
polystyrene polymer and an ion-exchange resin (Lukey et al. 2004). James et
al. (2013) from 3M Innovative Properties Company has invented a nonwoven
abrasive wheel consists of one or more layers of a nonwoven fiber web and
a plurality of super abrasive particles which are bonded to the nonwoven
substrate by means of polyurethane binder. The developed nonwoven abrasive
wheel has a flexural modulus from 4.0 to 128.0 lb/inch of thickness per inch of
displacement.
7.5 Application of composite nonwoven structures

Growing demand on medical, hygiene and filtration and other sectors resulted
in several new products and composite nonwoven structures including wound
dressings, surgical gowns, facemasks, baby diapers, wipes, and respirator

filters. Few important application areas of composite nonwoven structures are
discussed briefly in the following sections.
7.5.1 Composite nonwovens in medical and hygiene

textiles
Composite nonwovens are playing a vital role in medical textile sector to
provide a balance between comfort and protection. This led to the developments
in spunmelt nonwovens and new products in nonwoven gown or drape, wipes,
diapers, etc.
7.5.1.1 Wipes
According to EDANA, the industrial wipes are defined as “disposable
nonwoven products used for a variety of applications in industry ranging
from heavy duty cleaning to fine polishing” for that the disposable wipes
are single use products or limited use products that become waste material
after use. The main advantages of using nonwoven structures in wipes are
disposability, engineered for specific applications and needs, flushability,
higher convenience, high quality level, lower risk, versatility, wide choice of
materials and manufacturing processes (Zamfir 2010).
The composite nonwoven wipes have higher abrasion resistance, high
wet and tear strength and increased barrier protection compared to single
layer conventional nonwoven structures. By using the composite nonwoven
structures, the strength and durability of lightweight products, softness,
absorption and strength and ability to form shapes by using an elastic film
as one of the layers can be achieved. By changing the nonwoven layers with
different fibers and properties, the strength, softness, opacity, texture and
stiffness of the composite nonwoven product could be altered without change
in the basis weight.
The industrial wipes are normally intended for liquid and oil absorption.
The liquid absorption is offered by natural fibers such as cotton, rayon and
wood pulp whereas oil absorption is provide by olefin fibers and polyester. One
example of composite structure in wipes is produced from CoForm® process
where 60–70% dry-laid wood pulp core is held by 30–40% polypropylene
meltblown structure (Anderson et al. 1978). The oil absorption wipes are
generally produced from 100% polypropylene microfibers and often to
enhance the durability of wipes micro-fiber layer form meltblown process
is combined with the spunbond coarser polypropylene layers (Adam 1997;
McCulloch & Brederode 1981) .
The multi-layered composite nonwoven decontamination wipe has been

developed by Ramkumar et al. (2008) using a needle-punching technique. It
consists of three layers: top viscose fiber needle-punched layers to provide
liquid absorption capability; the middle porous activated carbon nonwoven
structure to act as the adsorbent layer; and the bottom polyester needle-
punched nonwoven structure to improve structural integrity of entire product
and strength of the composite. The arrangement of three layers and the
actual product is shown in Figure 7.26, and the SEM images of the resultant
multilayered wipe are shown in Figure 7.27.
Figure 7.26 Decontamination three-layered wipe (Ramkumar et al. 2008)
Figure 7.27 SEM micrograph of three-layered composite nonwoven

(Ramkumar et al. 2008)
The vital characteristics of these decontamination wipes are given below:

• The decontamination wipe are flexible, drapable and soft.
• The nonwoven adsorption wipes will have improved adsorption
characteristics due to needle punching which will also increase the
overall porosity of the wipe.
• The active adsorbing sites of the middle activated carbon adsorbent
layers are not masked by the top and bottom layers as the three layers
are needle punched together which basically will enhance the porosity
and surface area.
• The decontamination wipe has phenolic resin-based activated carbon
as the middle adsorbent layer that has superior properties such as
flame retardancy than the cellulosic activated carbons.
• The three-layered decontamination wipe will have improved
mechanical strength and abrasion resistance.
The multilayer solvent-soaked decontamination composite wipe having
polymer films on top and bottom has been developed by Kaiser et al. (2002).
It consists of ethoxyperflurobutane impregnated fabric layers with a vapour
barrier on the top and a permeable film on the bottom.
7.5.1.2 Wound dressing

Generally wound dressings are used to clean, cover and protect wounds to
assist the healing process. Composite nonwoven dressings are wound covers
that mingle physically distinct parts into a distinct product to give several
functions like barrier properties, absorption and adhesion. These composite
dressings can function as either a primary or a secondary dressing on a wide
variety of wounds and may be used with topical medications.
Two kinds of constructions lead the composite nonwoven dressing. The
first type of composite dressing is characterized by use of nonwoven adhesive
tape, example polyester, with an absorbent pad-incorporating wound contact
layer. It consists of an additional outer layer of transparent film to protect the
wound from external contamination and to protect the nonwoven material
from liquids and soiling, which facilitates cleanup. The second type of
composite dressing uses a waterproof film adhesive tape with absorbent pad
and contact layer.
Composite nonwoven dressings are existing in a wide variety of sizes,
mostly in square or rectangular shape. Normal composites dressings are
intended for low-to-moderate exudate, while composite dressing having
super-absorbers are intended for moderate to highly exuding wounds. The
main advantages of composite dressings are their simplicity of use, relatively
inexpensive, readily available, and versatile enough to find utility with many
wound types. The composite nonwoven dressings provide higher absorbency,
conformability, softness and bulkiness and are relatively lint-free compared to
conventional gauze dressings (Dyer et al. 1992).
Conventional composite dressings consist of three main layers such
as non-adherent hydrating layer (hydrogels, alginates, hydro fibers), an
absorbent cushioning layer made of composite nonwoven and a polyurethane
membrane to impart strength. These layers in total make the dressing easy to
apply and remove and more durable than any of the components used alone
(Qin 2009). Most of the current wound dressings are laminated structures
comprise of four elements: a non-adherent wound-contact layer, a wicking/
transmission layer, a diffusion layer and a backing layer (bacterial barrier and
moisture-vapour/gas-permeable film. The composite nonwoven dressings
having super-absorbent powders, particles and fibers, along with hydrophilic
and hydrophobic fibers could resulted in efficient absorbent cores in wound
dressing (Pieniak 1985; Iskra 1986). To enhance the conformability and fit
of composite dressings, efforts were made to incorporate elastomeric films,
elastic meltblown aromatic polyether urethane nonwoven membranes and
elastomeric moulded copolymers into nonwoven fabrics used in wound
dressings (Taylor & Collier 1987; Morman & Wisneski 1987).
7.5.1.3 Healthcare and hygiene products

Surgical gowns
Surgical gowns are vital healthcare product to shield the surgeons, patients
and co-workers from blood-borne pathogens as well as to offer breathability
for the comfort of the wearer. Hence to provide protection as well as comfort
which cannot be offered by single layer structures, most of the commercial
gowns in the market are made of composite nonwoven structures utilizing
spunbonded meltblown-spunbonded (SMS), spunlace hydroentangled, triplex
or bicomponent fibrous webs, with or without chemical finishes to resist liquid
penetration. In typical SMS structure, the outer layers are made of spunbond
PP to provide strength and stability and the inner middle layer of meltblown
microfiber from PP to provide barrier property. Further, SMS composite
nonwoven structures reinforced with films and composite nonwoven produced
with wood pulp and polyester fibers are commercially available today
(Plumlee & Pittman 2002). The surgical gown made of composite nonwoven
made of hydrophobic layers of microfibers and a cover layer made up of
nonwoven structure (Kitson et al. 1980) and thermal bonding microporous
film of polyolefin materials onto the nonwoven layer (Langley 1995) showed
excellent performance characteristics in terms of vapour transmission, fluid
blockage and mechanical properties.
Face masks
Generally, the construction of face masks similar to surgical gowns has SMS
nonwoven structure. Two to three layers of polypropylene nonwovens are
sandwiched together to make facemasks along with a pleated face to enhance
the surface area. Numerous designs of respirator mask are developed using
advanced strategies for the multiple- use of masks. The four-ply nonwoven
needle-punched face mask having two outer layers consists of silver/copper
zeolite compounds incorporated onto the fibers and remaining two inner
filtration layers designed to protect from microbial or particulate penetration
has been developed by Carey International Ltd, Westerly, RI, USA.
Incontinence products
Composite nonwoven structures used in incontinence products are categorized
as:
• Baby care products: Baby nappies and baby wipes (dry or moisturized)
• Feminine hygiene products: Sanitary napkins, panty shields and
liners
• Adult incontinence: Adult nappies, nursing pads, disposable
underwear, bladder control pads
7.5.2 Composite nonwovens in industrial filtration

The composite nonwoven filter media is widely used in industrial air filter
bags, industrial dust filters, residential ventilation panels and pocket filters,
air purifiers, automotive cabin air and air intake, etc. Some of the common
applications of composite nonwoven structures with their constructional
details are given in Table 7.1.
Table 7.1 Composite nonwoven filters (Das & Pourdeyhimi 2014)
S. no. Application area Nonwoven structure

1 Industrial air filter • Membrane laminated over needle felts
bags • Scrim reinforced needle felts
• Scrim reinforced spunlace felts
2 Industrial fume • Membrane laminated over spunlace
cartridge dust filters • Membrane laminated needle punch
3 Residential • Spunbonded with meltblown composite (e.g., SM
ventilation panels or SMS composites)
and pocket filters • Electrospun composite
Contd...
Contd...
S. no. Application area Nonwoven structure

4 Air purifiers • Glass nanofiber or glass microfiber/synthetic
blends with cellulose or synthetic fiber support
• Nonwoven (spunlace) with activated carbon air
filter fabric
5 Automotive cabin air • Meltblown composites with electrostatic material
and air intake • Meltblown composites with activated carbon
• Electrospun nanofiber composites
6 Automotive air intake • Meltblown/cellulose composites with fire retardant
additives
7 Surgical face masks • Laminated meltblown composite
• Laminated glass microfiber
8 Respiration • Electrospun nanofiber with spunbond support

• Spunbonded with meltblown composite
• Spunbond composites with activated carbon
9 Vacuum bags • Electrospun nanofiber with wet- laid support
10 Fuel filtration • Resin treated blend of cellulose, polyester fiber

and glass microfiber (wet- laid)
• Meltblown cellulose composites
11 Fuel filter coalesce • Resin treated blend of cellulose and glass
microfiber (wet- laid)
• Layer of borosilicate fiber supported by two inner
and outer stainless steel structures
12 Fuel filter coalescer • Resin treated cellulose with teflon or silicone
Separator treatment (wet- laid)
• Glass nanofibers and microfiber composite
13 Turbine and rotating • Needle felt supported nanofibers – electrostatic
machinery (bag)
14 Belt filters • Scrim reinforced needle felt
• Double layer mono filament filter cloth clipped
by stainless steel at both ends (potash fertilizer
filtration)
15 Micron rated filed • Meltblown/needle felt composite
bag
16 Reverse osmosis • Laminated meltblown/cellulose composite

prefilters • Composite with activated carbon
17 Swimming pool filters • Spunbonded pleated with antimicrobial material
7.5.2.1 Dry filtration applications

The layered composite nonwoven structure offers gradual removal of finer
airborne particulates and exhibits greater durability, performance, safety, eco-
friendly and cost-effective. Johns Manville Company introduced their new
filter product ‘CombiFil’, a multi-layer composite nonwoven structure made of
polyester spunbond and micro-glass air media. The ultra-fine filaments on the
filter surface provide a significant improvement in particle removal while the
coarse filaments on the downstream side keep the pressure drop to a minimum.
The main advantages of this filter media are improved filtration efficiency,
lower pressure drop, long filter life, lower energy usage and excellent media
cleanability. Fiberweb introduced air filtration product based on composites
of fine fiber meltblown (FFMB), carded staple fiber and spunbond layers. The
combination of this three-layer structure produces bulky three-dimensional
and gradient structures. The FFMB offers superior web uniformity and high
dust holding capacity.
In industrial filter applications, the membrane filters based on PTFE, metallic
wire mesh inside the nonwoven structure, use of scrim in composite structure
are prevalent. The respiratory air-filters either air-supplying or air-purifying
respirators are commonly made of composite nonwoven structures. In more
common N95 respirators which have a minimum of 95% capture efficiency are
generally made from multilayered composite nonwovens having the activated
carbon sandwiched between PP nonwoven layers using a spunmelt process
along and are electrostatically charged using the corona discharge method to
reduce the surface potential decay (SPD) (Dascalescu et al. 2010).
7.5.2.2 Liquid filtration applications

In liquid filtration, composite structures are utilized to offer gradient density
filtration and are also used as pre-filters to membrane filtration and reverse
osmosis. Plekx from KX Industries is water filtration product made of
composite structure having a nonwoven carrier sheet, a layer of extruded
medium and a nonwoven cover sheet. The filter media made of composite
structure comprising of electro-spun nonwoven are increasingly found
application in fuel filters (Wieczorek et al. 2012; Doh et al. 2012).
7.5.3 Composite nonwovens in other sectors

A three layer composite nonwoven structure consists of the following has
been developed by DeMott et al. (2009):
• First layer have piles which is needle punched.
• The second layer contains non flat felt finish polymeric film.
• An adhesive layer is disposed adjacent to the second side of the

nonwoven needled layer and polymeric film layer is bonded to the
adhesive layer.
The process sequence of the production of composite structure and
the construction of the resultant fabric is shown in Figures 7.28 and 7.29,
respectively. One side of the nonwoven structure (back side) is needled and
the topside is having pile construction (Figure 7.29).
Figure 7.28 Process sequence of production of pile-composite structure

(DeMott et al. (2009)
Figure 7.29 Construction of composite nonwoven structure (DeMott et al. 2009)
The composite nonwoven structure produced is soft, soil and water

resistant, flame proof and abrasion resistant. This type of material is basically
required in the automotive industry like seating, load floor covering, trunk
lining, etc.
Napco® process is a modified version of needle punching to manufacture
a 3-D spacer nonwoven fabric made of two or three fibrous mats with more
hollow spaces. To bond the different fibrous mats (pre-needled) by fibers
links, the machine comprise of a needle-punching operation which utilizes
two needle boards working simultaneously in crossing penetration of needles
through the selected fibrous mats to produce 3D structure (Figure 7.30). The
fibers links are created by the needles from the cut fibbers which are already
present in the nonwoven structure. The machine adjustments permit accurate
control of structure thickness from 3 mm to 50 mm (Guigou-Carter et al.
2008).
Figure 7.30 3D Napco structure (Guigou-Carter et al. 2008)
During the manufacturing of 3D structure, it is possible to incorporate

powders, nonwoven, fibrous or foam components, cables, etc., to provide
specific functionalities. Figure 7.31 shows the 3D Napco structure where
PCM particles are incorporated into the pore structure. A finishing processes
like molding, pressing, calendering can also be applied based on the end-use
application. These structures have found application in sound insulation.
Figure 7.31 3D Napco structure with PCM granules (Guigou-Carter et al. 2008)
The composite nonwoven for insulation purpose by combining the

glass fiber nonwoven and polymer fiber nonwoven has been developed by
Powell & Hoyle (1982). One of the component web structures is produced
by screen casting, squeezing, and drying an aqueous dispersion of glass fiber,
thermoplastic fiber, and a hydrophilic polymer hence temporary adhesion
bonding will take place. Second web structure is made by orienting textile
polymer fiber and thermoplastic fiber thus temporary matting will occur.
The composite nonwoven structure is finally formed by superimposing and
calendering the two web structures under the action of pressure and heat
therefore fusion bonding of the thermoplastic fiber could takes place within
each and between both of the component webs. In electrical insulation
applications, these composite nonwoven structures have the inherent electrical
properties of glass, in addition to absorptivity, conformability, and moldability.
In filtration applications, it provides smooth surfaces, biological inertness,
durability, variable porosity index, variable loading capacity, toughness,
and resistance to glass “dusting”. In reinforced plastic applications, it offers
a readily saturable and conformable web capable of reproducibly assuming
predetermined finished shapes.
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8
Natural fiber nonwovens
Abstract: In this chapter, natural fibers like cotton, flax, jute, hemp, kenaf,
milkweed, pineapple, abaca fiber, sisal fiber wool and kapok fiber are reviewed
for their potential applications as nonwoven material. The chapter also reviews
and summaries the various researches initiated with natural fiber nonwovens in
different field of applications like sound absorption material, soil erosion control
material, medical and technical textile, filtration media, etc.
Key words: natural fiber, nonwoven, oil sorption, filter media, sound absorption,
soil erosion.
8.1 Introduction
Nonwovens showed up in the 1940s, and were later created with diverse
progress in different nations. Nonwovens innovation was further enhanced
and grew, especially concerning bonded nonwovens taking into account
important compound fibers and engineered bonding techniques encouraging
production of better and more helpful items for specialized use, apparel
and family utilization. Nonwovens have an extensive variety of utilizations
from furniture to the geo- and chemotextiles. Nonwoven fabric is a kind
of fabric which can be created by different procedures other than weaving
and knitting. Durable applications business is the biggest application region
for nonwoven materials and items followed by expendable applications
market. Durable applications incorporate home furniture, divider blankets,
covering substrates, clothing interlinings, material items and geo-materials.
Dispensable applications incorporate grown-up incontinence items, child
diapers, expendable wipes, feminine hygiene products, cloths, restorative
or surgical items, channels, filters, disposable garments and fabric softener
substrates. Additionally, durable applications business sector is the quickest
developing business for nonwoven materials and items. Automotive sector
is another growing potential for nonwovens. More than 40 noteworthy
applications have been distinguished and all the more new end uses are being
produced on a persistent premise. The rising worldwide interest for therapeutic
expendable supplies is required to be the significant driver for the developing
utilization of nonwoven materials and products. Nonwoven materials and
product business is relied upon to develop at a CAGR of 5.9% from 2013 to
2019 (www.Transparency market research.com).
In the last decade, there has been a growing use of natural fibers such
as hemp, kenaf, pineapple, abaca, flax, coir, etc., in the form of nonwovens
or short fibers (Neira & Marinho 2009; Parikh et al. 2006; Reddy & Yang
2010). The potential of natural fiber nonwovens opens a wide variety of new
applications in the textile industry (Parikh, Chen & Sun 2006; Soukupova,
Boguslavsky & Anandjiwala 2007). Also, uses in other technical sectors, such
as automotive, are attractive. Natural fibers are found in nature or produced
naturally available material from plant and animal sources. The dominant
part if the natural fibers are plant based and fit in with the ligno cellulosic
classification. Cotton is common lingo cellulosic fiber that contains around
85% cellulose and 1% of lignin. Flax, kenaf, jute, hemp, coir and sisal
are different sorts of lingo cellulosic fibers that contains lower measure of
cellulosic and higher (5–20%) measure of lignin contrasted with cotton. By
and large, they are coarser and more grounded than cotton. Flax has properties
similar to cotton yet better quality and modulus (Rajesh et al. 2007).
Natural fibers
Organic Inorganic
Plant Animal Asbestos
Seed Steam Fruit Wool

Cotton Flax coir silk
Kapok Hemp
Milkweed Jut
Kenaf
Figure 8.1 Natural fiber classification
As a result of the expanding interest perpetually environmentally

sustainable product and processes, regular and bio-based fibers are incredible
choices for certain nonwoven items considering their biodegradable and
compostable nature furthermore is being made from renewable resources.
Figure 8.1 represents the classifications of natural fibers from different
origins.
Natural fiber nonwovens 287
8.2 Cotton fiber nonwovens

Among all common cellulosic fibers, cotton is surely understood for its excellent
absorbency, comfort properties, and natural feel. Also biodegradable nature of
cotton is an imperative quality that makes attractive and strong candidate in
a situation, where waste transfer is turning into a noteworthy concern. The
cotton fiber nonwoven is generally utilized as a part of hygiene items including
wipes, female hygiene items, diapers and grown-up incontinence items. The
soft, comfortable, hypoallergenic and naturally absorbent nature of the cotton
nonwoven material plays a vital role in these applications. Additionally, the
greater wet strength than dry situation makes the cotton fiber more suitable for
numerous applications. Most hygiene products are spun laced; but cotton also
may be needle punched for wipes such as decontamination wipes, and also in
its relatively unprocessed raw state for oil absorption, such as cotton boom
used in the recent Gulf of Mexico oil spill cleanup efforts. Other than that,
vehicle weight diminishment is another potential opportunity for the cotton
nonwoven material, capacity of cotton-based car composites to diminish
clamor level inside the vehicle is a critical variable to the extent traveler is
concerned, and this will open an open door for a considerable measure of new
applications for such items (Mueller et al. 2002; Muessig 2002).
Janet Regan, director of strategic initiatives, Cotton Incorporated,
a marketing and R&D company promoting cotton nonwoven materials
throughout the world mentioned in her recent interview as
“With respect to nonwoven fibers, cotton is a recent trend and is continuing
to grow at a surprisingly healthy rate.”
She listed several reasons including the aforementioned trend toward
sustainability; the growth of the wipes market over the last 10 years; the
development and growth of spunlacing technology; pricing; performance
and consumer appeal; and health- and well-being-related features, especially
for hygiene applications (Janet Bealer 2010). Cotton-based nonwovens are
the large and progressively utilized nonwovens in vehicles due to their low
weight and ease of use, as indicated by another report which predicts that
the utilization of cotton-based nonwoven materials in the auto business is
situated for noteworthy development. The normal weight of textile materials
in a medium-sized automobile has expanded from 20 kg in 2000 to 26 kg
today, and by 2020 it is relied upon to achieve 35 kg. The expand comes
from an ascent popular for more greater comfort and safety, and efforts aimed
at reducing the weight of a vehicle in order to lower fuel consumption and
CO2 emissions. The consumption of nonwovens is currently around 28 m2
per vehicle and this is expected to rise to over 40 m2 per vehicle in the future
(www.edana.org). Bonding between cotton or common filaments and binding

polymer is great when composites are produced using mixed fiber webs. These
composites have demonstrated change in tensile properties and further tests
will be on scaling up and streamlining of procedure parameters, for example,
cotton to binder ratio, blend uniformity, curing time, temp and pressure. As
a result, composite products made of cotton fibers will be available to the
automotive interiors with all necessary requirements (Bhat & Kamath 2004).
Next to automotive application cotton nonwoven materials widely used
as the oil sorption material in oil spill cleanup process. The controlling
mechanism of oil sorption by the sorbents could be absorption, adsorption,
capillary action, or a combination of these. Zahid et al. (1972) postulated
that absorption probably was not a significant effect in sorption of oil in
polypropylene fibers because of their high crystalline. It was claimed that the
capillary bridges in the voids between the filaments were the main controlling
mechanism. On the other hand, the mechanism to sorb oil by some natural
fibers, such as cotton and milkweed, was attributed to their surface wax and
hollow lumens (Choi and Cloud, 1992). Hence, the use of natural fibers in oil
sorption is always in momentum.
Figure 8.2 Oil sorption capacities of various natural fibers (Source: Choi and Jerry 1993)
Other researchers result showed that the oil sorption capacities of natural
fibers are in the order of milkweed > kapok > cotton > wool > kenaf. With
the exception of kenaf, all natural sorbent materials sorbed more than 30 g oil
per g fiber in the simulated seawater bath. Milkweed showed the highest oil
sorption among the sorbents examined. Kenaf fiber sorbed only 5.6 g oil per
g fiber (Choi and Jerry 1993). Figure 8.2 represents the oil sorption capacities
of various natural fibers demonstrated by Choi and Jerry (1993).
8.3 Flax fiber nonwovens

Linens were produced only with fibers from the flax plant Linum usitatisimum.
L. – Flax. The term “linen” alludes to fabric produced using flax fibers;
however, today it is regularly utilized as a non-specific term to depict bed,
shower, table and kitchen materials on the grounds that generally cloth was
so broadly utilized for towels, sheets, and so forth. Flax fibers shift long from
around 2 to 36 inches and normal 12–16 micrometers in diameter. There are
two mixtures: shorter tow strands utilized for coarser fabrics and more line
fibers utilized for finer fabrics. Flax fibers can be identified by their typical
“nodes” which add to the flexibility and texture of the fabric. The cross-
section of the fiber is made up of irregular polygonal shapes which contribute
to the coarse texture of the fabric (www.saneco.com).
In early years, the use of flax fibers for industrial applications was
somewhat limited by the production cost. With new technologies employed to
process flax, its price can drop making flax affordable for selected nonwoven
composites. The very interesting application of flax nonwoven composites
is in aquaculture. This process involves growing vegetables and plants in a
nutrient solution without soil (Chiparus 2004). Linen generally offers better
rigidity and modulus and lower prolongation, all extending between that of
glass and aramid fibers. Good tensile strength is flax’s other potential points of
interest for composite utilization incorporate vibration absorption, ultraviolet
(UV) blocking, moisture retention, low density, no static charge, low relative
cost, a natural resistance to insects and bacteria, and hypoallergenic properties
(Kers et al. 2009; Rodie 2010). The main advantages of flax fibers are: there is
no conceivable health danger, they are biodegradable and dispensable, apply
low load on the environment, no contamination of air and water, no outflow
of destructive chemicals like formaldehydes, isocyanates, organohalogens,
chlorofluorocarbons, and so forth. The every year re-growing product is an
endless asset that does not add to an unnatural weather change. And on the
contrary during its growth, it converts the greenhouse gas CO2 into oxygen
(Sen et al. 2011). Table 8.1 provides the comparative properties of flax and
other high modulus synthetic fiber.
The potential fields of utilization for long flax fiber nonwoven
strengthened composite materials are automobile, marine, and windmill
industry. The tensile properties of needle-punched nonwoven fabrics are
affected by the fabric auxiliary parameters like fabric density, the amount, and
profundity of fiber trap coming about because of the fabric formation process
and fiber properties. The air permeability of the flax fiber nonwoven is the
most important property of these materials for the application in dry filtration.
The needle-punched nonwovens made of flax fiber showed satisfactory
performance with air permeability at test pressure difference of 200 Pa.

Whereas air laid nonwovens showed air permeability about 2,000 Lm–2 s–1
(Kozłowski et al. 2008). Water-vapor permeability index of needle-punch flax
was reported by Kozłowski et al. (2008). The value is about 0.5. It is in the
middle of the range between 0 and 1. Materials of higher values ensure better
physiological comfort.
Table 8.1 Comparative properties of flax and other high modulus synthetic fiber
(Source: Kers et al. 2009; Subhankar Maity et al. 2014)
Fiber Density Tensile Elongation Specific Diameter

(kg/m3) strength at break tensile of
(G Pa) (%) strength elementary
(G Pa fiber (µm)
m3kg-1)
Flax 1500 1.5 3 1 20
Hemp 1500 0.7 3 0.5 30
E-Glass 2600 2.4 2.5 0.9 3-30
Aramid 1500 3.1 1 2.1 12
(high
modulus)
Carbon 1800 2.2 0.5 1.2 8
(high
modulus)
Needle-punched nonwoven fabrics exhibited pervasive filtration

capability with extraordinary dust atom arrestance and dust-holding limit. Dry
and wet filtration is mainly directed by the pore size and its arrangement. The
configuration thought for filter fabrics for a specific application starts from the
choice of the strands to the fitting pore size to sift through the craved size of the
particulates. The little scale pores should be humbler than the base atom size
to ensure the needed filtration effectiveness. Also, a calendaring system was
found to further extend the filtration capability of the fabrics by controlling
their thickness and vulnerability. The fibers ended up being more solidly
stuffed, in this way making it more troublesome for particles to experience the
gathering of the fabric subsequent to calendaring. Other researchers evaluated
the nonwoven mats made with flax or cotton fiber and flax/cotton fiber mixes
for their capacity to sequester copper particle. In this process the nonwoven
mats were treated with citric acid to upgrade the measure of negative charge on
the mats and enhance their capacity to sequester copper particle. The treated
mats were checked for changes in copper particle adsorption and fabric quality
and contrasted with non-treated mats and process control mats. The outcomes
demonstrate that mats produced using 100% flax and 75%/25% flax/cotton
mixes were like one another and fundamentally preferred at copper particle
retention over 100% cotton or 50%/50% flax/cotton mixed nonwoven mats
(Marshall et al. 2007).
The flax fiber materials (fabrics, nonwovens) were also used in medical
purpose like cancer and wound healing etc. (Janarthanan 2012). The medicinal
uses of flax promotes heart health, lowers cholesterol, protects against strokes,
lowers blood pressure, used for constipation, helps guard against breast
cancer, and other cancers (Sen et al. 2011). The flax filaments could act as
an antimicrobial material, which could be of interest not just in manufacture
of sterile and therapeutic articles, additionally of industrial materials.
Assembling of items for medicine, health, and cosmetology is turning into a
standout amongst the most developed segments in the structure of generation
of nonwovens, so that alteration of flax strands to make naturally dynamic
dressings is of undoubted scientific and practical interest. Researchers also
found that the spunlacing method helped the flax/PP nonwoven to grow the
end use for auto interiors with specific specialized benefits. The developed
nonwoven material were of improved tensile and flexural strengths, lesser
thick with controllable weight, higher noise absorption coefficient and
enhanced nonwoven flexibility along with fogging execution (Chen et al.
2008).
The flax nonwoven materials were discovered for their solid capacity to
absorb sound wave. In a study by Fages et al. (2013), flax fibers were mixed
manufactured with binder fibers and nonwoven structures were made by wet-
laid and subsequent thermal bonding. In general the acoustic assimilation
at low frequencies (underneath 300 Hz) is low for these nonwovens, with
retention coefficients in the 0.05–0.2 range. As in the case of flax: PVA
nonwovens, the absorption coefficient increments up to estimations of around
0.4–0.5 in the 300 Hz to 2 kHz frequencies reach, showing intriguing and
truly homogenous acoustic protection properties. For the spun laced flax/PP
nonwoven boards (after hot-squeezing), the sound absorption coefficient was
dependably beneath 0.3 inside of the entire testing scope of sound recurrence.
The sound protection test performed by the impedance tube instrument
uncovered that the spun laced flax/PP nonwoven boards behaved as a typical
isotropic slight board with the reverberation frequencies of 366 and 354 Hz
and the fortuitous event frequencies of 3576 and 3762 Hz relating to two
distinctive machine settings for the spunlacing procedure (Chen et al. 2010).
There likewise are other potential composite applications for flax in
sports equipment. As a support layer in tennis racquets, spunlaced flax is
lightweight and assimilates vibrations, and the surface designing potential
outcomes could be of interest. The fiber’s UV resistance and regular wood-

like appearance make it appealing as a development material for boats and
canoes. Different conceivable outcomes incorporate support in foot bridges,
for which flax offers lightweight quality and a natural appearance; and in wind
turbine blades, again on the grounds that it is lightweight (Rodie 2010). The
application of flax nonwoven in geo textile areas also evaluated very meagerly.
The properties of geotextiles including thickness, pore size, and porosity have
been examined for flax nonwovens. It has been found that substantial natural
diversity in flax fiber length and fineness can bring about loss of elasticity and
cause extensive range in smallest detected pore diameter.
Researches were conducted to determine the potential of flax-based
nonwovens obtained by the wet-laid process as candidate materials for thermal
and acoustic insulation applications. To provide cohesion on nonwovens,
different thermoplastic binder fibers have been used. The researchers found
that nonwovens with different compositions are obtained in a hydro former
station with processing parameters that ensure good handling and nonwoven
formation. They concluded that the wet-laid technique is useful in obtaining
nonwovens from natural flax fibers with different binder thermoplastic fibers.
Although some anisotropy is detected because of the intrinsic preferential
deposition direction, mechanical performance is enough to ensure good
handling. Additionally, interesting acoustic and thermal insulation properties
can be obtained by stacking different sheets, thus allowing the use of these
materials as technical substrates for sound absorption or thermal insulation
applications (Fages et al. 2013).
8.4 Jute fiber nonwovens

Jute is one of the important natural fiber possessing second place in budgetary
centrality after cotton. Jute fibers stand out amongst the most crucial fibers
used in modern applications. More than everything, jute is a commodity
on which a huge number of families in a percentage of the nations depend
for their money income. 95% of world wide jute yield were produced from
the countries like India, Bangladesh, China, Nepal and Thailand. The prime
reasons of developing business sector of jute-nonwovens in technical textile
applications are as detailed below (Anon 2006). The jute fiber possesses:
• High strength, modulus and dimension stability
• Stiffness or moderate draping
• Higher frictional properties
• Coarseness
• Easy rot / biodegradability and eco-friendliness
• Good moisture absorption and breathability

• Good bleachability, dyeability and printability
• Low cost
Jute is annually renewable and abundantly grown in India and neighboring
countries. Utilization of mill wastes of jute i.e. use of short fiber for making
jute based nonwoven.
Due to the aforementioned special properties and lower costs of
manufacturing process of nonwovens opened up new markets in numerous
fields like household, industrial and technical end-use applications. Jute
nonwoven products are being used in various applications (Maity et al. 2013)
as shown in Table 8.2.
Table 8.2 Potential end uses of jute-based nonwovens (Source: Maity et al. 2013)
No. Category Specific example
1 Interlining Sew-in, fusible, stiffeners
Footwear and leather Luggage and handbag, sewn up socks, shoe

2
industry liners
3 Dry filtration Filter media
Cushioning, noise reduction layers, floor

4 Automotive application
carpets, trays, dash-boards, etc.
Floor coverings, wall coverings, fillings, cover

5 House hold goods
of furniture’s, beddings, etc.
Crop covers, mulch matting, wind breakers,

6 Agriculture and horticulture
frost protectors, capillary, etc.
Civil engineering and Geo textiles, liners, pipe laggings, thermal

7
building industry insulation layers etc.
Cable wrappings, oil sorbents, load bearing

Other industrial
8 components, insulators, panel and packaging
applications
bag and sockings, protective wrappings, etc.
Needle-punched jute or jute mixed needle-punched nonwoven fabric

can be effectively utilized as a floor covering and carpets. These jute and
jute-mixed needle-punched nonwovens system serves both the stylish and
the utilitarian properties needed in such materials. These nonwovens mainly
preferred over due to their less expensiveness than commercially existing
woolen materials. However, these jute nonwoven material are rated as second
grade based on their natural surface texture and appearance. In such cases
the researchers recommended that woven sacking or hessian fabric is utilized
at the posterior for support and coarse denier polypropylene/ acrylic fiber is
utilized on top for aesthetic appeal and smooth appearance, keeping thick
layer of jute fiber in the middle for strength (Sengupta et al. 1985).
The previous research studies had showed that the jute needle-
punched nonwovens were utilized in various applications like, as a part of
disintegration control in expressway dike and cut slops, stream bank security,
ground detachment capacities, filtration in street, fortification applications
in provisional unpaved streets, etc. (Pandey et al. 1989; Samajpati 1998). In
these applications, jute mainly preferred over the existing synthetic materials
due to their eco-friendly nature. Jute fiber has a splendid similarity with soil
and jute needle-punched nonwoven degrades in the soil within a couple of
months aiding in soil adjustment, cake development, and vegetation to soil to
develop plants (Majumdar 1999; 2001; Sengupta et al. 2008).
For the application of thermal insulation medium, the jute needle-
punched nonwovens are frequently preferred due to their thick and permeable
structure. The nonwoven contains uniformly scattered void or air, which is
in charge of thermal insulation. The added advantage of the jute fiber in the
use of thermal insulator other than structural aspect, the fiber itself a very
poor thermal conductive in nature. Based on the above-mentioned aspects,
the woollenised jute fibers were used in garments as a filler material against
cold weather as a warm garment (Debnath & Madhusoothanan 2011). Jute
needle-punched nonwoven may be a successful reinforcing agent for the
jute-based composites. By using jute needle-punched nonwoven fabric, the
products like tabletop, chair, washbasin, toolbox, signal casing, serving tray
rain pipe, corrugated sheet, fan blade, speaker box, and country boat have
been successfully developed. Also the jute-based needled fabric can be used
in decoration, furnishing, bags, soft luggage, apron, hat, gloves, file cover,
handicraft items (Sengupta et al. 2005).
Jute needle-punched nonwoven fabrics can be utilized as sound absorbent
medium effectively. The main benefits of using jute nonwoven material as
sound absorbent medium is their permeable surface and flexibility. These
properties act as reason for sound retentiveness inside the nonwoven. These
jute nonwovens can be utilized as wrapper of sound source or it can be utilized
as a part of the divider to lessen the resonations. Floor blankets utilizing natural
fibers (kenaf, jute, waste cotton, and flax) in mixes with polypropylene and
polyester were produced as checked needle-punched nonwoven for acoustic
retention in auto insides (Sengupta et al. 2008; Roy & Ray 2005; 2009). The
steady state growth of use of jute-nonwovens in the automotive sector is as
following (Ellison & McNaught 2000).
• Comparative weight reduction of 10–30% in comparable parts

• Good mechanical properties
• The possibility of forming composites in a single machine passage
• Relatively good impact performance, with high stability and minimal
splintering
• No health hazard during handling
• No emissions of toxic fumes when subject to heat
• Sustainable and renewable raw material resource
• Superior environmental balance during material and energetic use
• Recycling possibilities
• Relative cost advantages
In recent years, the jute-nonwovens and its composites are used in
making of door liners, boot liners parcel shelves in the automotives. Floor
carpets and interior decorations are also made of these products. Since, they
are weightless and low cost. The jute nonwovens utilized as a water sealer in
geotechnical applications. It was found that jute: jute caddies (unspinable jute
fiber) in 1:1 extent suitable for water proofing treatments (Debnath 1983).
Proper planning of jute needle-punched nonwoven can be utilized as filter
media. Such needle-punched nonwovens are suitable for coarse and medium
filtration application and suitable for material, tobacco dust, wood flour, paper
shreds, etc. (Subramanium et al. 1988).
8.5 Hemp fiber nonwovens

Over a thousand of years, hemp has been used as a potential source for
papermaking, sails/canvas and building materials. The cellulosic content
from the natural fiber hemp stalk is made off higher toughness and can be
effectively utilized as a part of the generation of materials, dress, canvas, rope,
cordage, archival level paper, paper, and other development materials. There
are two different kind of fibers extracted from hemp: (i) bast or long fibers and
(ii) hurds or inward short fiber. Customarily hemp has been developed for its
profitable and adaptable astounding bast fibers. Bast fibers represent 20–30
percent of the stalk (contingent upon the seed variety, and planting density).
There are two sorts of bast fibers in general (www.binhaitimes.com):
(i) Primary bast fibers with almost 70 percent of the fibers and are long,
high in cellulose and low in lignin. Primary bast fibers are the most
significant piece of the stalk, and are by and large thought to be among
the most grounded plant fibers known.
(ii) Secondary bast fibers make up the remaining 30 percent of the

bast fibers and are medium long and higher in lignin. They are less
profitable and turn out to be more pervasive when the hemp plants
are become less densely, making shorter fatter stalks since they don’t
have to compete for light.
Hemp fibers are a renewable natural asset consolidating the advantages
of a feasible advancement. The hemp is used as a replacement for synthetic
fibers, for much variety of specialized applications including nonwoven items.
The properties of hemp fibers like hygroscopic nature, low thickness and
releases very low amount of harmful substances amid burning and heating
give a potential industrial sector for this natural fiber. These fibers can be used
as a thermal insulation material in industries and household application. Other
than this, the hemp manufacturing process fundamentally consumes very less
amount of pesticides and other synthetic sources to grow, thus reduces the
environmental impact. There are thousands of items produced using hemp,
and some of them, without a doubt, are being utilized as building insulation
material, erosion control material and as a oil sorbent material. In this manner,
hemp fiber nonwovens are utilized as a part of the creation of insulating
materials to minimize the harm to nature, as they add to the lessening of CO2
outflows (Kozłowski et al. 2008), have a low energy demand in production,
high potential for recycling, and positive effect on indoor (Kymäläinen, 2004).
Due to its excellent properties, hemp fiber is widely used in automotives
in the recent years. These natural fiber nonwovens are low cost, environmental
friendly, high strength and comparable with glass fiber applications. Hence,
these nonwoven mats are used as a replacement for glass fiber nonwovens in
cars. The increasing commercial availability of hemp fiber and the demand
for low cost, high strength fibers has resulted in new applications for hemp,
particularly in automotive and construction products (Wubbe 2001). Liga
Freivalde et al. (2002) investigated the application of hemp fiber nonwoven
material in household and industrial utilization. The study revealed that, the
hydroentanglement process is a good technology to develop for hemp fiber
nonwoven with predefined properties as per the planned utilization. The major
advantages of this hemp fiber nonwoven mats are their greater water vapor
penetrability and relatively large thickness. It permits these nonwovens to
apply in regular breathing bundle development for household, industrial and
construction uses.
The studies were performed to evaluate the thermal insulation properties
of hemp fiber nonwovens. The nonwoven produced by hydroentangled
method was used in this study and the results were very supportive. A material
will be characterised as an insulator if its thermal conductivity is under
0.065 W/mK. A typical mineral wool has thermal conductivity in the extent
0.035–0.040 W/mK, wood 0.21 W/mK, air 0.026 W/mK. The authors had
mentioned that the developed hemp fiber hydroentangled nonwovens had a
phenomenal protection execution because of thermal insulation properties,
where thermal conductivity is from 0.031 to 0.040 W/mK (Carus et al. 2011).
The hemp fibers tows were traditionally used as insulation material between
timbers in earlier days. After 1990s, when hemp was rediscovered throughout
the world as an important raw material for bio-based products, their application
area becomes versatile (Kymäläinen 2004).
The bast fibers are commonly identified as better insulator material due to
their permeable structure, small diameter, and a low fiber bulk density. In case
of hemp fiber the bulk density is 1.48 g/cm3 and for glass fibers, it is 2.6 g/cm3.
This helps the hemp fiber a great deal of air entrapment between the fibers
and acts as an insulation material. Hemp nonwoven insulation can be utilized
as an option material for glass wool or mineral wool insulation materials,
and inward moistness regulation in structures. Furthermore, common fibers
are ignitable without buildups while glass fibers are most certainly not. In
result, incineration with energy recovery is a positive end-of-life alternative
as distinct option for reusing. Even after all these benefits, natural fibers
have also disadvantages, for instance, the increased moisture absorption,
flammability (Freivalde et al. 2011). Liga Freivalde et al. (2013) evaluated
the thermal properties of nonwoven samples of technical hemp fibers made
through the thermal bonding, needle punching and hydroentanglement. Their
results showed that hemp has the same or better thermal properties than
other commonly used thermal insulation materials, e.g. mineral wool. In the
comparative study results of different manufacturing technologies, the results
revealed that all the three hydro-entangled, thermal bonded and needle-
punched samples differ very less in their thermal conductivity.
In view of manufacturers point, the hemps fibers have high quality,
flexibility, ease of processing and recycling. But in the case of user point of
view, there are few drawbacks which still exist. These setbacks are arising due
to the purchasers’ newness to hemp fiber. Key inclinations of hemp fiber are its
high quality and low cost, and there are various organizations so far foreseeing
the usage of this fiber as it step by step propels into getting the chance to be
another option for manufacturers. Moreover, hemp fiber’s staple length and
quality can be modified by necessities of the purchaser. In spite of the way that
the business area is worth insightful, using better attributes of characteristic of
natural fibers results in lower value rejects, decreases downtime on the types
of equipments, minimizes loss of fiber amid preparation (Gbhat & Hrong
2005).
8.6 Kenaf fiber nonwovens

Kenaf is a 4000-year-old ancient African harvest plant. This plant is an individual
from the hibiscus family (Hibiscus cannabinus L) and is identified with cotton
and jute (Cook 1960). In 1940s, after World War II, when the jute fiber imports
were cut off, as an after effect of war, the Kenaf harvesting and exporting was the
main business in United States (Moreau et al. 1995; Ramaswamy et al. 1995).
Kenaf has a solitary, straight, unbranched stem comprising of two sections: an
outer fibrous bark and an inner woody core (www.siu.edu). The proportion
of the core to bast is 65:35% of the entire stem weight. Kenaf develops
rapidly, ascending to statures of 12–16 feet (4–5 m) in a 4–5 month developing
season and 25–35 mm in width (Bert Nimmo 2002).
Kenaf grows on different sorts of soil however is best developed during
the stormy season for good yields. Yields of kenaf are from about 8–12 metric
ton amounts of dry stem per hectare. Fundamental is that kenaf is a renewable
and supportable option with a short growth time of just 4 months. Kenaf fiber
nonwovens can assume a critical part in fluid/particle separation operations,
like oil adsorption, combination, deep-bed filtration, and as filter aids for
decreasing the resistance of filter cakes. Fibers can be utilized to enhance
filtering attributes of domestic wastewater (Tiller & Cong, 1995). Kenaf fiber
as of now has been utilized as a part of applications like composite sheets,
car boards, insulation mats and geotextiles. The world’s leading automobile
manufacturer and electrical equipment manufacturers like Toyota Motor
Corporation and Panasonic Electric Works have led the pack in the worldwide
kenaf industry. Toyota has created nonwovens from kenaf fibers for auto
inside applications, and Panasonic, a basic divider board to supplant timber-
based plywood (www.jeccomposites.com).
Research work done by scientist had determined additionally that kenaf
fibers are phenomenal oil malleable materials and keep the oil from spilling
after ingestion. Each one of these properties will be gainful in minimizing
industrial waste. This property of kenaf fiber opens a potential application
in the area of oil spill cleanup in industries either in a loose form or as a
nonwoven (Goforth, 1994). Kenaf fibers have been blended with different
kinds of natural and synthetic fibers and made as nonwoven materials like
kenaf/PP or kenaf/cotton/PP mixes for the applications like fabric softener
sheets, furniture underlays, spread stocks, and barrier textiles for therapeutic
and agricultural protective dress (Ramaswami & Boyd, 1994).
As mentioned earlier, the two components of kenaf stem used in various
different applications. The kenaf is a feasible source for mash paper only if the
bast and center divisions were separated carefully. The separated outer layers
used as a main element to produce low-thickness composites (Sellers et al.,
1993). The inner part of the kenaf fiber, called as core is used as a panel in
manufacturing roof tiles, enlivening board substrates, floor tile substrates, and
certain auxiliary segments. Another direct application of kenaf fiber is waste
cleanup mats. Kenaf fibers treated with sodium hydroxide have been carded
and needle punched into 100% kenaf and kenaf/cotton mixed mats. These
mats are additionally biodegradable and have potential in the avoidance of
soil disintegration, the control of weeds, and cleanup of waste fluids (Tao &
Moreau, 1994). The various needle-punched nonwoven items like, lightweight
seeded grass mats, wild bloom mats, vegetable strips, erosion control mats,
oil retention tangles, cushions and pads, substrates for formed car parts, and
composites were developed from kenaf fibers or by using the cleaned of core
fibers as 100% or along with refined wood, synthetic and other natural fibers
as a blend (Fisher, 1994).
The study by de Guzman et al. (1982) was undertaken to explore a new
material for novel textile products from abaca, kenaf and pineapple fibers
using nonwoven techniques, specifically, needle-punching and adhesive-
bonding processes. One more advantageous aspect for nonwoven mats is that
they can be tailored by blending with another fiber to achieve the desired
mat properties. Tao et al. (1998) prepared nonwoven mats containing 100%
kenaf or kenaf/cotton blends. They have mentioned that adding cotton fibers
into kenaf mat increases mat strength and oil retention capacity, indicating
that the blended mats have 24 potential applications in the prevention of soil
erosion, weed control, and cleanup of waste liquids. Ramaswamy et al. (2003)
have attempted to develop nonwoven kenaf mats for high value and high-
volume end products like furniture, kitchen cabinets, fixtures, wall-coverings,
displays, and various other products. The researcher suggested that to make
kenaf mats as successful alternative materials for practical applications, the
processing has to be developed using conventional equipment in nonwoven
industries. Baldwin et al. (1999) demonstrated that nonwoven 100% kenaf
bast fiber mats could be used as a growth medium for the establishment of
some warm-season and cool-season grass species.
8.7 Milkweed fiber nonwovens

Milkweed, a perennial plant can adjust to unfavorable soil conditions, is being
considered right now alternative source of fiber as of late. Milkweed has a
place with the sort Asclepias, with more than 80 distinct species of which 45
are indigenous to the United States of America (USA). It beforehand fit in with
the family Asclepiadaceae; however, it is presently grouped into the subfamily
Asclepiadoideae of the dogbane family Apocynaceae. Agriculturists and
researchers joined as an inseparable unit in the late 1980s to create milkweed
at this very moment fiber source (Adams et al. 1984; Heise & Vidaver 1989;
Witt & Knudsen 1993). There are two different kinds of fibers which can be
obtained from the common milkweed plant. The first one is the long, solid,
however fragile bast fiber and the next is the seed hair fibers known as floss.
It was found that, like elastic substance (in the latex), the nature of the bast
fibers fluctuated significantly with edaphic and climatic environment (the sort
of soil 16 the plant is developing in and the season, that is, dry or wet year).
Normal milkweed fiber (Asclepias syriaca) is a characteristic and
biodegradable different option for polypropylene fiber in oil sorbent
application. The microscopic evaluation revealed that, the lumina, or
inward structure of the seed fibers are hollow, which permits the oil to be
assimilated and held inside the individual fiber and also in the assembly.
Seed fibers are made out of 55% cellulose and 18% lignin. Since these mixes
are biodegradable, milkweed is an environmentally friendly distinct option
for polypropylene material in oil spill cleaning process (Das, Praba Karan,
& Rengasamy, 2011). Woven milkweed fibers have diverse properties than
individual fibers. Nonwovens assembly can frame chains or networks of
fibers that cooperate while keeping up attributes of individual fibers without
alter (Fotheringham, Mather, Wei, & Yang, 2003). Small size pores in the
nonwoven mess consider the retention and transportation of fluids and the
fibers hold the oil all the time. Since nonwovens of these milkweed fibers have
higher porosity than other fiber nonwovens, these nonwoven materials ought
to work the best at engrossing and holding oils.
Pretty nearly 300,000 tons of oil was spilled every year from a variety of
sources. From 1998 to 2007, more or less 2,800 tons of greasing up oil was
spilled every year in ports, adding to oil contamination (Fingas & Mervin,
2011). When oil has entered water, the properties of oil change, making
it harder to uproot. Thus it is imperative to prevent initial pollution of oil
from coming into contact with water and potentially emulsifying. Recently
cellulose-based materials like milkweed fibers have been examined for their
potential use in tidying up spilled oil on the grounds that they are effortlessly
biodegradable, yet other potential materials to replace the existing synthetic
materials like polypropylene and etc. (Hubbe, 2013). Milkweed and kapok
were natural fibers have been found to have comparative properties on oil
limits and recently used in oil spill cleanups.
In case of the oil sorption activities, even thought the polypropylene has
a high absorption capacity it possesses only minimum oil retention ability.
The research report mentions that during the first moment after oil retention,
a lot of oil is lost. From one minute to five minutes, the rate at which the oil
is discharged from the polypropylene is diminished rapidly. It is essential that
oil should be consumed, but it is also likewise critical that the oil is held for a
long time and not to discharge over into environment (Fotheringham, Mather,
Wei, & Yang, 2003). In the case of milkweed fibers, when milkweed fiber
retains oil, the condition of the oil changes from a fluid to a semi solid. This
makes the fiber to absorb more amount of oil than the expected quantity. The
researchers reported that at room temperature, milkweed has been indicated to
absorb approximately 40 g of oil for every 1 g of fibers (Chol & Cloud, 1992).
The thicker wax coat in the fiber inner structure aids the milkweed fibers to
absorb more oil than cotton and also provides improved oil retention. Further
it also evidenced that at a lower temperature, milkweed ingests more oil than
the elevated temperature. This phenomenon was explained by the researcher
as, the viscosity of the oil increases, the retention process becomes simpler.
However, the reduction in temperature affects the internal capillary action
of oil through the fiber pores and reduces the oil retention (Chol & Cloud,
1992). The researcher also evaluated the performance of the milkweed fiber,
after soaking it in water, the results demonstrated that the process reduced the
absorption capacities of the milkweed fiber. This cause was explained by the
authors as the hydrophobic nature is dominant in the stage, the capacity might
have reduced. Their study also confirmed that the deliberate uprooting process
in the milkweed fiber will allow the fiber to re-use and assimilate more oil
every time. In investigations of milkweed oil receptiveness, the capacity to
retain oil just somewhat diminished for rehashed uses, so the fibers could
possibly be reused for future utilization (Chol & Cloud, 1992).
Estabragh, one of the milkweed fibers, a natural silky indigenous, which is
generally extracted from a plant wildly grown in central plateau of the southern
regions of Iran (Bakhtiari et al. 2015). The lustrous acicular appearance and
physical properties of Estabragh fiber are very similar to other species which
totally belong to Aclepiadacae family. The Estabragh fibers possess very low-
density value of about 0.9 g/cm3 because of their hollow structural nature.
Nonwovens due to their technical and economical merits are used
extensively in numerous applications. These pliable fibrous structures can be
manufactured in various densities; thus in addition to their aesthetical aspects,
nonwovens also provide excellent sound insulation properties (Attenborough,
1971; Voronina, 1983, 1994). Hence, Sanaz Hassanzadeh et al. (2014)
evaluated the effect of needle-punching process parameters on the sound
absorption properties of Estabragh/polypropylene needle-punched nonwoven.
They have evaluated the predictor variables like fiber blend ratio, punch
density, and areal density. Their outcomes articulated that samples with higher
extent of Estabragh fibers can be viewed as more effective means for noise
absorption than the other proportion. This increased sound absorption capacity
of the nonwoven fabric was due to the hollow structure of Estabragh fibers.
In general, the geometry of fibers and their arrangement within the structure
were the responsible for the acoustic performance of nonwoven structures.
Hence, the physical property of the constituent fibers of a nonwoven structure
was the main reason for the higher sound absorption nature of the assembly
(Tascan, 2005).
During the application of this natural fiber as a sound insulation material,
the researchers found two fundamental factors which influence the end use of
the nonwoven mat.
1. Higher the fiber entanglement achieved during needling operation
higher will be the sound retentiveness of the needled nonwoven
fabrics.
2. The increase in the areal density of the needle punching significantly
increases the energy loose in samples.
They researchers suggested that, due to their extraordinary characteristics
of the Estabragh fibers, these nonwovens can be used as a replacement of
conventional insulation materials in automotives and buildings. These
nonwoven materials were versatile; they can be used in different porosity
and mass rangers. Simple increment in the fiber per unit area will alter the
nonwoven mass and porosity. Hence, the fabric assimilates more solid. Also
it was found that the effect of punch density is insignificant as far as sound
absorption is concerned.
As connection to their previous study, researcher Sanaz Hassanzadeh et al.
(2014) further analyzed the four diverse controllable parameters incorporating
Estabragh fiber in the making of nonwoven fabric. They have analysed the
fiber ratio in blend, layer weight, punch density and the frequency of sound
were selected and the effects of each parameter on noise absorbency. They
have presumed that the proportion of entire distance across to fiber width
of Estabragh fibers is much higher than that of the hollow-polyester fibers.
For this situation, more the milkweed fiber in blend creates higher amount
of surface area of nonwoven subsequently than the normal nonwoven.
This creates more frictional losses of sound energy while it enters into the
nonwoven. Thus the tests would be resulted to the higher normal-incidence
sound Absorption Coefficient (NAC) values for the nonwoven with higher
Estabragh fiber content. The results additionally demonstrated that the layer
weight has critical impact on nonwovens acoustic execution. Expanding the
layer weight prompts builds the quantity of fibers inside of the structure which
thus brings about more sound energy losses.
Hasani et al. (2014) examined the effects of different thermal bonding
process variables such as Estabragh fiber ratio in blend, layer weight, needle-
punching density, thermal process temperature, and calendering speed on

uniaxial breaking force and bending rigidity of nonwovens produced from
Estabragh/polypropylene fiber blends were investigated using Taguchi
method. The findings of the research showed that the blend ratio of fibers,
layer weight, and the applied temperature during the thermal bonding process
significantly increased the nonwoven layer resistance against axial tensile
forces. However, the variables like punch density and calendering speed had
no significant effects on the breaking force values of the samples. In case of
the samples’ bending rigidity, it was found that all the variables except the
calendering speed have significant effects. To the extent the bending rigidity
nature of nonwoven is concerned, it was noted that the mix proportion was
the most influencing component. The less number of holding point framed in
the higher weighted layers realizes lessening in the resistance of the samples
against bending powers (Noushin Bahari 2015).
8.8 Pineapple fiber nonwovens

Pineapple fiber is made from fibers extracted out of pineapple leaves, which
are usually discarded and left to rot during the pineapple harvesting process.
The fine, flexible fibers are extracted from the leaf through a process called
decortication. The decorticated fibers were degummed and used for the
manufacturing application. The degumming process surprisingly provides
a great amount of soft to the touch and breathable nature to the fiber. The
degummed fibers are used either directly or in blend with other fibers to
convert as nonwoven textile. Piñatex is one of the Philippines-based textile
company started making these pineapple fibers from pineapple leaves. They
were initially developed nonwovens for Philippines, because of the greater
fiber properties and potential the requirement for the fiber increased in
European countries recently (www.carefullycurated.co.uk).
The current manufactures of this pineapple fibers and nonwoven fabrics
were producing these nonwoven as an alternative to the leather material
to avoid or eliminate the number of environmental hazardous processes
involved in the leather tanning process. According to the company, they take
a waste product and convert it into a new and sustainable product, which
brings benefits to the farming communities. They developed a process called
decortication to extracts the fibers from the leaves, which happens on the
pineapple plantation. The by-product of this process is a biomass that can then
be made into organic fertilizer or bio-gas, which can bring additional income
to these farming communities. Following the extraction, the fibers go through
an industrial process, using needle-punch technology, to be converted into a
nonwoven textile.
“Piñatex offers a compelling new material, which has unique properties

inherent in the fibers being used: strong tensile strength, finesses, takes color
very well, is pliable and durable and all these properties are well maintained
in the nonwoven substrate made from pineapple leaf fibers,” Dr. Carmen
Hijosa, the founder of the company adds.
When it comes to using Piñatex nonwoven as a leather alterative, the
unique textile can be used to make fashion items and accessories, home
interiors and automotive and aeronautics interiors, according to the company
(Tara Olivo, 2015).
8.9 Abaca fiber nonwovens

Abaca is a leaf fiber which fits in with banana group of plants with the organic
name of musa textiles. These leaves are upright, pointed, smaller, and more
decreasing than the leaves of banana. Abaca (Manila Hemp) is one among the
common fiber-reinforcing materials. Abaca is a hard fiber and is altogether
unique in relation to genuine hemp, which is a delicate fiber and is the result
of Cannabis sativa. The best grades of Abaca are fine, radiant, light beige
in shading and extremely solid. Abaca is the most grounded of every single
normal fiber. It is utilization as crude material for cordage, fiber specialties,
and mash for the creation of claim to fame paper items like security papers,
tea packs, meat housings, nonwoven materials, and cigarette papers.
Table 8.3 Chemical composition of Abaca fiber and natural fibers
Chemical composition Abaca Hemp Jute Sisal Linen Cotton

(leaf) (bast) (bast) (leaf) (bast) (Seed)
Cellulose (%) 68.32 77.5 64 71.5 82 80–90
Hemi cellulose (%) 19 10 20 18.1 2 4–6
Lignin (%) 12–13 6.8 13.3 5.9 4 0–1.5
Moisture content (%) 10–11 1.8 1.5 4 7.7 6–8
Ash content (%) 4.8 3.9 1.0 1 3.4 1–1.8
It has been approved as main component in the manufacture of composites

used in automotive industry due to Abaca fiber’s lightness as compared to
fiberglass. Mercedes Benz has used a mixture of polypropylene thermoplastic
and abaca yarn in auto mobile body parts. These fibers also used in medical
gas masks and gowns, diapers, hospital linen, bed sheets as nonwoven form
(Vijayalakshmi et al. 2014). The chemical compositions of abaca fiber with
other natural fibers were provided in Table 8.3.
Guzman et al. (1982) analysed the possibilities of utilizing abaca, kenaf

and pineapple fibers nonwovens as household material. They also compared
the performance of the developed products with the commercial items. Their
study mainly focused on the likelihood of using abaca, kenaf and pineapple
fibers as crude materials for nonwoven fabrication. They performed the ideal
degumming conditions for abaca and kenaf fibers as first process of their
study, the physical, chemical and microscopic characterization of each fiber
were performed later. Finally, the mechanical and nonwoven processing of
abaca kenaf and pineapple fibers was performed. Based on their research, they
developed nonwoven fabrics as tablecloths, bags, wall covers, sound proofing
materials and interlinings. The fabrics were produced from abaca, kenaf
and pineapple fibers with polyester blends using the needle-punching and
adhesive-bonding processes. They had also performed a physical properties
evaluation of the nonwoven fabrics. The strength and drape properties of
the needle-punched fabrics shoed the potential application possibilities of
nonwoven as home textile.
8.10 Sisal fiber nonwovens

Sisal fiber is derived from the leaves of the sisal plant. The sisal fibers were
decorticated from the leave using a machine, where the machine mechanically
crushes the sisal plant leaf between the rollers to scrap the fibers out of it. The
extracted fibers were then allowed to dry naturally or mechanically after a
strong wash. The dried fiber represents only 4% of the total weight of the leaf.
The dried and processed fiber is brushed double time to make it more lustrous.
(www.sisal.ws).
The sisal fiber is mainly utilized for the cordage uses in ship’s rigging and
ship-related industries. This is because of its high strength, durability, ability
to stretch, affinity for certain dyestuffs, and resistance to deterioration in
saltwater. In general, there are three different grades of Sisal fibers were used
by industries. The first grade sisal fiber yarns were used in home textile and
carpet industries after required finishing and processing treatments. The second
grade or medium grade sisal fibers were commonly used in cordage industry,
where the ropes, balers and binder twines are manufactured. The resistant
towards the saltwater makes this sisal fibers more opt for the applications like
marine and agricultural purpose (www.wigglesworthfibres.com). The lower
grade fibers contained higher amount of cellulose and hemicelluloses in their
structure, this provides an opportunity to use this fibers in paper industry. The
sisal fibers are also used in low cost and specialty paper, dartboards, buffing
cloth, filters, geotextiles, mattresses, carpets, handicrafts, wire rope cores and
macramé production other than general cordage and twine based applications.
The comparison of physical properties of natural fibers with sisal fibers were
listed in Table 8.4 (Vijayalakshmi et al. 2014). Latest studies had evidenced
that the sisal fibers has been utilized as a strengthening agent to replace
asbestos and fiberglass as well as an environment-friendly component in the
automobile industries (web.archive.org).
Table 8.4 Comparison of physical properties of natural fibers with sisal fiber
Physical properties Sisal Abaca Hemp Jute Linen Cotton
(leaf) (leaf) (bast) (bast) (bast) (seed)
Density (g/cm3) 1.33 1.5 1.48 1.46 1.4 1.54
Fiber length 1m 2–4 m 1–2 m 3–3.5 m up to 90 10–65

cm mm
Fiber diameter in microns 100–300 150–260 16–50 60–110 12–60 11–12
Tensile strength (N/m 2)

600–700 980 550–900 400–800 800 400
Elongation in % 4.3 1.1 1.6 1.8 2.7–3.5 3–10
Moisture regain in % 11 5.81 12 13.75 10–12 8.5
Young’s modulus (Gpa) 17–22 41 30–60 20–25 50–70 6–10
Neira & Marinho (2005) conducted a study to analyse the thermal

insulation ability of the sisal nonwoven blanket. Their results were promising
that sisal fibers were not very different from those of commercial thermal
insulation materials. Their experiments verified that the sisal fiber nonwoven
mats was not resistant to applications beyond 160°C. During the study the
researchers noted that the nonwoven blanket changed its color from natural to
dark brown, which was attributed to the carbonization of the fibers. They have
suggested that these fibrous materials can be still used in many situations of
industry, as well as in domestic application, where the temperature does not
reach more than 150°C. They have concluded that, the use of sisal blanket,
besides providing significant decrease in the costs of thermal insulation when
compared with the commercial materials with sustainable nature.
Other researchers analysed the behavior of coir, jute, sisal and
polyethylene terephthalate (PET) blended needle-punched nonwoven fabrics
against its load withstanding ability as an application in geo textile material.
They had developed the nonwoven fabrics by needle-punching technique. The
developed nonwoven mats with different fiber combinations were analysed
for their load withstanding capacity of the soil. They identified that the soil
inserted with fabric samples showed improved load withstanding capability
when compared to the standard one (without nonwoven) (Meenambika &
Sunitha 2012).
8.11 Wool fiber nonwovens

Majam Radetica et al. (2003) utilised recycled wool-based nonwoven material
as a sorbent in an oil spill cleanup. This material sorbed higher measures of base
oil than diesel or unrefined petroleum from the surface of a demineralized or
artificial seawater shower. The researchers identified that the free fibers of the
same root right now have fundamentally higher sorption limits than explored
nonwoven material. The authors mentioned that the recycled wool-based
nonwoven material showed good sorption properties and adequate reusability,
indicating that a material based on natural fibers could be a viable alternative
to commercially available synthetic materials that have poor biodegradability.
The researchers also treated the recycled wool with low temperature plasma
and chitosan, to analyse the effect of these treatment on the oil absorbtion
properties. They have concluded that the low temperature plasma treatment
results in extremely high hydrophilization of the wool fiber because of the
modification of a covalently bound layer of fatty acids on the fiber surface
and the formation of new polar functional groups (Lee & Pavlath 1975). The
researchers mentioned that their findings were in line with the findings of
Choi and Moreau, where, they had mentioned that physical properties of the
fiber such as crimp, twist, surface roughness, and porosity have significant
influence on the oil sorption properties. The findings suggested that adsorption
should be the most prominent mechanism of oil sorption on wool nonwoven
because of
(i) the existence of waxes and grease giving a hydrophobic nature to the
fiber,
(ii) the scale like structure with large pores, and
(ii) the fiber crimp providing the space for the deposition of oil and
formation of capillary bridges of oil between the fibers. (Choi &
Moreau 1993)
8.12 Kapok fiber nonwovens

Kapok or ceiba pentandra is a plant which is available abundantly in our
country. This plant is one of the widely available resources in India, which
makes it less treasured than any other plant-based fiber material. This fiber
materials commonly used in the fillings in pillows, hence, the fiber was never
expected to perform in other applications. However, the kapok fibers look
the same as cotton fibers in physical appearance. The fluffiness and softness
of the both cotton and kapok fibers could not be easily differentiated by an
inexperienced eyes. The only difference which makes the kapok unique is the
brighter white colour. The cotton fibers might look a bit yellowish in colour
than kapok fiber. It is meaningful to mention that though both cotton and
kapok fibers appearance looks the same, the physical properties of both in
terms of length, diameter and moisture regain are different for each materials.
The careful microscopical examination of kapok fiber revealed that the kapok
fibers have a hollow tubular shape with a large lumen while cotton appears
like a kidney shape (Musa et al. 2011). In average the Kapok trees normally
reach 30–50 metres high Asian sub continent. Furthermore, the trunk can also
expand to 2.74 metres (9 feet) or 3.05 metres (10 feet) in diameter. The tree
is deciduous, which means it will shed all of its leaves during the dry time
(Mwaikambo, 2006).
The kapok fibers are traditionally used as a stuffing’s and fillings in
bedding, upholstery, life preservers and other water-safety equipment because
of its excellent buoyancy (Zhang et al., 2013), and for insulation against sound
and heat because of its air-filled lumen (Veerakumar and Selvakumar, 2012;
Xiang et al., 2013). The kapok fiber possesses an excellent heat retention
capacity. Hence, these fibers can be blended with other fibers to achieve
apparel fabrics with improved heat retention characteristics (Hong et al.,
2012). The other researchers studied the properties of kapok fiber nonwoven
developed by different manufacturing methods. Their experiment resulted the
findings like, for better performance, the nonwoven processing technology
should not be affect hollow of the kapok fiber. The nonwoven technology also
has an impact on products related performance like, products Gsm, different
thickness, permeability, heat retention, and compression elasticity were
different for various manufacturing methods (Li Suying et al. 2102).
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Index
A acicular 301
Aatcc 96, 136, 137, 153, 190, 204, aclepiadacae 301
207, 208, 312 acoustic 91, 187, 233, 257, 282, 291,
abaca 285, 286, 299, 304, 305, 306, 292, 294, 302, 310, 312, 313
309, 314 acrylamide 22, 23, 24, 25
abradant 194 acrylate-vinyl 23
abrasion 11, 12, 14, 84, 95, 104, 131, acute 162
162, 173, 189, 192, 194, 195, adaptable 133, 146, 220, 295
212, 225, 227, 232, 242, 260, add-on 132, 173, 175
268, 272, 274, 279
additives 1, 11, 15, 17, 27, 44, 132,
abrasive 25, 161, 162, 214, 269, 271, 172, 277
281, 282
adhesion 2, 3, 20, 26, 27, 84, 110,
absorbency 13, 30, 31, 89, 128, 131, 133, 151, 168, 182, 189, 263,
136, 160, 189, 200, 201, 205, 268, 274, 281
209, 228, 229, 275, 287, 302
adhesive 18, 19, 20, 22, 23, 24, 25,
absorbent 11, 13, 14, 22, 27, 28, 31, 26, 32, 91, 119, 133, 137, 152,
32, 66, 70, 146, 147, 151, 188, 160, 176, 177, 228, 243, 246,
201, 204, 208, 213, 226, 228, 251, 257, 262, 263, 268, 269,
229, 246, 260, 265, 269, 274, 270, 274, 279
275, 281, 282, 283, 287, 294,
310 adsorbent 271, 273, 274
absorption 10, 29, 132, 189, 196, adsorption 24, 198, 203, 274, 281,
199, 200, 201, 204, 205, 229, 288, 290, 298, 307
238, 252, 272, 273, 274, 285, adult 28, 230, 260, 276
287, 288, 289, 291, 292, 293, aerodynamic 34, 36, 43, 48, 66, 78,
297, 300, 301, 302, 314 94, 149, 246
abundantly 293, 307 aerosol 19, 207
acceptable 85, 128, 193, 206 agglomerate 4
accomplish 115, 126, 140 aggregate 37, 177, 224
acetate 13, 21, 22, 23, 24, 30, 94 agitation 17, 18, 74
agrotech 213, 218, 221 atactic 76

air-laid 4, 35, 63, 64, 70, 89, 92, 93, automobile 23, 24, 232, 234, 246,
94, 125, 127, 136, 253, 254, 265 287, 289, 298, 306
airbags 213, 235 automotives 101, 109, 211, 214, 234,
aliphatic 16, 171 235, 247, 295, 296, 302
alluded 135, 219 azo-phosphoric 171
aluminium 30, 271
ambient 60, 85, 87, 90, 91, 150, 227
B
aminoplast 23
angle 20, 38, 47, 54, 60, 61, 64, 85, backings 23, 29, 145, 214, 233, 242,
162, 181, 186, 188, 190, 196, 243
197, 199, 201, 202, 203, 209 bacteria 28, 130, 204, 207, 227, 229,
anisotropic 69, 197 289
anti-fungal 170 bale 37, 39, 40
anti-microbial 243 ballpoint 107
antibacterial 12, 23, 170, 204, 229, banana 304
248 bandages 19, 226
antimicrobial 131, 156, 170, 178, barbed 97, 98, 150
179, 227, 228, 242, 248, 262, barrel 78
277, 291
bathrobes 262
antistatic 11, 23, 69, 156, 170
batts 5, 30, 59, 61, 62, 64, 66, 97, 98
apparels 5, 75, 177
beaters 40
apron 35, 41, 143, 294
bed-linen 89
aquaculture 289
bedding 80, 90, 138, 150, 151, 170,
aramid 12, 26, 289, 290 213, 224, 242, 308
archimedean 81 benz 304
aridness 229 beta 193, 207
arrestance 207, 290
bi-component 1, 12, 14, 15, 16, 18,
artificial 19, 29, 226, 228, 265, 283, 184, 211, 217
307
bi-lamination 263
asbestos 286, 306
biaxially 3, 265
asclepiadaceae 299
bio-based 286, 297, 309
asphalt 25, 213
biocide 225
astm 2, 31, 181, 187, 190, 191, 192,
193, 194, 199, 200, 203, 204, biodegradability 13, 189, 292, 307
205, 206, 207, 208 biomechanical 216
asymmetry 210 biopolymers 170
Index 317
bladder 230, 276 cartilage 226

blasting 161 cartridge 86, 130, 239, 276
blood 19, 170, 203, 204, 227, 291 casein 2, 24
blood-borne 203, 275 casinos 239
blowroom 37, 39, 65 cavity 159, 244
boding 251 ceiba 307
bolster 233 cement 224
booth 237 centrifugal 34, 38, 67, 130
breathability 28, 212, 218, 262, 275, ceramics 30, 31
293 cetyl 170
bristle-brush 101 chandwick 51
broadcloth 163 charge 55, 170, 189, 205, 211, 236,
bu-acrylate 23 289, 290, 294
buckled 58 chemotextiles 285
buildtech 213 chlorofiber 12
burn-off 263 chlorofluorocarbons 289
bursting 191, 194 cholesterol 291
butadiene 24, 25, 30, 72, 132 cigarette 304
butyl-acrylate 23 cleaner 18, 39, 241
cleanomat 39, 40
climate 88, 218, 220, 244
C clogged 126
c-factor 203 clothtech 213
calcium 26, 265 clumps 72, 74
calendering 4, 96, 140, 143, 144, co-polyamide 268, 269
145, 146, 156, 280, 281, 303 coat-hanger 78
cancer 291 coatings 24, 140, 171, 174, 218, 228
canvas 295 coefficient 186, 193, 291, 302, 312
capacitors 18, 86 coform 91, 252, 257, 259, 260, 272
capsules 178, 179 cohesion 2, 3, 10, 47, 182, 189, 292
captivating 16 collagen 170
carbonization 306 colliding 91
carbonizing 171 color 87, 134, 188, 189, 232, 262,
carcinogenicity 189 304, 306
carriage 59, 61 colorfastness 134
combifil 278 D
combs 51, 114 dams 214, 244
commodity 16, 292 danweb 64
compactness 103, 173 dash-boards 293
compartment 232, 233, 235 de-aerate 174
compressor 82, 83 de-lamination 99, 143, 242
concentric 15 deciduous 308
concrete 213, 221 decitex 261
cone-winding 123 decrystallization 178
constructions 121, 203, 237, 239, 274 deep-frozen 244
consume 160, 237 deformability 216
contifeed 44, 45 deionization 130
convection 141, 150 delamination 64, 255
copolymer 22, 23, 24, 25, 26 delta 54, 140
copper 165, 166, 276, 290, 291, 314 demineralized 307
cordage 295, 304, 305 dental 231
core-cladding 32 dermal 232
corona 278, 282 desizing 165
cosmetic 178, 230, 262 deteriorated 172
cosmetology 291 dewatering 125, 254
covelle 263 di-carboxylic 26
coverstock 25, 28, 29, 31, 150, 213, diapers 22, 58, 79, 80, 230, 251,
226, 257 260, 272, 285, 287, 304
creel 90 diaphragm 191, 194, 195, 206
crepe 246 diffusion 32, 178, 236, 275
cresol 26 dilo 29, 37, 92
cross-laid 4, 61, 97, 102, 117 dirt-holding 241
cross-lapper 60, 61, 99 dislodged 100, 108
crosslinking 157 disorienting 58
crude 304, 305 disperse 169
culvert 224 dispersion 23, 25, 71, 72, 73, 74,
curl 15, 17 89, 94, 150, 171, 172, 173, 174,
curtains 28, 214, 243 185, 281
cushions 299 disposables 3, 13, 88, 90, 143, 149
cyclodextrines 179 dissipate 128, 171
Index 319
distilled 195 emission 170, 196, 232, 244

divergent 136 emulsifying 300
doctor 174, 283, 312 emulsions 21
doffers 54, 58, 88 encapsulating 254
dogs 231 encroachment 222
downstream 44, 278 end-use 84, 95, 194, 232, 280, 293
drafting 61, 62, 69, 92, 99, 104 endocrine 232
drapability 157 engraving 140, 143, 161
drapable 274 entangle 84, 127, 150
draw-off 114 entrapped 124, 128
dry-cleaning 23 enumerating 132
duvets 138, 214, 243
environmentally 18, 286, 300, 312
dyestuffs 169, 178, 305
epoxidised 26
dynamic 34, 178, 224, 291
epoxy 25, 26, 33, 200
ester 22, 23, 180
E ethoxyperflurobutane 274
eccentric 15 european 3, 101, 208, 303
eco-friendliness 292 evaporation 196, 201
edana 3, 10, 13, 32, 33, 132, 152, expansion 135, 136, 162, 199, 216
190, 204, 209, 249, 251, 272, expels 126
287, 312 explicit 194
efficient 21, 44, 110, 128, 130, 178, extraction 303
199, 203, 219, 229, 235, 244,
275 extruded 35, 76, 81, 83, 172, 278
elasticity 12, 25, 60, 108, 138, 182, extrusion 16, 35, 75, 76, 78, 81, 82,
186, 189, 262, 292, 308 83, 168, 174, 175, 251
elastomers 30, 90 exudates 227, 229
electrical 142, 150, 195, 199, 210,
213, 281, 298
F
electro-luminescent 179
electrolytic 28 facemasks 19, 257, 272, 276
electromagnetic 148, 263 fanning 78
electrospinning 18, 32, 33, 240 fastness 168, 232
electrospintech 282 fatigue 189
embankments 224 faults 69
embedding 250 feathers 312
feeble 96 floor-coverings 213

feeder 44, 50, 51, 56, 65, 81, 253 flooring 30, 234, 242
felt 25, 61, 98, 99, 110, 111, 112, flotation 70, 126
142, 144, 231, 239, 277, 278 fluctuated 108, 300
felting 2, 98, 101, 108, 109, 111, fluffiness 307
150, 152 fluorocarbon 172
female 144, 287 flywheels 157
fertilizer 277, 303 fogging 291, 309
fiber-bonding 113 foot 192, 207, 292
fiber-entanglement 99 footwear 293
fiber-reinforcing 304 fork 101, 109
fiberglass 121, 304, 306 formaldehyde 25, 33, 207
fibrillate 3 fortification 294
fibroin 229 fraction 74, 197, 198, 238
filament 12, 17, 27, 35, 75, 78, 79, fragile 241, 300
80, 81, 87, 90, 122, 127, 168, fragrance 188
216, 227, 243, 250, 257, 277 freezing 224
filling 5, 44, 50, 51, 113, 117, 138, frequency 50, 96, 103, 150, 186,
214 187, 197, 206, 302
filtering 19, 25, 26, 76, 200, 212, freudenberg 6, 217, 237, 246, 261
235, 298
friction 2, 3, 78, 97, 111, 165, 170,
filtermedia 257 186, 189, 206, 235
finding 7, 106, 234, 263 frost 218, 219, 293
fineness 37, 41, 60, 68, 72, 95, 102, fuelled 165
106, 127, 219, 292, 311 fundamental 7, 47, 99, 135, 161,
fitesa 6 191, 199, 298, 302
flame-lamination 264 fungal 170
flame-resistant 171, 172 fungicidal 229
flammability 22, 171, 188, 204, 207, fusible 12, 28, 31, 175, 293
232, 238, 297 fusion 3, 152, 158, 281
flanges 242 fuzzy 163, 188
fleece 25, 142, 163
fleissner 30
flexural 25, 27, 271, 291 G
flocculation 72, 126 garment 5, 216, 217, 257, 294
flocking 28, 177 garnett 5, 53
floodgates 223 gas-permeable 275
Index 321
gaskets 30, 235 hanging 119, 120

gauge 45, 108, 111, 116, 184, 205 hardness 20, 262
gauze 214, 226, 227, 229, 275 harmful 170, 173, 296
gears 82 harnessing 119
genzyme 19 harvesting 40, 298, 303, 314
geo-synthetics 244 hazardous 22, 213, 227, 303, 309
geocomposite 92 headbox 72, 254, 255, 256, 282
geomembrane 225 headgear 229
geometry 20, 85, 199, 302 headliners 213, 214, 233, 234
geotext 209 healing 229, 274, 291
geotextiles 10, 22, 29, 70, 79, 80, 90, heat-setting 149, 152
100, 101, 109, 110, 112, 119,
heating 21, 90, 136, 141, 143, 150,
120, 121, 149, 150, 154, 200,
158, 184, 212, 296
206, 208, 211, 214, 218, 222,
223, 224, 225, 246, 292, 298, heavyweight 61, 111
305 held 2, 95, 165, 211, 272, 300, 301
gloss 24 hemicelluloses 305
glycol 16, 24 herbicide 221
godet 79 heterogeneous 183
gradient 195, 196, 207, 236, 252, hexylacrylate-vinyl 23
278 high-density 16, 228
granules 77, 225, 280 high-performance 67, 69
graphite 25
high-tech 18, 121
gravimetric 50, 200, 208
high-velocity 64, 80, 81
gravity 78, 222
homogeneous 41, 43, 47, 72, 78,
gravure 136 111, 143, 251, 259
greenhouse 213, 218, 289 hoodliners 233, 235
greige 128 hopper 37, 43, 50, 56, 65, 76, 77, 81
grinding 157 horticulture 218, 293
groz-beckert 110, 152, 233 hot-calendered 147
gulf 287
hot-squeezing 291
housekeeping 30
H humidity 27, 55, 60, 190, 195, 220
handicraft 294 husbandry 218
handling 22, 41, 104, 148, 165, 213, hvac 237, 239, 241
292, 295 hydraulic 151, 153, 225, 237, 247
hydro-entanglement 30, 95, 152, inferior 268

217, 231, 242 infiltration 119, 120
hydro-entangling 9, 216, 217 inflated 195, 206, 223
hydrocarbon 254 infrared 21, 137, 148, 150, 158, 193
hydrogen 28, 30, 95, 128, 169 inorganic 26, 28, 30, 31, 36, 171,
hydrophilic 127, 128, 160, 170, 173, 286
201, 228, 256, 275, 281 inseparable 299
hydrophobicity 13, 14, 228 insulation 5, 18, 25, 27, 28, 29, 30,
hydrostatic 191, 200, 204 31, 66, 69, 70, 86, 88, 91, 104,
hygiene 6, 10, 28, 29, 30, 32, 66, 70, 112, 213, 214, 218, 232, 233,
79, 80, 88, 90, 118, 151, 152, 234, 235, 242, 243, 244, 246,
170, 178, 181, 204, 211, 212, 249, 257, 280, 281, 292, 293,
226, 230, 231, 246, 249, 257, 294, 296, 297, 298, 301, 302,
260, 265, 271, 272, 275, 276, 306, 308, 309, 310, 311
283, 285, 287 insulators 150, 293
hypoallergenic 287, 289 intensity 30, 112, 201, 223
inter-granular 198
interlinings 5, 6, 26, 27, 58, 88, 101,
I 109, 138, 151, 175, 214, 285,
identical 45, 75, 86, 143, 160 305
ignition 171 ions 130, 178, 236, 250, 269
imidazole 25 irradiation 26
imitation 123, 157 irregular 69, 175, 289
immersion 134, 135 islands-in-a-sea 90
immobilization 269, 283 isotactic 85
implantable 226 isotropically 270
impregnated 23, 61, 173, 174, 198,
199, 200, 225, 235, 274 J
impregnation 30, 110, 172, 174, 213
joggle 50
impurities 38, 41, 42
joining 113, 129
in-plane 3, 196, 216
jute 222, 235, 285, 286, 292, 293,
inadequacies 133 294, 295, 298, 304, 306, 308,
incineration 297 311, 312, 313
indigenous 299, 301 jute-based 293, 294
inertness 281 jute-nonwovens 292, 294, 295
inexpensive 275 juxtaposed 159
Index 323
K leather 26, 29, 61, 86, 90, 112, 128,

150, 157, 161, 213, 214, 262,
kapok 209, 281, 285, 286, 288, 300, 264, 265, 283, 293, 303, 304
307, 308, 309, 310, 314
ledger 162, 163
kenaf 285, 286, 288, 294, 298, 299,
lengthwise 57, 184
305, 308, 309, 310, 311, 312,
313, 314 lessening 296, 303
kidney 308 levelness 35
liberate 172
kitchen 231, 289, 299
licker-in 46, 48, 49, 51
knit 113, 117, 121, 152, 163
lifting 213
knitted 1, 2, 3, 29, 117, 131, 138,
light-weight 149, 312
168, 169, 184, 194, 226, 234,
243, 250, 262, 264, 308 lightly-needled 312
knock-over 117, 122, 123 linen 70, 169, 204, 230, 237, 242,
289, 304, 306
liners 27, 28, 70, 203, 213, 214, 225,
L 230, 233, 235, 245, 276, 293,
295
labdesk 203 linting 28, 31, 204, 228
laced 4, 287, 291 liquefying 139
laggings 293 liquids 44, 89, 202, 204, 225, 274,
lamella 101, 254, 256 299, 310
laminated 4, 19, 23, 25, 26, 148, loading 55, 187, 189, 204, 205, 224,
177, 221, 222, 239, 243, 249, 281
251, 260, 262, 263, 268, 269, lofts 66
275, 276, 277 long-staple 36
lamination 18, 102, 175, 176, 251, looms 1, 29, 92, 101, 108, 109, 110,
262, 263 111, 234
landfill 225 loose 30, 36, 45, 165, 240, 298, 302
lapper 58, 61, 62 low-density 16, 263, 301, 312
lapping 55, 56, 60, 61, 62, 68, 116 low-melting-point 140
lasers 179 lower-web-surface 136
latex 2, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 27, lubricants 44, 156, 170
28, 29, 30, 72, 122, 132, 133, lubrication 44, 171
135, 151, 160, 262, 300 luggage 213, 293, 294
lattice 37, 40, 41, 42, 49, 57, 58, 65, luminescent 26
66, 68, 70, 312 lustrous 301, 305
launderability 133 luxurious 234
M 257, 260, 266, 274, 275, 292,

295, 305, 309, 311, 312
machine-heading 115
mechanisms 178, 236
maintenance 56, 110, 111
medtech 213
majority 91, 171, 191, 235
melt-blown 34, 81, 84, 86, 87, 94,
malimo 29, 113, 117, 120, 121, 184 125, 241, 283
malipol 117, 121, 122 melt-resistant 25
malivlies 117, 119, 120, 184 meltblown-spunbonded 275
maliwatt 29, 113, 115, 117, 118, 184 melted 25, 31, 76
malkan 50, 76, 78, 93 membranes 229, 239, 240, 275
malleable 298 merchandise 182
man-made 2, 13, 32, 36, 89, 127, merv 207, 239, 240
170, 246, 310 mesh 2, 74, 229, 240, 278
manifold 129, 311 meta-aramid 252
manila 72, 304 metallic 130, 162, 278
mankind 12 metblown 4
manufacturing 6, 13, 14, 16, 34, 35, metering 50, 78, 81, 82, 137, 174
36, 41, 42, 71, 72, 75, 76, 81, methacrylate 22, 25
95, 113, 126, 153, 154, 157,
158, 168, 171, 172, 185, 215, mexico 6, 287
217, 225, 228, 230, 232, 234, micro-encapsualtion 156
240, 241, 249, 250, 251, 252, micro-organisms 218
260, 265, 272, 280, 293, 296, microcapsules 178
297, 299, 303, 308, 313
microclimate 220
manville 255, 278 micrograph 267, 273
marelli 6 micrometers 289
maschinenfabrik 265 micron 18, 29, 207, 240, 277
mask 197, 204, 227, 228, 229, 257, micronaire 128, 187
276
microprocessor 43, 51, 52
mattress 88, 170, 242, 243, 262
microscopic 182, 300, 305
mauersberger 113
migration 169, 173
maze 240
mildew 11, 14, 223, 235
mechanical 2, 3, 4, 5, 13, 14, 16, 17, milkweed 209, 285, 286, 288, 299,
18, 20, 29, 30, 36, 57, 71, 78, 300, 301, 302, 308, 309, 310,
86, 93, 95, 96, 97, 98, 102, 108, 312, 314
143, 150, 156, 157, 158, 160,
164, 173, 177, 182, 185, 198, mite-proof 262
199, 212, 216, 217, 224, 252, mobiltech 213
Index 325
modacrylic 12 narrow 18, 36, 65, 191

moderate 28, 86, 274, 292 needle 4, 6, 8, 9, 25, 29, 40, 61, 88,
modification 178, 282, 307 92, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, 100, 101,
modifying 118, 178, 179 102, 103, 104, 105, 106, 107,
108, 109, 110, 111, 112, 114,
modulus 24, 72, 104, 105, 111, 127,
115, 116, 117, 118, 119, 120,
131, 138, 186, 271, 286, 289,
121, 122, 123, 129, 131, 150,
290, 292, 306
153, 154, 157, 163, 182, 183,
moisture 13, 22, 75, 151, 158, 170, 186, 187, 221, 222, 231, 232,
189, 190, 195, 201, 207, 218, 233, 234, 239, 251, 263, 274,
219, 221, 222, 223, 229, 238, 276, 277, 278, 279, 287, 297,
289, 293, 297, 304, 306, 308 299, 302
moldability 232, 281 needle-punched 97, 98, 102, 111,
monofilament 93 112, 149, 155, 214, 226, 228,
monomers 20, 22, 23 232, 243, 251, 273, 276, 289,
morphological 93 290, 293, 294, 295, 297, 299,
morphology 139, 162 301, 305, 306
moulded 70, 235, 275 needlefelt 241
mulching 211, 218, 219, 220 neumag 54
multi-bonding 249, 260 nickel-plated 160
multi-component 242 noise 70, 89, 213, 235, 247, 291,
293, 301, 302, 312
multi-layered 252, 253, 254, 273
multicomponent 90 non-abrasiveness 131
multifunctional 250 non-adherent 275
multiknit 184 non-allergic 227
non-biodegradable 232
non-blocking 23
N non-bonded 30, 183
n-decane 198 non-carcinogenic 227
n-methylol 23, 24 non-conductive 11
nano-crystalline 229 non-conformance 191
nanofiber 19, 240, 266, 267, 268, non-contact 176
277, 281, 284 non-continuous 121
nanofibers 12, 14, 17, 18, 19, 32, 33, non-crimped 72
229, 240, 266, 268, 269, 271, non-durable 160
277, 282
non-elastic 226
nanoparticles 172
non-fading 11
napkins 27, 70, 173, 205, 214, 230,
242, 276 non-fray 242
non-hazardous 22 nottebohm 5
non-healing 232 novolak 25, 26
non-implantable 226 nozzle 18, 79, 217, 266
non-leachable 170 nozzles 79, 136, 175
non-splitting 90 nurseries 218, 220
non-stabilized 135 nylon 12, 13, 16, 18, 24, 26, 31, 75,
non-styled 113 80, 89, 113, 127, 141, 171, 211,
non-toxic 227 234, 261, 268, 269, 282
nonionic 168
nonlinear 101 O
nonstick 228
objective 128, 132, 193, 235, 240
nonwoven-layered 268
obliging 108
nonwovens 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10, 11,
12, 13, 14, 16, 19, 20, 22, 23, obtain 39, 59, 61, 108, 110, 191,
24, 25, 27, 30, 31, 32, 33, 35, 200, 309
36, 37, 39, 41, 49, 53, 58, 62, occur 105, 158, 281
68, 70, 74, 76, 80, 81, 85, 88, odor 188, 213, 232
89, 92, 93, 94, 95, 98, 111, 121, oekotech 213
126, 128, 130, 133, 134, 135,
off-seasonal 221
136, 137, 138, 139, 143, 148,
149, 151, 152, 153, 154, 155, offshore 213
156, 157, 158, 159, 160, 161, oil-repellent 172
166, 168, 169, 170, 171, 172, oil-spill 309
173, 174, 175, 177, 178, 179, olefin 223, 272
181, 182, 183, 184, 185, 189,
190, 191, 192, 193, 194, 198, oleophobic 189
208, 209, 210, 211, 212, 214, oligopolistic 10
215, 216, 217, 218, 219, 220, on-line 85
221, 222, 224, 225, 226, 227, onstream 92, 94
228, 229, 230, 231, 232, 234,
opacity 29, 81, 86, 87, 100, 272
235, 240, 242, 243, 244, 245,
246, 247, 248, 249, 250, 251, opaque 87, 106, 188, 197
257, 260, 262, 263, 264, 266, optical 193, 197, 199, 200, 202, 208
268, 269, 270, 272, 276, 278, optimizing 218
281, 283, 284, 285, 286, 287, orchestrated 110, 126
289, 290, 291, 292, 293, 294,
organic 23, 130, 286, 303, 304, 310
295, 296, 297, 298, 300, 301,
302, 303, 304, 305, 307, 309, organobromine 172
310, 311, 312, 313 organochlorine 172
norrköping 6 organohalogens 289
Index 327
orientation 26, 47, 48, 57, 59, 60, 61, particulate 24, 130, 208, 213, 239,
62, 66, 69, 78, 79, 81, 86, 87, 240, 249, 250, 269, 270, 271,
88, 89, 90, 91, 102, 108, 109, 276
138, 150, 181, 186, 196, 197, patented 222, 259, 260, 261
198, 199, 209, 210, 224
pathogens 275
orifices 78, 83
pathology 310
orthogonal 147 pavements 221
oscillating 187 pellets 77, 81, 168
osmosis 218, 237, 277, 278 pendulum 191
oven 31, 137, 139, 263 penetrate 105, 118, 121
overfeed 158 penetration 28, 100, 102, 103, 104,
overlapped 121 105, 110, 111, 116, 150, 174,
oxidation 178 183, 203, 204, 218, 222, 225,
oxygen 134, 289 275, 276, 279
penetrometers 207
perfojet 30
P perforation 156, 157, 224, 244
pacific 7 performance 2, 11, 12, 19, 20, 26,
packaging 24, 31, 188, 213, 244, 32, 33, 55, 79, 88, 92, 93, 192,
245, 247, 257, 262, 263, 293 195, 203, 208, 209, 216, 225,
packtech 213 229, 232, 234, 235, 237, 242,
250, 263, 266, 267, 275, 278,
padded 169, 173 282, 287, 290, 292, 295, 301,
pads 66, 150, 213, 214, 230, 231, 302, 305, 308, 309, 314
242, 245, 262, 276, 299 permeability 25, 92, 104, 105, 112,
panasonic 298 187, 189, 191, 195, 198, 199,
pant 230 204, 205, 207, 221, 222, 223,
panty 29, 230, 276 225, 231, 236, 238, 244, 289,
papermaking 2, 93, 160, 295 290, 308
papers 3, 89, 154, 262, 284, 304, 309 permittivity 207
para-aramid 252 perpendicular 4, 34, 57, 59, 62, 105,
129, 183, 200, 207
paraffin 22, 187
perpetually 286
parallelisation 47
pertaining 36
parcel 213, 214, 233, 295
pervasive 290, 296
partial-wrap 17
pesticides 215, 218, 219, 221, 296
particle 137, 207, 236, 237, 241,
252, 265, 269, 270, 271, 278, petroleum 307
283, 290, 291, 298 pharmaceutical 178, 237, 239
phase-change 179 polyester 5, 6, 14, 23, 24, 25, 26, 28,

phenolic 25, 274 29, 30, 31, 39, 55, 75, 80, 89,
90, 92, 113, 117, 120, 122, 127,
phenomenon 158, 181, 197, 198,
130, 137, 141, 168, 169, 170,
210, 301
171, 211, 217, 220, 221, 226,
philippines-based 303 228, 229, 234, 235, 239, 240,
philosophy 312 243, 244, 261, 262, 263, 272,
photo-degradation 173 273, 274, 275, 277, 278, 294,
305
photosynthesis 218
polyetherimide 16
physiological 290
polyetherurethane 284
pigment 24, 169
polyethylene 13, 16, 21, 31, 75, 81,
pile-composite 279 139, 141, 153, 169, 222, 226,
piling 189 228, 229, 263, 306
pillar 118, 183 polylactic 16, 76
pillar-stitch 115 polymer 8, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 20, 21,
pillows 5, 138, 151, 242, 243, 307 22, 23, 24, 25, 33, 34, 35, 69,
75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 81, 82, 83,
pineapples 312, 313 85, 87, 90, 91, 93, 95, 97, 127,
pipeline 42 133, 140, 141, 151, 168, 171,
pitch 26 172, 173, 182, 184, 185, 188,
228, 234, 240, 256, 263, 266,
pivoting 161
267, 271, 274, 281, 288, 309
piñatex 303, 304, 312
polymeric 18, 19, 178, 265, 278, 279
plant-based 307 polymerization 23
plasma 156, 178, 307 polyolefin 12, 23, 171, 262, 265,
plasticized 25, 139 266, 275
plastics 88, 213, 226, 262 polyphenylene 16
pleatable 87 polytrimethylene 16
pneumatic 51, 69, 70, 79, 136, 194 polyvinylacetate 132
polarity 19 polyvinylchloride 132
polishing 25, 121, 214, 272 porosimetry 199
polyacrylates 23 porosity 20, 29, 30, 81, 140, 181,
polyamide 5, 26, 85, 90, 122, 170, 186, 189, 198, 199, 207, 221,
217, 226, 243, 262 225, 229, 232, 238, 250, 262,
274, 281, 300, 302, 307, 314
polyamides 16, 21, 81
porous 11, 19, 23, 90, 186, 196, 198,
polycarbonate 18, 81 199, 200, 202, 203, 228, 273,
polycyclohexanedimethanol 16 292, 308
Index 329
post-calendered 148 protectors 293

post-chemical 111 proteins 22
pots 213, 218 prototype 130
pre-assembled 176 protruding 104, 162, 165, 166
pre-bonded 88 ptfe 12, 239, 278
pre-filter 241 pulling 145, 163, 165, 213
pre-metalized 179 pumping-up 224
pre-needled 279
punched 6, 8, 9, 25, 61, 98, 105,
pre-needling 99, 100, 102, 243 150, 153, 154, 169, 182, 183,
precision 43, 140, 157, 180, 218 221, 222, 232, 234, 274, 278,
precursor 124, 127, 128, 129, 155 287, 299
predominantly 57, 111, 112, 243 puncture 102, 103, 206, 212, 223,
preformed 27, 70, 150, 260 225
preheated 141 purifiers 276, 277
presence 47, 58, 102, 111, 113, 139, pvalc 31
151, 252 pyrophate 24
preservative 269
press-packed 37
presser-foot 192
Q
pressurized 135 qualities 1, 3, 122, 182, 244
pretty 189, 247, 300 quality 22, 26, 41, 42, 44, 55, 56,
print-bonded 138 57, 61, 72, 74, 88, 89, 106, 111,
122, 126, 128, 131, 133, 138,
printability 24, 293 139, 143, 148, 157, 161, 172,
printed 4, 24, 26, 131, 169, 262 182, 183, 212, 213, 220, 246,
productivity 29, 48, 55, 61, 89, 127, 272, 286, 287, 290, 292, 297,
158, 218 310, 312
progress 9, 152, 179, 281, 285 quantitative 197, 204
projecting 163 quantities 13, 43
prolongation 289 quartz 269
prominently 13, 76 quench 77, 79, 85, 90, 144
propagation 171, 188, 196, 221, 308 quick-drying 218
protech 213 quickened 220
protection 19, 113, 142, 163, 173, quiet 189
189, 203, 205, 213, 214, 218,
219, 225, 227, 229, 244, 257, quilted 214
262, 272, 275, 291, 297 quilts 147, 242, 243
R reciprocating 62, 130

racquets 291 reclaimable 120
radiant 96, 148, 304 recognizable 249
rectangular 143, 274
radiation 141, 150, 178
recurrence 291
rail 115, 117, 119, 120, 158, 223,
244 recycled 56, 61, 75, 88, 89, 117, 307,
311
railroad 5
rediscovered 297
railway 214, 224
reemay 90
raised 31, 143, 159, 163, 258
regain 75, 306, 308
raising 156, 161, 163, 164, 165, 221
regeneration 170
random-laid 63, 102
regional 6, 32
randomisation 48, 66, 69, 79
regular 16, 62, 79, 133, 189, 286,
randomize 88 292, 296
rangers 302 reicofil 77
rapid 7, 8, 67, 171, 201, 229 reinforcement 24, 100, 206, 211,
raschel 117 213, 223, 233, 244, 262
rayon 12, 13, 14, 39, 68, 127, 138, rejects 297
229, 231, 272 relatively 12, 18, 31, 38, 61, 88, 132,
re-bulked 148 148, 241, 274, 275, 287, 295,
re-growing 289 296
re-loftable 31 relaxed 15
re-needling 111 relief 231
re-opening 37 remarkable 9, 158
re-orientation 183 repeatedly 98
re-oriented 183 repellency 170, 172, 189, 207, 225
re-presents 47 replace 56, 110, 111, 206, 216, 243,
300, 306
re-solidifies 148
report 211, 246, 287, 300, 308, 312,
re-use 301
314
re-wet 204
represents 16, 200, 286, 288, 305
reactivated 148
reproducibly 281
realigned 183
resiliency 13
reapplication 148
resilient 11, 64, 161
rear 23, 213, 233 resin 9, 23, 24, 25, 26, 33, 81, 82, 91,
rearrangement 88 95, 132, 133, 138, 158, 177, 198,
receptiveness 301 233, 263, 265, 270, 271, 277
Index 331
resin-treated 194 rotating 65, 78, 89, 110, 129, 137,

respiration 277 157, 163, 174, 277
respirator 237, 272, 276 rotogravure 174, 175
restructuring 6 roughened 110
retailers 182 royalties 189
retardancy 172, 178, 242, 274 rubber 2, 12, 20, 24, 25, 72, 145, 206
retentiveness 294, 302 running 41, 42, 58, 115, 145, 161,
198
return-on-investment 181
rupture 191, 206
reusable 244
reused 130, 301
revealed 193, 296, 297, 300, 308 S
reverse 237, 277, 278 sacking 293
rheological 13 safety 26, 91, 189, 229, 235, 278,
ribbon 127 287
rigidity 74, 108, 127, 182, 183, 186, sailcloth 263
289, 303 samples 190, 192, 195, 206, 297,
rinsed 169 301, 302, 303, 306
risk 43, 109, 165, 171, 182, 242, 272 sand 126, 161, 224
roadside 213 sandwich 253, 270
robust 241, 244 sanforizing 217
robustness 266 sanitary 13, 23, 24, 29, 70, 86, 118,
role 10, 129, 192, 225, 234, 249, 143, 149, 150, 172, 205, 214,
272, 287, 314 230, 257, 276
rollers 45, 48, 49, 52, 56, 58, 59, 62, sateens 122
63, 64, 66, 67, 69, 79, 89, 100, satisfactory 21, 69, 133, 135, 289
135, 140, 142, 143, 159, 160,
saturated 30, 199, 224, 231
161, 163, 164, 173, 174, 175,
258, 305 scaffold 157, 226
roofing 10, 22, 28, 29, 30, 70, 79, schematic 39, 84, 200, 202
90, 138, 149, 150, 151, 211, science 18, 32, 152, 179, 208, 209,
213, 214, 244 309, 311, 312, 313, 314
rooftops 244 scientific 282, 291, 311
rooms 26, 227, 230, 239 scissors 162
root 211, 213, 218, 221, 222, 225, screen 2, 63, 71, 72, 81, 84, 85, 86,
307 89, 90, 128, 129, 130, 135, 136,
rotary-cylinder 165, 166 169, 174, 175, 269, 281
screen-printing 169 shelf 26, 213, 233

screw 78, 81 shields 29, 213, 230, 276
scrubber 174 ship-related 305
sealable 11, 24 shipment 13
season 148, 298, 300 shoddy 234
seating 232, 234, 279 shoe 28, 70, 88, 123, 213, 214, 228,
seawater 288, 307 257, 293
sectors 9, 13, 18, 170, 243, 271, 278, shogging 118
286 short-staple 36, 113
sedimentation 213, 314 shower 134, 135, 243, 289, 307
seeding 218, 219 shut 119, 120, 121
segement 261 sidewalks 221
self-adhesion 176 significance 140, 249
self-bonded 81, 84, 259 signs 262
self-crosslinking 133 silicone 23, 26, 172, 277
self-sealing 22 siloxane 25
self-supporting 239 silver-coated 228
semi-durable 242 simultaneously 279
sensors 158, 179 single-fiber 187
separators 6, 18, 28, 30, 38, 86, 89, single-segment 139
90, 130, 213, 235
sintered 195, 200
sequence 35, 42, 63, 76, 217, 268,
279 sisalplant 313
series 41, 47, 129, 153, 154, 179, size-volume 199
192, 197, 311 sleeve 124, 129, 130
servo 54 slick 189, 314
setbacks 297 slip-free 206
setting 54, 56, 102, 158, 173 slippage 100, 152, 238
settlements 224 slit 61, 100
severe 103, 219 slowly 30, 55, 65, 222
sewing 113, 117, 184, 213 small-scale 231
shade 232 smoke 171, 172, 196
shading 213, 218, 304 soaking 301
shaggy 163 sockings 293
sharpened 106, 157, 162 softener 90, 285, 298
sharpness 56 softens 21, 147, 148
Index 333
soilless 220, 308 splitting 156, 157

solidifying 113, 147 sponsorships 120
soluble 16, 19, 22, 25 sportswear 170, 213
solution 24, 74, 174, 240, 250, 265, sporttech 213
266, 289 spounbond 4
solvent-soaked 274 sprayed 136, 175, 254
sophisticated 6, 189, 203 spreading 71, 104, 230
sorb 288 sprinkling 137, 177
sorbed 288, 307 spun-bond 34, 90
sorbents 86, 91, 288, 293, 309, 310 spun-bonding 75, 124
sorption 209, 285, 288, 300, 307, spun-lacing 152
309, 310 spunbonding 35, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79,
sources 16, 249, 286, 296, 300 80, 83, 85, 93, 94, 228, 242, 256
spacing 38, 150 spunlace 8, 9, 124, 125, 126, 128,
spandex 12 130, 131, 152, 153, 182, 214,
217, 229, 231, 235, 252, 260,
sparks 165
261, 264, 275, 276, 277
speaking 228
spunlaid 31, 75, 76, 226, 229, 232,
specialised 72 261
specialties 86, 304 squeeze 173, 174
specifically 5, 229, 299 squeezing 160, 161, 281
specimen 194, 199, 201, 207 stability 12, 14, 29, 75, 96, 112, 116,
speculation 126 131, 173, 175, 178, 189, 228,
spherical 199, 206 238, 242, 243, 257, 260, 266,
275, 292, 295
spill 287, 288, 298, 300, 307, 309
stabilizers 173, 224
spinfinish 56
stacking 34, 35, 57, 89, 292
spinneret 35, 76, 78, 83
stainless 12, 160, 277
spinning 17, 18, 32, 62, 75, 76, 78,
79, 90, 258, 266 staple 3, 5, 12, 34, 35, 36, 37, 39,
69, 72, 80, 88, 92, 95, 106, 127,
spirals 45 139, 141, 168, 184, 187, 193,
splash 204, 205 212, 222, 241, 265, 278, 297
splintering 295 starch 2, 22
split 16, 17, 74, 117, 261 stenter 158
split-up 232 sterilised 229
splittability 17 sterilize 225
splittables 90 stickiness 55
stiffeners 156, 173, 293 surgical 13, 28, 70, 80, 89, 93, 131,
stitch-bonded 2, 3, 115, 116, 118, 204, 208, 214, 215, 226, 227,
154, 157, 214 229, 272, 275, 276, 277, 283,
stitchbonding 29 285
surround 159
stocking 10
sustainability 287
strategic 248, 287
sutures 19
strength-elongation 112
swabs 213
stretchable 11, 23
swatch 191
stretched 61, 105, 187
sweating 200
strike 204, 218
swelling 203
stripped 47
synthetic 2, 5, 12, 20, 22, 24, 25,
strips 53, 56, 100, 129, 299 35, 37, 38, 39, 44, 60, 61, 68,
strung 118 69, 72, 75, 86, 89, 90, 112, 128,
studies 183, 193, 294, 296, 306, 313 133, 147, 150, 160, 165, 171,
stylish 293 172, 177, 203, 204, 214, 221,
224, 227, 228, 229, 239, 247,
styrene 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 30, 72, 252, 260, 262, 264, 277, 289,
132 290, 294, 296, 298, 299, 300,
subgrade 224 307
subject 69, 99, 100, 139, 295 syriaca 300
subliming 169
submicron 19
T
suction 63, 65, 66, 67, 72, 79, 89,
111, 125, 145, 159, 208 tablecloth 257
sued 156, 161 tabletop 294
sueder 161, 162 tackiness 143
sueding 161, 217 tactile 256
suitability 139, 185, 189 taguchi 303, 313
sulfate 26 tailor-make 95
sulfide 16 tailored 299
sulfonated 23 take-off 46, 49, 68, 188
sunlight 219 take-up 81, 100, 114, 200
superabsorbent 12, 89, 226 taken 34, 56, 58, 66, 106, 117, 129,
superhydrophobicity 314 135, 142, 190, 195, 202, 204,
superimposing 281 207
surfacing 28, 213 takes-in 59
surgeons 275 tampons 230
Index 335
tangible 181 thermo-bonding 251

tangles 124, 299 thermo-chromic 179
tanning 303 thermo-mechanical 266
tape 23, 25, 274 thermo-physiological 216
tappi 3, 31, 32, 33, 92, 93, 94, 152, thermobonded 148
154, 155, 190, 200, 207, 209, thermoplastic 2, 13, 16, 21, 81, 97,
210, 247, 309, 311, 313 137, 140, 150, 172, 175, 177,
tariffs 189 189, 241, 268, 269, 281, 292,
tear 5, 11, 80, 95, 108, 110, 111, 112, 304, 309
188, 191, 194, 204, 206, 207, thermosetting 25, 26
216, 223, 225, 227, 242, 260, thicker 157, 203, 301
272
thorn 108
teeth 47, 64, 65
thousand 100, 295
teflon 277
thread 12, 116, 184
temporary 178, 281
throughput 17, 37, 59, 68, 79, 85,
tennis 112, 291
126
tensile 13, 23, 24, 25, 27, 31, 79, 89,
ticking 213
171, 173, 188, 190, 193, 194,
204, 206, 207, 210, 225, 262, tiles 5, 30, 299
288, 289, 290, 291, 303, 304, timbers 297
306, 310 tires 235
tensiometer 203 tissues 19, 28, 213, 231, 232
terephthalate 13, 16, 153, 306 titanium 24
terminology 32 tobacco 295
theoretical 36, 107, 202 tonnes 7, 8, 9
therapeutic 120, 212, 228, 285, 291, topography 151, 189, 223
298, 310
torsion 186
thermal 2, 3, 4, 9, 14, 17, 18, 20, 24,
25, 28, 29, 30, 31, 36, 57, 71, tough 212, 216
79, 84, 86, 88, 95, 96, 104, 105, toweling 113
113, 138, 139, 140, 145, 146, toxic 26, 271, 283, 295
147, 150, 152, 153, 154, 155, toyota 298
182, 184, 188, 189, 195, 196,
204, 213, 214, 218, 228, 233, traffic 224
238, 242, 244, 251, 256, 260, transducers 50, 52
265, 275, 281, 282, 291, 292, transfer 46, 48, 49, 54, 56, 129, 140,
293, 294, 296, 297, 302, 303, 151, 169, 178, 216, 287
306, 308, 310, 311 transmission 145, 193, 195, 205,
thermo-active 179 225, 227, 244, 275
transmissivity 207 ultra-violet 218

transportation 43, 63, 69, 118, 300 ultrasonic 31, 50, 95, 96, 140, 147,
transporter 135 150, 251
transverse 43, 57, 59, 115 ultrasound 150
trapezoid 194, 206, 207 ultraviolet 172, 206, 218, 289
trapped 47 unbeatable 150
trash 38 unbonded 137
trauma 227 unbranched 298
travel 105, 129, 259 under-pads 230
traveler 287 underbody 233
travelling 129 underlay 213, 234, 242, 244
trend 33, 163, 287 underneath 65, 72, 79, 108, 129, 291
trezzano 6 understood 133, 287
tri-lamination 263 underwear 230, 276
triangular 110, 127 undesirable 165, 167, 171
tricot-stitch 115 undrawn 56, 91
trifluralin 222 unevenness 192
trilobal 16, 90, 127 unexploited 240
triplex 275 unfaltering 211
trouble-free 42 uniaxial 303
troublesome 69, 290 uniform 18, 21, 35, 37, 44, 45, 50,
trützschler 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45 56, 65, 68, 72, 74, 78, 79, 85,
88, 90, 106, 111, 128, 136, 138,
tubular 308
161, 174, 177, 185, 193, 195,
tuft 37, 38, 42, 50, 51, 66, 101 222
tufts 38, 39, 44, 45, 47, 51, 52, 64, unique 1, 5, 17, 18, 62, 86, 100, 101,
100, 101 111, 124, 157, 189, 304, 307
turbulence 42, 58, 84, 85, 129, 256 unobstructed 42
tweezers 187 uprightness 139
twills 122 uptake 189, 229
twine 305 urethane 262, 275
tyvek 90
V
U
vacuum 65, 72, 82, 84, 85, 86, 126,
ultra-fine 278 129, 135, 241, 277
ultra-hydrophobic 202 value-added 156
Index 337
value-addition 250 voronina 301, 314

vapour 195, 265, 274, 275 vortex 74
variable 35, 150, 194, 252, 281, 287 vulcanised 25
variations 41, 45, 51, 56, 68, 100, vulnerability 290
193, 218
varying 68, 74, 84, 145, 157, 164,
210 W
vaseline 187 wadding 66, 70, 226, 242, 243
vegetable 70, 245, 299 wall-coverings 299
vehicle 232, 246, 287 wallpapers 170, 213
velcro-type 119 warping 123
velocity 74, 79, 83, 85, 90, 91, 124, washability 218, 262
128, 129, 164, 183, 204 washing 134, 156, 167, 168, 169
velour 101, 109, 234 wastes 293
velvet 177 water-absorption 263
ventilation 208, 276 water-borne 132, 151
versatile 10, 22, 63, 95, 98, 130, water-jet 183, 261
132, 241, 275, 297, 302
water-jet-entangled 126
versatility 35, 63, 71, 131, 132, 136,
water-repellency 179
232, 272
water-resistant 24
vertically 39, 62, 161, 177, 188
water-safety 308
vibration 147, 187, 206, 289, 308
water-soluble 18
vibroscope 187
waterborne 33, 132
vinylidene 21
waterproof 22, 25, 89, 229, 274
viscose 13, 14, 39, 60, 68, 72, 120,
122, 137, 170, 226, 231, 268, wavemaker 62
269, 273 waxes 307
viscosity 18, 26, 72, 76, 78, 82, 85, wear 19, 25, 110, 111, 143, 150, 163,
91, 169, 202, 262, 301 195, 216
visible 111, 178, 193, 196, 232 wearability 310
void 50, 270, 294 weather 12, 221, 289, 294
volatile 24 weatherproof 11
volatilization 171 weaving 1, 113, 285
voltex 117, 123 web-binding 27
volumetric 50, 207 web-bonding 8, 9, 252, 253
voluminous 13, 69 web-drafting 61
web-forming 9, 256, 257 169, 193, 194, 204, 209, 216,

web-lay 79 221, 226, 227, 234, 238, 243,
250, 262, 264, 265, 293, 300
web-laying 253
wrap 28, 29, 31, 74, 86, 90, 213, 245
web-stitching-stitch-bonding-warp-
knitt 152 wrappings 293
webbing 240
weed 211, 213, 218, 221, 299 X
welding 205, 263
x-ray 197
well-opened 38
xanthomad 310
wet-milling 2, 3
wetability 127
wetlaid 9, 30, 93, 183, 193, 239, Y
240, 254 yankee 160
wetting 20, 72, 111, 135, 165, 169, yards 166, 217
172, 186, 189, 201, 202, 247,
269 yarn 1, 2, 10, 12, 16, 35, 113, 115,
116, 117, 118, 121, 122, 123,
whirling 124 181, 182, 184, 187, 238, 304
wicking 200, 205, 251, 275 year-old 298
winding 58, 76, 84, 118, 123, 125, yellowing 134, 171
156, 157, 162
yellowish 308
windmill 289
yield 85, 218, 219, 220, 292
wiping 9, 123, 149, 150, 214
yielding 95, 106
wire-covered 58
wool 2, 12, 25, 38, 163, 187, 217,
285, 286, 288, 297, 307, 310 Z
woolen 117, 159, 293
zeolite 276
woollenised 294
zero 28, 101, 108, 200
worker-stripper 67
zeta 26
wound 47, 84, 150, 163, 214, 228,
zig-zag 59
229, 231, 232, 271, 274, 275,
282, 291 zimmer 258
woven 1, 2, 3, 6, 93, 99, 110, 111, zone 68, 78, 81, 82, 100, 115, 136,
112, 117, 131, 149, 156, 168, 222, 256

T. Karthik - Prabha Karan C. - R. Rathinamoorthy - Nonwovens - Process, Structure, Properties and Applications-Woodhead Publishing India PVT. Limited (2016)

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Nonwovens: Process, structure,

properties and applications

WOODHEAD PUBLISHING INDIA PVT LTD

First published 2016, Woodhead Publishing India Pvt. Ltd.

Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered

Woodhead Publishing India Pvt. Ltd. ISBN: 978-93-85059-12-4

3. Nonwoven bonding techniques 95

4. Finishing of nonwovens 156

5. Testing of nonwovens 181

6. Applications of nonwovens 211

7. Composite nonwovens 249

8. Natural fiber nonwovens 285

8.3 Flax fiber nonwovens 289

Industries play a vital role in economy of nations as these industries

of 6.1%. According to The Future of Global Nonwovens to 2018, spunlaid

Chapter 6 discusses about the application areas of nonwoven products

This book ‘Nonwovens: Process, Structure, Properties and Applications’

Abstract: This chapter provides the overall view of nonwoven industry. It

Fabrics can be made from fibers as well as from yarns. In conventional

The major advantages in nonwoven fabrics are the higher production

1.1 Definition of nonwoven

Table 1.1 Definitions of nonwovens [Source: Hutten 2007]

S. no. Source Definition

S. no. Source Definition

1.2 Classification of nonwovens

Classification based on production

Based on web formation Based on web bonding Based on web finishing

Dry-laid nonwovens Wet-laid nonwovens 1. Coated

Figure 1.2 Classification of nonwovens based on production techniques

Classification based on structure

Classification with respect to Classification with respect to

Bonded by Bonded by Bonded by Segment Agglomerate Point

Figure 1.3 Classification of nonwovens based on structure

1.3 History of nonwovens

advancements bolstered by the present wide production of synthetic fibers, by

• 1994 Joint Venture with Japanese partner Japan Vilene Company to

1.4 Market growth of nonwoven industry

factor contributing to its rapid development and commercial acceptance

1997 2002 2011 2016 Growth Rate Growth Rate

Table 1.3 Worldwide nonwovens production in quantity (millions of tonnes)

2006 2011 2016 Growth Rate Growth

Figure 1.4 Worldwide production of nonwovens by quantity [Source: INDA, 2012]

NAFTA Greater Europe Asia ROW

Figure 1.5 Worldwide productions of nonwovens by region [Source: INDA, 2012]

By considering the nonwoven market with respect to web forming and

Figure 1.6 Nonwoven productions by web-forming processes [Source: INDA, 2012]

1000 Needle punched

Figure 1.7 Nonwoven production by web-bonding processes [Source: INDA, 2012]

processes. The market consumption of nonwovens in different application

Figure 1.8 Worldwide Nonwoven Consumption in Leading Application areas

1.5 Features of nonwoven fabrics

by incorporating appropriate properties. These properties are frequently used

Table 1.4 Properties of nonwoven fabrics

• Abrasion resistant • Lint free • Elastic

1.6 Raw materials for nonwovens

flexibility, a certain minimum strength, elasticity and sufficient temperature

Table 1.5 Fibers used in nonwoven industry

Traditional fibers High performance fibers

1.6.1.1 Bi-component fibers

Common bicomponent configurations

(a) Concentric sheath/core

(d) Pie wedge

Spunbond Bicomponent • Thermal • High strength / low • Coverstock